Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester:03 Module-4

MODULE – 4
LESSON CONTENTS:
JOINING PROCESSES

Operating principle, basic equipment, merits and applications of: Fusion welding processes:
Gas welding - Types – Flame characteristics; Manual metal arc welding – Gas Tungsten arc
welding - Gas metal arc welding – Submerged arc welding.
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INTRODUCTION TO METAL JOINING PROCESSES

• Metal fabrication involves joining of two metals together.

• Various processes are used to join the metals together depending the material and thickness
of the parts to be joined and degree of permanency required etc.
• Here some of the important features and methods of joining by welding, (soldering and
brazing in Module 5) are discussed.

INTRODUCTION TO WELDING PROCESS

• Welding is a fabrication process in which two or more workpieces, usually metals, are joined
permanently to form a single component.
• Apart from metals, thermoplastics can also be joined together by welding process.
• Welding is carried out by heating the edges of the workpieces to a suitable temperature and
then fused together with or without the application of pressure.
• Since a slight gap usually exists between the edges of the workpieces, a filler metal is used
to supply additional material to fill the gap. But, welding can also be carried out without the
use of filler metal.
• The filler metal is melted in the gap, combines with the molten metal of the workpiece, and
upon solidification forms an integral part of the weld.

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WELDING
• Definition of Welding: “It is a metallurgical process in which joining of two metal pieces
permanently by heating them to a welding temperature with or without the application of
pressure, with or without use of filler material at plastic state, to produce essentially a
single piece of metal.”
• Welding is extensively used in the fabrication work in which metal plates, rolled steel
sections, castings of ferrous materials are joined together.
• It is also used for repairing broken, worn-out, or defective metal parts.
• It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine
frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

PRINCIPLE OF WELDING
• An ideal joint between two pieces of metal or plastic can be made by heating the work
pieces to a suitable temperature.
• In other words, on heating, the materials soften sufficiently so that the surfaces fuse together.
The bonding force holds the atoms, ions or molecules together in a solid.
• This bonding on contact is achieved only when:
 The contaminated surface layers on the work piece are removed,
 Recontamination is avoided, and
 The two surfaces are made smooth, flat and fit each other exactly.

 In highly deformable materials, the above factors can be achieved by rapidly forcing the two
surfaces of the work piece to come closer together so that plastic deformation makes their
shape conform to each another; at the same time, the surface layers are broken up, allowing
the intimate contact needed to fuse the materials.
 This was the principle of the first way known to weld metals; by hammering the pieces
together while they are in hot condition.

• Deformation of the surfaces can be done by rubbing the two surfaces against each other or
by heating the metals and pressing them (by applying force) against a suitable material to

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fuse, But in most of the applications, the size, shape, location, or properties of the material
restricts it to be plastically deformed.
• In such cases, the edges of the parts to be joined are brought together, melted and fused to
each other.
• Coalescence takes place wherein molten metal from one work piece merge with molten metal
of another work piece. When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two work pieces join together
to form a single component.

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

• There are various welding processes; each suitable for a particular work piece metal,
environment, application etc.
• These processes can be classified based on various factors like source of heat (arc, flame,
etc.), temperature (work piece heated to plastic state or molten state) etc.
In general, welding processes are classified in the following manner:
i) Gas Welding
• (a) Oxy-acetylene welding
• (b) Oxy-hydrogen welding
(ii) Arc Welding
• (a) Manual metal arc or Shielded metal arc welding (MMAW or SMAW)
• (b) Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG or GTAW)
• (c) Metal inert gas welding (MIG or GMAW)
• (d) Submerged arc welding (SAW)
• (e) Electro slag welding
• (f) Plasma arc welding (PAW)
• (g) Stud arc welding
• (h) Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
(iii) Resistance Welding
• (a) Spot welding
• (b) Seam welding
• (c) Flash butt welding
• (d) Projection welding
• (e) Percussion welding
(iv) Solid state welding
• (a) Friction welding
• (b) Explosive welding
• (c) Diffusion welding
• (d) Forge welding
• (e) Ultrasonic welding
• (f) Roll welding
• (g) Cold welding

