Engr.
Marijoree Sapigao
COURSE OUTLINE:
• Introduction to Unit Operations
• Mass and Energy Balance
• Heat Transfer in AB Materials
• Drying of AB Materials
INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS
Agricultural processing – refers to any activity done to corps after
harvest with a goal to maintain or raise the quality of the product.
Importance: To raise the economic value of the product by
raising its quality, increasing yield, and decreasing cost of
production.
Two main subdivision:
Primary Processing – raw crops undergone after harvest to
prepare them for market demand or secondary processing.
Secondary processing – transforming primary processed
products into another form that can no longer be subjected to
change.
INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS
Postharvest Losses – the quantitative and qualitative decrease
in the value of the harvested produce that represent
significant waste in production output.
Advantages of Proper Postharvest Handling
1. More production with limited production area
2. Cheaper than producing more of the same quality and
quantity
3. Maintains freshness of the produce
4. Conserving energy used in production/marketing
5. Faster rate in producing the desired results
INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS
BASIS OF POSTHARVEST HANLDING TECHNIQUES
Biological – natural or genetical characteristic of a perishable
crops that affects their shelf life.
• Energy Requiring • High in Water Content
• Continual State of Change • Pathogen/ Insect Infestation
Morpho-anatomical – physical structure of the commodity
• Organ utilized • Surface area/volume ratio
• Nature of fruit wall • Nature of the cuticle
• Number of stomates • Amount of hairs/spines
• Compactness of the cell • Presence of laticifers
• Changes in the organelles
C6H12O6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O +ATP
INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS
BASIS OF POSTHARVEST HANLDING TECHNIQUES
Chemical – interaction between compounds that may result
to change in organoleptic quality of commodity following
deterioration
• Loss of sweetness • Softening of fruits
• Slowing down of enzymatic action • Discoloration and changes in color
Physiological – natural reaction or normal functions of a
substance in relation with its environment
• Respiration • Transpiration
- low temp environment • Ethylene production
- low and • Mechanical Damage
Fruits/vegetables
Seeds
grains
Fruits/vegetables
Size reduction
Receiving Cleaning Sorting/
of product /washing grading
treatment
marketing packaging storage
seeds
Receiving Storing uncleaned Conditioning/
of seed seeds processing
Application of fungicide/ Sorting/ Basic
drying
insecticide grading cleaning
Storage of cleaned Transporting
bagging
seeds for market
grains
Storing of
Receiving Basic
uncleaned drying
of grains cleaning
grains
Storage of
marketing grading milling
milled rice
INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS
Cleaning – refers to the process of removal of undesirable
materials in a product.
Method of Cleaning
1. Washing – removing surface contaminants using water
2. Trimming – done to remove undesirable parts
3. Wiping – using moisten cloth to remove impurities
4. Dry brushing – removing soil clods, aphids and mealy
bags using nylon brush
INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS
Factors to consider Primary Processing for Paddy
whether to wash or
not
1. Consumer
demand
2. Type of
commodity
3. Care in
harvesting
4. Season
Cleaning
Parboiling
• Technique used to pregelatinize the starch of rice
by soaking it in excess water and later on cooked
in its husked.
• Any hairline cracks in the rice grain are sealed due
to homogenous mass of gelatinized starch and
thus prevent breakage during milling. The paddy is
then drained and dried.
• The general scheme is to hydrate paddy to 32-
38% moisture and partially gelatinize the starch by
steam heating at 15 lb pressure for 10-20 min.
• This technique causes certain physico-chemical changes such as improved milling yields (66-70%),
increased resistance to insects and firmer cooked rice texture accompanied by a darker and more yellow
endosperm.
• During soaking and cooking the water soluble vitamins (niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine) which are present
in germ and pericarp gets migrated into endosperm and thus improves the nutritional value of parboiled
rice.
• Even proteins present on the grain surface are denatured, become insoluble, and therefore are not removed
during washing and cooking.
• CFTRI parboiling process was develop to avoid bad smell. The paddy is soaked in hot water (65-70℃).
Germ action does not occur in hot water, thus the smell is avoided. Soaking time is reduced to 3-4 hrs.
INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS
Sorting – separating produce according to its physical attributes
Grading – sorting of products based on their market value
Inspection - a procedure done to determine whether the grade
standard has been properly enforced
Advantages of Grading
• For consumers • For public/producers and buyers
• For farmers • For trucker-buyer
• For buyers/seller • For banks
• For courts
Controlling respiration activities: Importance of drying
drying crops
• Drying – removal of moisture
• Make better use of labor
from a product through heating
• Permits extended storage
until desirable moisture is achieved
• Minimizes losses by
objectives early harvest
• Increase storage life • Maintains seed’s
• Prevent quality deterioration viability
• Reduce bio-respiration • Higher farmer income
• Attain optimum milling recovery • Use of waste product
in grains
Drying
Drying principles
Applying heat to Evaporation of Allowing heat Allowing the
for the grain surface moisture within the grain
moisture to by passage of air grain to temperature to
move on the over the wet normalize equilibrate
surface grain entirely with the
ambient
heating
evaporation tempering cooling
Drying
DRYING SYSTEMS
Traditional Mechanical
Heated air Low temperature Solar
• Field drying
• Sun drying • Batch dryer • In-store dryer • Solar
bubble
• Re-circulating • Grain cooler
dryer
dryer
• Continuous
Dryer
Drying
Traditional Commonly practiced drying system due to low cost and ease of
Sun drying management.
Mat drying
• Spreading grains under the sun, on
• Used in small to medium-
mats and pavements
scale drying where
• Solar radiation heats up the grains
threshed grain are placed
as well as the surrounding air and
on mats, bets, or canvas
thus increases the rate of water
evaporating from the grains
• most common drying method
Pavement drying
because of low cost, little
• Often used in large-scale
investment, environmentally friendly
for grains collectors and
and produces little to no 𝐶𝑂 .
millers, where grains are
Disadvantage: laid on pavements
• Labor intensive and limited capacity specifically made for drying
• Temperature control is difficult
• Grains can easily overheat causing cracked grains which leads to low milling recovery
• Not possible to sun dry at night or during rain
Drying
Mechanical Drying Used to remove heat from wet grains by forced ambient or heated air
Heated air-drying Fixed-bed batch dryers
BATCH DRYER
• Employs high usually have rectangular
temperatures for rapid bins with plenum chamber
drying until desired final underneath (flatbed dryer,
moisture content is box dryer, inclined bed
reached dryer) or circular bins with
• Compared to sun central duct (Vietnamese
drying, it allows for low-cost dryer).
suitable drying air
Height of the layer is 40 cm.
conditions to be set
thus drying can be Capacity: 3-10 tons per day
carried out anytime of Drying time: 6 – 12 hrs
the day or night. Air temperature: 40 - 45℃
• Reduces labor cost with a heater raising air temp
especially if some form 10-15℃ above ambient
of mechanical turning Air velocity: 0.15-0.25 m/s
of grains is practiced for Fan power req’t: 1.5-2.5
uniform drying kW/ton of paddy
Drying
Re-circulating Batch Being used by the private sector for producing better quality grain and for
Dryer handling large amounts in the peak season safely.
• It is recommended to pre-clean the grain
prior to loading and drying since it creates
dust during loading, unloading and
circulation during drying process which
needs to be collected in a collection
system.
• During drying, grains are not mixed while
they are passing the drying section and
being exposed to the hot drying air, thus
moisture gradient develops in the drying Note:
section. While this process is not
• In recirculation and tempering, this optimal it still produces
gradient is reduced because the wet and much better quality than a
dry grains are mixed while they are being fixed bed dryer because
conveyed and subsequently moisture the moisture gradients are
transfer happens from the wetter to the much smaller.
drier grains.
Drying Day 3 | Friday, 4 October 2024
Continuous Flow Dyer Not very common but used by some larger milling enterprises that handle
large volumes of wet paddy
• Cross flow – grain moves downwards
between two perforated sheets while the
air moves horizontally through the grains.
Moisture gradients develop across the bed
• Concurrent flow – air moves in the same
direction as the grain. Drying is rapid at
the upper layers and slower in the lower
layers which suits the characteristics of
paddy. Note:
• Counterflow – air moves upward against Continuous flow dryer
the movement of the grain. This system is cannot be used as a stand
very energy efficient. alone machine but needs to
be integrated in a larger
• Mixed flow – produce the best quality
system consisting of the
grains because of continuous mixing dryer, tempering bins and
effect. Ducts can be place in an alternating conveying equipment since
pattern so that both concurrent and drying into MC level safe for
counter flow of the air can be achieved in storage cannot be achieved
one dryer. in a single pass.
