FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Percentage Weight in Forensic Science – 2.85% (19 items)

Desired Competencies:
1. Recognize the scientific foundation and principles of firearms identification in support
of the admissibility of ballistic related evidence
2. Identify the types of firearms according to design, mechanism, action and make a basis
for the handling and examination of these kinds of evidences
3. Classify the types of ammunition according to design, component parts, mechanism,
and purpose to assist the examiner in the specific type of ballistic examination to be
conducted
4. Distinguish class and individual characteristics of firearms as basis for firearms
identification
5. Utilize the laboratory equipment and tools used in the examination of ballistic exhibits
in aid to report writing and case presentation in court
6. Explain the nature and characteristics of low and high explosives.
 FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Ballistics
- science that deals with the study of motion of projectiles
- Greek word “ballo” or “ballein” - means to throw
- “ballista” - gigantic bow or catapult that hurls stones in killing enemies and wild animals
Forensics
- Latin word “forum”
- meaning “market place” where people gather for public disputation or public discussion
Forensic ballistics
- science of analyzing firearms, bullets and bullet impacts
- Investigation and identification of firearms by means of ammunition fired from the submitted
suspected firearms
- science of analyzing firearms usage in crimes
- involves analysis of bullets and bullets impact to determine information of use to a court or other
part of legal system

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion - the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell by the action of the
expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder
2. Rotatory motion - the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is either twisted to
the left or to the right
3. Translational - action of bullet once it hits a target and subsequently ricocheted.

Principles of Forensic Firearms Identification

1. Firearms identification is actually refined tool marks identification
2. The natural wear and tear of tools involved produces individuality in a firearm
3. When a softer comes in contact with a hard surface, it is the softer surface that acquires impressions
or engraving from the irregularities present on the harder surface
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike
5. Successful identification of firearms from discharged bullets and spent shells depend upon the
basic principle the “there is no duplication in nature”, exemption to this rule are never manifested
result of man’s ingenuity.

Branches of ballistics
Interior Ballistics – the science of the motion of the projectile while still in the firearm
• Firing pin hitting the primer
• Ignition of the priming mixture
• Combustion of gunpowder
• Expansion of heated gas
• Pressure developed
• Energy generated
• Recoil of the firearm
Recoil - caused by the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of
the bullet after explosion
• Velocity of the bullet
• Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
• Engraving on the cylindrical surface of the bullet
• Hangfire – delay of explosion; it will not explode in a split second but delayed; explodes
seconds after the firing pin hits the primer
• Misfire – failure of the cartridge to explode after the firing pin strikes the primer

Exterior Ballistics – the science of the motion of the projectiles after leaving the muzzle.
• Muzzle blast - sound created at the muzzle end of the barrel of the firearm after the explosion
• Muzzle energy - energy generated after leaving the firearms
• Trajectory - is the actual pattern of the curved path of the bullet in the flight
• Range - the distance between the firearm and the target.
a. Effective Range- the maximum distance at which the projectile can be expected to be lethal
b. Maximum range- the greatest distance a projectile can travel when fired at the optimum angle
of elevation of the barrel
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 c. Accuracy Range – the maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will
consistently place all shots in the standard target for that distance
d. Zero Range - the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path intersect
• Velocity- the speed of the bullet
• Air resistance- encountered by the bullet
• Pull of gravity- the downward movement of the bullet
• Penetration- the entry of the bullet on target.
• Yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet
• Gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest momentum
or stability in flight and penetrating power
• Tailwag - the end of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path

Terminal Ballistics - treats the effects of the impact of the bullet towards the target.
• Terminal accuracy - the size of the bullet grouping
• Terminal Energy - energy of the bullet
• Terminal velocity - the speed of the bullet
• Terminal penetration - the depth of the bullet on target
• Ricochet - rebound, bounce or skip off a surface of a projectile

Shots Ballistics - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets
• Shotguns - discharge single but usually multiple shots/pellets in single fire
• Musket - smoothbore firearm that discharges single ball in one firing
Other terms:
• Choke – the diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the
rest of the barrel
• True cylinder - when the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore
• Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead