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(v) Thermo-chemical welding

• (a) Atomic hydrogen welding
• (b) Thermit welding
(vi) Radiant energy welding
• (a) Laser welding
• (b) Electron beam welding

APPLICATIONS OF WELDING
• Welding finds application in ship building, automobiles, aircraft, power plants, building
and bridge constructions, storage tanks, pressure vessels, machine tools, and almost in all
sectors, where parts are fabricated as per the needs.
• Apart from fabrication work, welding is also used in repair and maintenance work; for
example joining broken parts and rebuilding worn out components.

ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
Like all other manufacturing processes, welding too has its own advantages and limitations that
make the designer to choose the process only for a certain application.
ADVANTAGES
a) The strength of the joint obtained in welding is much stronger than the workpiece metal.
b) Metals with different chemical compositions can be welded easily.
c) Welding equipment's are portable. Hence, the parts can be fabricated at the relevant
location instead of transporting the entire assembly to its destination.
d) Complex shapes that are difficult to cast or machine can be easily assembled in parts by
welding process.

LIMITATIONS OF WELDING
a) The process gives out harmful radiations, fumes and spatter. Hence, care should be taken
during welding.
b) Skilled operator is required to produce a good joint.
c) The high heat involved in the process causes changes in the structure of metal thereby
lowering its properties.

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WELDING TERMINOLOGY
Figure 5.1 shows a typical welding process which helps the reader to understand the various terms
involved in welding.

ARC WELDING MACHINE

AC Welding
• Step Down Transformer is used
• Supply voltage between 200 and 440 volts
• Required voltage in the range of 60 to 100 volts
• A high current of 100A to 400 A, will be suitable for general arc welding work.

DC Welding
• Straight polarity – workpiece connected to positive pole of DC Generator and electrode to
negative pole. (Melt greater mass of metal in the base material)
• When the less heat is required at the base material, the polarity is reversed.

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GENERAL WELDING PROCEDURE

1. Cleaning
2. Edge preparation
3. Clamping
4. Check for safety equipment
5. The Initial weld
6. Intermediate and final welding
7. Excess material removal

EDGE PREPARATION
• Before starting the welding process, the edges of the two work pieces to be welded should be
prepared well to obtain a sound weld.
• This process is called edge preparation and involves two operations:
(a) Preparation of joint and
(b) Cleaning of joint.
(a) Preparation of joint
• Joint preparation involves cutting or beveling the edges of the two work pieces to suitable
shapes so that heat would be able to penetrate to the entire depth of the work piece.
• Figure 5.2 shows the different shapes that can be prepared based on the application.

Figure 5.2 Edge preparation

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• Figure 5.2(a) shows a square or straight joint suitable for work pieces with thickness less
than 5 mm.
• Some work pieces are beveled only on one side, as in single- V or single- U joints, but for
very thick plates, beveling is required on both sides as shown in figure 5.2(d) and (e).
(b) Cleaning of joint
• Work piece surfaces are often chemically contaminated by dirt, grease, oxides etc.
• Most metals are very reactive, and in air, they become coated, with an oxide layer or with
adsorbed gas.
• This layer prevents intimate contact from being made between the two metal surfaces.
• Hence, the edges of the work pieces and the area adjoining them should be cleaned
thoroughly to remove the contaminants.
• Cleaning is done either chemically by using acetone or carbon tetrachloride solution or
mechanically by using wire brush, hand files or grinding process.

FIVE BASIC JOINT DESIGNS

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ARC WELDING PROCESS

• Arc welding process is a fusion method of welding that utilizes the high intensity of the arc
generated by the flow of current to melt the work pieces. A solid continuous joint is formed
upon cooling.