Controlling respiration activities: Refrigeration principles
Refrigerated systems 1. Sensible and latent heat
• Refrigeration – the process of 2. Isothermal change of
removing heat from a substance to state depends on
maintain its quality. pressure
3. Heat flows from higher
Importance of refrigeration temp to lower temp
and applications 4. Law of conservation of
1. Food preparation energy
2. Food storage 5. Boyle’s law
3. Chemical processes 6. Charles’ law
4. Air-conditioning systems
Boyle’s Law Charles’ Law
= Volume of a gas is
𝐶 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Volume of a gas is inversely
= directly proportional
with its temperature
𝐿 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 proportional with its pressure
EXPANSION VALVE
CONDENSER
EVAPORATOR
COMPRESSOR
EXPANSION VALVE
CONDENSER
EVAPORATOR
COMPRESSOR
EXPANSION VALVE
CONDENSER
EVAPORATOR
COMPRESSOR
EXPANSION VALVE
CONDENSER
EVAPORATOR
COMPRESSOR
Storage of fruits and vegetables Importance of Storage
• Storage – done to provide • Uniform supply of food all
continuous supply of produce throughout the year
during non-peak season. • Reserve contingency in
times of calamities
objectives
• Speculate good price in the
• Improve economic well-being of market
farmers
• Minimize losses and maintain
quality
• Provide during scarce season
• Retain seed viability
Requirement s of cold storage
1. Optimum temperature 3. Good ventilation
- higher temp prompts - necessary for uniform
respiration air distribution
- lower temp may cause chilling throughout the storage
injury 4. Sanitation
2. Optimum Humidity - must be clean and
- low humidity promotes crop often fumigated to avoid
dehydration microbial growth and
- very high humidity may provide distribution of pathogen
good condition for microbial infection
growth
Supplement to refrigeration 3. Delays ripening and avert
chilling injury
Gas packaging/storage
Storage method where atmosphere Types of gas storage
differs from ambient air condition with system
respect to nitrogen, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide proportion 1. Controlled atmosphere
Advantages storage (CAS)
2. Hypo baric storage
1. Overmatured fruits can be 3. Modified atmosphere
stored in an extended time storage (MAS)
2. Longer storage than 4. Silicone membrane
refrigeration alone storage system
MASS AND ENERGY
BALANCE
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
System – any region in space or a finite quantity of matter
enclosed by a boundary either real or imaginary.
Closed system – no mass exchange; heat
and work exchange
Open system – mass flow and energy heat
exchange
Isolated system - no effect to its
surrounding
Adiabatic system – no exchange of heat
Isothermal system – exchange in heat at a
constant temperature
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
STATE OF A SYSTEM
Equilibrium - all properties of a system will have fixed values.
Process – when a system undergoes a change of state
Path – steps of a process a state undergo before complete change
Properties – observable and measurable properties that defines the
equilibrium state of a system. Independent of the path by which a
systems reaches a certain state.
Extensive properties – depends on the size of the system
Intensive properties – independent on the size of the system
Specific properties – expressed per unit mass
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Density – mass per unit volume
Three types of densities for food: solid density, particle density,
and bulk density.
The density of a given substance divided by the density of pure
water at the same temperature is its specific gravity.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Concentration – measure of the amount of substance contained in a unit
volume. Expressed as wt. per unit wt. or wt. per unit volume.
Molarity – concentration of solution in grams per liter divided by the
molecular weight of the solute. Dimensionless form, mole fraction – ratio
of the number of moles of a substance divided by the total number of
moles in the system.
Molality – amount of a component per unit mass of some other
component chosen as the solvent. Moles of solute divided by the kg of
solvent. Expressed in mol/kg.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Sample problem: Calculate the concentration units for a sugar solution
that is prepared by dissolving 10 kg of sucrose in 90 kg of water. The
density of the solution is 1040 kg/m3. Determine:
a. concentration, wt. /unit wt.
b. Concentration, wt. /unit vol.
c. Brix, %
d. Molarity, mol of solute / liter of solution
e. Mole fraction, mol of solute / mol of solution
f. Molality, mole solute / liter of solvent
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Moisture content - amount of water present in a moist sample.
Two bases:
Wet basis – amount of water per unit mass of moist (or wet) sample
Dry basis – amount of water per unit mass of dry solids (bone dry)
present in the sample.