Wound Ballistics – study of the effects of projectile to human body

• Gunshot Wound - an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within the tissues of
the body

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon

• Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body
• Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
• Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

Marks Found in Wounds

• Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases
• Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases (burning or charring)
• Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close ranges
• Tattooing – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt powder particles into the surface
of the target

Description of the wound of entrance

• Contact fire
- due to the explosion of the powder which produces the heated and expanded gases
- singeing of the hair
- particles of gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance
- blasted tissues are cherry red in color because of the presence of carbon monoxide
- contusion collar is seen around the wound of entrance
- size of the wound is rather small
• Near contact up to 6 inches distance
- bursting of tissues, burning and blackening of the skin
- shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like
- size is larger than the diameter of the missile
• Distance above 6 inches up to 24 inches
- size of the wound gradually approximates the size of the missile
- lesser burning or blackening of tissues, gun powder tattooing, singeing of the hair and
excavation of tissues
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 Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal
• Accessibility of the involved part to the hand of the victim
• Usually only one gunshot wound
• Usually the distance is short range or class range
• Presence of suicide note
• History of frustration or despondency of the victim
• Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal
• Wound is located at any part of the body
• Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant
• Signs of struggle (Defense wound) maybe present in the victim
• Disturbances of the surroundings
• Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime
• Testimony from the witnesses

Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

• Usually only one gunshot wound
• Wound located at any part of the body
• Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one who fired the gun
• Testimony from witnesses

Effects or complications of wound

• Hemorrhage - loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to trauma
• Direct mechanical injury - direct damage to the tissues
• Shock - disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood pressure,
decreases blood flow or blood volume
• Infection - appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the living tissues
• Embolism - clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of fats or septic
embolus causing blocking to the blood flow

Field of Forensic Ballistics

• Field Investigation - work of an investigator in the field
• Technical Examination - examiners who examine bullets and or shells
• Legal Proceedings - presentation of Ballistic Reports, firearm, bullets, cartridge cases and allied
exhibits in the court

FIREARMS
Firearms
- Technical - instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the expansive force
of gases of burning gunpowder
- Legal - includes all rifles, revolvers, pistols, muskets, shotguns, carbines and all other deadly
weapons from which a projectile maybe discharged
- includes air rifles, except that are in small in caliber and usually used as toys
Note:
a. Barrel is considered a complete firearm.
b. RA 10591 – Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition Regulation Act

Types of firearm under ra 10591

• Unserviceable Firearm – beyond economic repair and can no longer be used for its purpose
• Serviceable Firearm – can still be used for its purpose
• Tampered, Obliterated or Altered Firearm – serial number or other identification or ballistic
characteristics have been intentionally tampered with, obliterated or altered without authority or in
order to conceal its source, identity or ownership
• Loose Firearm – unregistered firearm, an obliterated or altered firearm, firearm which has been lost
or stolen, illegally manufactured firearms, registered firearms in the possession of an individual
other than the licensee and those with revoked licenses in accordance with the rules and
regulations
• Imitation Firearm – a replica of a firearm, or other device that is so substantially similar in coloration
and overall appearance to an existing firearm

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 • Forfeited Firearm – by reason of court order or for the disposition of firearms considered as
abandoned, surrendered, confiscated or revoked in compliance with existing rules and regulations
by the FEO
• Demilitarized firearm – deliberately made incapable of performing its main purpose of firing a
projectile