Relationship between the two bases:
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Examples
1. Convert a moisture content of 85% wet basis to moisture content dry
basis.
2. Given a final moisture content of 14%, determine the moisture loss in
a commodity dried from 28% with an initial weight of 100 grams.
3. A grain having a bone-dried weight of 56 grams, has a moisture loss
of 100 grams. Determine the moisture content in wet basis.
4. Determine the initial weight of a commodity if its moisture content in
wet basis after drying is 12% and the recorded water content is 567
grams.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Temperature – measure of hotness or coldness of a
substance. Expressed commonly in or , or .
Zeroth Law “ if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other”
Pressure – the force exerted by a fluid (in equilibrium)
per unit area of a container’s surface. Expressed as
force / unit area. In SI .
The standard pressure is defined as the
pressure produced by a column of mercury 760
mmHg = 1 atm = 14.69 = 1.01325 bar =
101.325 kPa.
* P is absolute pressure (Pa),ρ is fluid density (kg/m 3 ),g is acceleration
due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2 ), and h is height of fluid (m).
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Static head – elevation of the fluid of water in the tank
Static head to pressure conversion formula:
Static pressure - pressure measured by a device if it is moving with the same velocity
as the fluid velocity
Impact pressure – force per unit area perpendicular to the direction of flow when the
fluid is brought reversibly to rest
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Enthalpy – the measure of energy in a
thermodynamic system. Sum of the internal energy
and the product of pressure and volume.
H is enthalpy (kJ), is internal energy (kJ), P is
pressure (kPa), and V is volume ( ).
is enthalpy per unit mass (kJ/kg), is internal
energy per unit mass (kJ/kg), and is specific
volume ( /kg).
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Equation of State and Perfect Gas Law
Equation of state - a functional relationship between the properties of a system
For a perfect gas, an equation of state is a relationship between pressure, volume,
and temperature.
* P is absolute pressure (Pa), V is specific volume (m 3 /kg), R is the gas constant
(𝑚 Pa/[kg K]), T A is absolute temperature (K), and ρ is density (kg/𝑚 ).
The equation of state for a perfect gas may also be written on a mole basis as:
* V is the volume (of m kg or n mol), m 3; R 0 M R is the universal gas constant,
independent of the nature of a gas, 8314.41 m 3 Pa/(kg mol K); and M is the
molecular weight of the substance.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Phase Diagram of Water
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Example 1: In a furnace, 95% of carbon is converted to carbon
dioxide and the remainder to carbon monoxide. By material
balance, predict the quantities of gases appearing in the flue
gases leaving the furnace.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Example 2: A wet food product contains 70% water. After drying, it is
found that 80% of original water has been removed. Determine (a) mass
of water removed per kilogram of wet food and (b) composition of dried
food.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Example 3: Skim milk is prepared by the removal of some of the fat from whole milk.
This skim milk is found to contain 90.5% water, 3.5% protein, 5.1% carbohydrate,
0.1% fat and 0.8% ash. If the original milk contained 4.5% fat, calculate its
composition, assuming that fat only was removed to make the skim milk and that
there are no losses in processing.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
Example 4: A membrane separation system is used to concentrate total solids (TS) in a liquid food from
10% to 30%. The concentration is accomplished in two stages with the first stage resulting in release of a
low-total-solids liquid stream. The second stage separates the final concentration product from a low-total-
solids stream, which is returned to the first stage. Determine the magnitude of the recycle stream when the
recycle contains 2% TS, the waste stream contains 0.5% TS, and the stream between stages 1 and 2 contains
25% TS. The process should produce 100 kg/min of 30% TS.
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
First Law of Thermodynamics “ Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but can be
transformed from one form to another. ”
Converted energies that are not directly useful for the intended purpose is often called
“loss”.
Second law of thermodynamics “ Heat flows from a region of higher temperature to a
region of lower temperature.” “ There is no machine such as perpetual machine.”
Energy is a scalar quantity that cannot be observed directly but can be measured using
indirect methods. It may be in a different forms such as potential, kinetic, chemical,
magnetic, or electrical.
If the magnitude of all energy forms are small in comparison with the kinetic, potential, and
internal energies, then total energy is equal to the summation of kinetic, potential, and
internal energy.
Potential energy - by virtue of its location with respect to the gravitational field
Kinetic energy – due to its velocity
Internal energy – stored energy
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
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HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
- Conduction
- Convection
- Radiation
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