Parts of a firearm
• Barrel - metal tube through which a projectile or shot charge is fired
• Bore - interior of the barrel of a gun or firearm
• Breechface - front part of the breechblock that makes contact with the cartridge in a firearm; holds
a round in the chamber, and absorbs the recoil of the cartridge when the round is fired, preventing
the cartridge case from moving.
• Buffer - any part intended to absorb shock and check recoil.
• Chamber - holds the cartridge ready for firing; rear part of the barrel bore that has been formed to
accept a specific cartridge
• Cylinder - part of a revolver that holds ammunition in individual chambers that are rotated in turn
into firing position
• Ejector - ejects or expels a cartridge or cartridge case from a firearm
• Extractor - withdraws a cartridge or cartridge case from the chamber of a firearm
• Firing Pin - strikes the primer of a cartridge to initiate ignition
• Hammer - device that strikes the firing pin or cartridge primer to detonate the powder
• Magazine - device for storing cartridges in a repeating firearm for loading into the chamber
• Muzzle - end of the barrel out of which the bullet comes
• Receiver - basic unit of a firearm which houses the firing and breech mechanism and to which the
barrel and stock are assembled
• Silencer - sound suppressor; attached to the barrel of the firearm to reduce the noise of discharge
• Trigger - moved manually to cause the firearm to discharge
• Trigger guard - loop surrounding the trigger of a firearm and protecting it from accidental
discharge

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Other Definitions:
• Corrosion – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation
• Erosion – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical
abrasion or sliding friction
• Fouling –residual deposits remaining in the bore of a firearm after firing
• Leading - metal fouling; accumulation of lead in the bore of a firearm from the passage of lead shot
or bullet

General Classification of Firearm

• Rifled-arms - contains riflings or the bore is cut longitudinally with a number of grooves
• Smooth-Bore Firearms - does not contain rifling or perfectly smooth from end to end

Gauge - the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of the lead ball whole weight in pound
GAUGE BORE DIAMETER
4 .935
8 .835
10 .775
12 .729
16 .662
20 .615
28 .550
410 .410
Caliber - the bore diameter measured from two opposite lands
Different Systems of Caliber Measurements
• American System (2 digits) - expressed in hundredths of an inch
Example: Cal .45, .38, .25, .30.
• English System (3 digits) - expressed in thousandths of an inch
Example: Cal .357, .380, .223.
• Continental/ European System - expressed in millimeters
Example: Cal 9mm, 5.56mm, 7.62mm.

Equivalent of Calibers in inches and Millimeters

• Caliber .45 = 11mm.
• Caliber .38 = 9mm.
• Caliber .32 = 7.65 mm.
• Caliber .30 = 7.63 mm.
• Caliber .25 = 6.35 mm.
• Caliber .22 = 5.59 mm.

Conversion of Caliber
• Cal to mm – multiply by 25.4
• mm to Caliber multiply by .03937

Main Types of Firearms

• Artillery - propel projectile more than one inch in diameter
• Small Arms - propel projectile less than one inch in diameter
Types of actions of firearm
Action - the moving parts of the gun that allow loading, firing and unloading of the gun
• Single Action - pressure upon the trigger releases the hammer that must be manually cocked
• Double Action - pressure upon the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer
• Automatic – mechanism is so arranged that it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed

Gun
- came from the word GYN
- also known as MANGONEL - spring driven catapults that hurled stones = trebuchet, the arbalest,
and wheeled catapult
- Mangonel was familiarly known as GONNE in medieval days.

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Types of Gun
• Pistol- hand firearm usually applies to single shot and automatic loading
- Italian city of pistoia
- pistole - coin that was supposed to be the same diameter as the bore of the weapon
a. Kolibri - smallest pistol, calibre 2.7mm, 5 shots, 1914, centerfire cartridge
b. Magnum .44 - the most powerful handgun in the world, manufactured in Israel
• Rifle - designed to be fired from the shoulder
• Musket - ancient smooth bore weapon designed to shoot a single round lead ball
a. Matchlock Musket - came into being about the end of the first quarter of the 15th Century
b. Flintlock Musket - was first introduced at the beginning of 18th Century
• Carbine - a short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22 inches
• Shotgun - smooth bore weapon to shoot a number of lead pellets in one charge
• Revolver - hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively places cartridge into position for
firing

Three Main Parts of Firearms

Revolver
1. barrel assembly
2. cylinder assembly
3. frame or receiver
Pistol
1. barrel assembly
2. slide assembly
3. frame or receiver

Types of Firearms According to Mechanical Construction

• Single shot firearms – shoot only one shot
• Repeating arms – loaded with more than one cartridge in the chamber
• Bolt action type – breech closure is in line with the bore at all times
• Lever action type – breech mechanism is cycled by an external lever below the receiver
• Slide/Pump Action - a movable forearms is actuated which is parallel to the barrel

• Semi-automatic type – requires a separate pull of trigger for each shot fired
• Automatic action type – feeds cartridges, fires and ejects as long as trigger is depressed
• Machine gun type - automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds of ammunition each
minute
• Sub-machine gun type (Light Machine Gun) - a light and portable machine gun

Miscellaneous Guns
• Gas Guns – used for firing tear gas and other forms of disabling gases
• Trap Gun – designed to be set in the woods and left where animals will encounter them
• Cane gun - devices primarily designed for another purposes
• Zip guns - homemade guns
• Multi –Barreled guns – having the three or four barrels
• Liberator – fired .45 cartridge, single shot and smooth bore
• Flare guns – sends signals and enabling to see enemies in the dark
• Harpoon Guns – barbed spear in hunting large fish

AMMUNITIONS and CARTRIDGES

Ammunitions
Legal Definition
- “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet,
shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives

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Technical Definition
- group of cartridges or to a single unit or single cartridge
- a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge, case, gunpowder and primer

Cartridge
- a case capsule, shell or bag of metal, pasteboard, of the like, containing the explosive charge and
in small arms and some cannon, the projectile to be fired
- “charta” - Latin word for paper
- French word “cartouche” - a roll of paper

Parts of a Cartridge
• Bullet – projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by
means of expansive force of gases coming from burning
gunpowder
• Cartridge Case – tubular metallic container for the gunpowder
• Gunpowder – propellant which when ignited, is converted to
gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge
through the barrel and on to the target
• Primer – metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming
mixture of chemical compound, which when heat or struck by
firing pin, would ignite

Classification According to Location of Primers

• Pin Fire Cartridge
- end protruding of the pin is hit by a hammer coming down vertically from the side of the
cartridge instead of penetrating horizontally from its rear
• Center Fire
- priming powder is located at the center
• Ringfire Cartridge
- priming mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about 1/3 of the base of the cartridge
• Rim Fire Cartridge
- priming mixture is contained or located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the cartridge
which is a very sensitive area

Classification of Cartridge According to Rim

• Rimmed Type - diameter of the rim is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case
• Semi-rimmed Type - diameter of the rim is slightly greater than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case
• Rimless Type - diameter of the rim is equal to the body of the cartridge case
• Rebated Type - diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the cartridge case
• Belted Type - there is a protruding metal around the body of the cartridge case near the rim

Function of Cartridge Cases

1. It holds the bullet gunpowder and primer.
2. It serves as a water proof container for the
gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of gases to the rear

Parts of a Cartridge Case

• Rim - limits the forward travel of cartridge into the chamber
• Primer Pocket
1. hold the primers securely in certain positions
2. prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge
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 3. provide a primer support for primer anvils without which the latter could not be fired.
• Vents or Flash Holes - hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through which the primer
flash provides ignition to the powder charge.
• Neck - prevents the bullet form being pushed back or loosened
• Shoulder – that portion which supports the neck
• Crimp - aids in holding the bullet in place
• Base - holds the primer which contains the priming mixture, the shellhead
• Cannelures – serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the neck and body of cases at
the location of the cases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened
• Extracting Groove - designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing

PRIMER
Primers
- devices that, when sharply struck, burn or explode to provide the heat source required to ignite the
propellant charge
Function:
1. Provide an initial spark or flame
2. Establish the pre-ignition pressure for the main charge
3. Provide a gas seal for the cartridge
Composition of a PRIMER
• Potassium Chlorate - 45%
• Antimony Sulfide - 23%
• Fulminate of Mercury - 32%

Parts of Primer and its Function

• Primer Cap – the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of the priming mixture, paper
disc and anvil.
• Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is sufficiently sensitive to
chemical reaction caused by a sudden blow.
• Paper Disc – made of thin shellacked paper that protects the priming mixture that will cause its
disintegration.
• Anvil – made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on this side which priming
mixture is crushed.
• Battery Cap – applied to shotgun primer serves as the main support for the whole primer
components

Types of Primer According to Anvil

• Boxer primer (one flash hole) – has one vent/flash hole, invented by Colonel Edward M. Boxer.
• Berdan (European Type) – has two vents/flash holes, invented by Colonel Hiram Berdan

GUNPOWDER
Gunpowder
- a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a large amount of
chemical energy at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is to convert the propellant
into a high of gas
2 types of powder in small arms
• Black Powder
- oldest propellant powder
- consist of irregular grains
- produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
- burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited

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 Ingredients:
• Potassium nitrate 75%
• Sulphur 10%
• Charcoal 15%
• Smokeless Powder
- Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients, mixed with one or more minor
ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters
Classification of Smokeless Powder
• Single based – pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose
• Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with Centralite, Vaseline phthalate esters
and Inorganic salt
• Triple based – Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine - entirely flashless
though it does not generate rather more smoke than the other types
• High ignition temperature– main constituent is from RDX group of high explosives

BULLETS
Bullets
- a metallic or non-metallic body that is completely dependent upon an outside force for its power
- French word “boulette” - a small ball
Classification of Bullets According to Mechanical Construction
1. Lead Bullets – made of lead or alloy such as lead, tin and antimony
2. Jacketed Bullets – with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such as guiding metal
and copper zinc
Types of Bullet According to Purpose
• Target -shooting Bullets - with a sharp shoulder to cut clean holes in target paper
• Armor-piercing bullets - perforate thin layers of armor; designed to pierce metal
• Expanding bullets - flatten on contact with living tissue and produce great internal damage
• Incendiary bullets - ignites upon impact, starting a fire
• Tracer bullet - burns brightly so the firer can observe its path; permit observation of bullet flight
• Explosives bullets - designed to explode upon impact
• Ball bullets - have soft cores and are used against personnel
• Frangible bullets - designed to disintegrate upon impact with a hard surface in to minimize ricochet

Parts of a Bullet
Term Definition

Bullet Non-spherical projectile for use in a rifled gun barrel.

Tip Extreme forward end of a bullet.

Meplat Blunt tip of some bullets.

Ogive Curved forward part of a bullet.

Nose Forward end of a bullet, including the tip, the ogive,

and meplat.
Cannelure Circumferential groove for lubrication, or to assist in
crimping a bullet in the mouth of cartridge case.
Bearing Outer surface of a bullet that makes direct contact
surface with the interior surface of a gun barrel.
Base Rear portion of a bullet.

Heel Configuration of the intersection of the bearing

surface and base of the bullet.

Classification of Bullet According to Nose

• Round Nose Bullets - elongated with a nose measuring haft that of the bullet diameter
• Pointed Types
a. spitzer bullets - have a sharp point and a long ogive
b. conical bullets/conoidal bullets - have a cone shape

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 • Wadcutter Bullets - have a sharp shouldered nose intended to cut target paper cleanly to facilitate
accurate scoring
• Flat Nose Bullets - have a flattened tip at right angles to its axis
• Semi-wadcutter Bullet - have a distinct short truncated cone at the nose end
• Truncated Bullets - are conical with a flat nose

BARREL
Making of Barrel
1. Drilling – making of hole of barrel with the use of barrel blank
2. Reaming – reamed from breech end to muzzle to remove imperfections, scratches and irregularities
3. Broaching - construction of rifling inside the barrel
4. Lapping - smoothening/polishing of the inner surface of the barrel

Rifling Methods
• Broach, Gang – have a series of cutting edges of slightly increasing height used to cut the spiral
grooves in a barrel. All grooves are cut with a single pass of the broach.
• Broach Single - a non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all the grooves simultaneously and is in a
series of increasing dimensions until the desired groove depth is achieved
• Button - pushed or pulled through a drilled and reamed barrel so as to cold form the spiral grooves
to the desired depth and twist
• Hook - cutting tool which has a hook shape and only cuts one groove at a time
• Scrape - cuts two opposing grooves at a time
• Swage - internal mandrel with rifling configuration which forms rifling in the barrel by means of
external hammering

CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS
Characteristics of Firearms
1. Class Characteristics – these were set even before the manufacture of firearms
2. Individual Characteristics – are determined after the manufacture of firearms

Significant Features of Class Characteristics

• Caliber or Bore Diameter – determined with a bullet, shell, or bore of the gun
• No. of Lands and Grooves – always the same in number
• Width of Lands and Grooves – how wide the lands and grooves
• Twist of Rifling – either RIGHT or LEFT
• Pitch of Rifling – one complete turn of bullet inside the barrel
• Depth of Grooves – how deep the groove or the height of every land
• Lands - elevated portion of the bore of the firearm
• Grooves - depressed portion of the bore between the lands

Class Characteristics
• Steyr Type - 4 RG=L
• Carbine Type - 4RG2X
• Smith and Wesson - 5RG=L
• Colt - 6LG2X
• Browning - 6RG2X
• Webley - 7RG3X
• Winchester - 6RG3X
• Remington Rifle - 5LG=L

Individual Characteristics
Marks Found on Fired Bullets
• Land Marks - depressed portion caused by the land
• Groove Marks - raised portion cause by the groove
• Skid Mark - when the bullets enter the rifled bore from stationary position and is forced abruptly
into the rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight forward before encountering the regular rifling
twist
• Stripping Marks - due to bullet jumping on the rifling
• Rifling Marks - the collective term for land marks and groove mark

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 • Shaving Marks - bullets fired from a revolver due to poor alignment of the cylinder with the bore
• Slippage Marks – scratches due to badly worn rifling or when bullet is small or too soft for the
velocity used

Marks Found on Fired Cartridge Case

• Firing Pin Impression - indentations created when the firing pin of a firearm strikes the primer
• Breech Face Markings - generally found randomly distributed on the head of the cartridge case
• Extractor Marks - produced from contact with the extractor, found on or just ahead of the rim
• Ejector Marks - produced from automatic and semi-automatic firearms generally found near the rim
• Shearing Marks - secondary firing pin impression; after recoil, the primer imbeds itself in the firing
pin hole
• Magazine Lips Markings - found on the body of the shell produced during loading of the cartridge
in the magazine
• Chamber Marks - found on the periphery of the body of the shell marked by the irregularities found
on the surface of the chamber
• Pivotal Marks - found on the body of the shell produced when the slide acted on the body of the
shell during ejection

Equipment in a Ballistics Laboratory

• Bullet Comparison Microscope
- used to determine the similarities and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two fired
cartridge cases by simultaneously observing their magnified image
a. Intermarriage – half of evidence & test bullet is projected
b. Juxtaposition – side by side examination of evidence and test bullet/shell
• Analytical Balance - determines weight of bullets, shots and pellets for possible type, calibre and
make for firearm from which they were fired
• Bullet Recovery Box - for obtaining best fire bullets or test fired cartridge cases from the suspected
firearms
• Chronograph - determines speed of the bullet or the muzzle velocity of the bullet
• Comparison Projector - magnified image appears on a large screen and can be observed in a
comfortable viewing distance
• Helixometer - for measuring the pitch of rifling
• IBIS (Integrated Ballistics Identification System) - brings back to the FA Examiner the ability to
compare every open case, closed case and test fire
• Onoscope - for examining the interior surface of the gun barrel
• Shadowgraph - enables to visualize the flow in the vicinity of a moving body
• Stereoscope Microscope - to determine the location of the extractor marks and ejector marks for
orientation purposes and close up examination of tampered serial numbers of firearms
• Taper Gauge - determines bore diameter of the firearm
• Vernier Caliper - determines bullet diameter and barrel length

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