Principle
• The source of heat for arc welding process is an electric arc generated between two
electrically conducting materials: the work piece and the electrode.
• The work piece is connected to one pole of the electric circuit, while the electrode to the
other pole of the circuit.
• When the tip of the electrode is brought in contact with the work piece material, and
momentarily separated by small distance of 2-4 mm, an arc can be generated. The
electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
• The temperature at the tip of the arc may reach up to about 6000°C. The high heat of the
arc melts the edges of the work pieces.
• Coalescence takes place, wherein the molten metal from one work piece combines with
the molten metal of another work piece. When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two
work pieces join together to form a single component.
• The electrode material can be either a non-consumable material or a consumable material.
• The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite etc., serve only to strike the arc,
and is not consumed during the welding process.
• Whereas, the consumable electrode which is made of the same material as that of the work
piece metal helps to strike the arc, and at the same time melts (gets consumed) and
combines with the molten metal of the work piece to form a weld.

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MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW) OR SHIELDED METAL ARC

WELDING (SMAW) OR FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (FSMAW)

• Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) or Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Flux
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW) is a group of arc welding process in which the work
pieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck between a flux coated
consumable electrode and the work piece.
• The flux coated on the electrode serves as a shielding gas to prevent atmospheric
contamination of molten metal.
• Figure 5.3 shows the flux shielded metal arc welding process.
Description and Operation:
a) An electrode holder, which holds the electrode firmly forms one pole of the electric
circuit, while the work piece to be welded forms the other pole. Either AC (alternating
current) or DC (direct current) can be used to supply the required current for welding.
b) The electrode used in this process is a metallic wire, which is made of the same material
or nearly the same chemical composition as that of the work piece material. The metallic
wire is coated with a suitable flux material like rutile (titania), calcium fluoride, cellulose,
iron oxide, etc., which gives off gases as it decomposes.
The various benefits of flux coating include:
 Prevents oxidation of the molten metal
 Stabilizes the arc
 Formation of slag. The flux chemically reacts with the oxides to form a slag. The slag
floats and covers the top portion of the molten metal thereby preventing it from rapid
cooling.

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c) In operation, an arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode on the work piece
(similar to striking a match stick), and instantaneously the electrode is separated by a
small distance of 2 - 4 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
work piece.
d) The high heat at the tip of the arc melts the work piece metal forming a small molten
metal pool. At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts. The molten metal of the
electrode is transferred into the molten metal of the work piece in the form of globules of
molten metal.
e) The deposited metal fills the joint and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal.
The electrode is moved along the surface to be welded to complete the joint. The arc is
extinguished by increasing the arc length, i.e., by widening the gap between the work
piece and the electrode.
Note:
• Arc welding can be done with either AC or DC. when DC is used, greater heat is
generated at the positive pole of the electric circuit.
• Hence the workpiece is connected to the positive pole in order to melt greater mass of
metal in the workpiece material.
• However in case of AC, the melting rate cannot be controlled, because equal heat is
generated at both the poles of the circuit.
Advantages
• The process is simple and inexpensive. Hence, suitable for shop jobs and field work.
• Eliminates skilled labor.
• The process dominates other welding processes in maintenance and repair industry.
• Used to weld ferrous and a few non-ferrous metals like aluminum, nickel, copper alloys
etc.
Disadvantages
• Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrode must be frequently replaced.
• Weld spatter, poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking are a few major problems
associated with the process. However, by proper welding practice, they can be minimized.
Applications
• The process finds applications in building and bridge construction, ship building, boiler
and pressure vessel fabrication, joining of large pipes and penstock, and in almost all
repair and maintenance work.

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GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) OR TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG)

WELDING:

• Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding or Gas Tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a group of
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric
arc, struck between a non consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece, in the
presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• A filler metal may be added if required, during the welding process.
• Figure 5.4 shows the TIG welding process

Description and Operation

a) TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a non-consumable tungsten alloy
electrode is held rigidly in the collet. Various alloys like zirconium, thorium, lanthanum
etc., are alloyed with tungsten to improve arc stability, better current carrying capacity,
resistance to contamination etc. The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm.
b) TIG welding makes use of a inert gas (shielding gas) like argon or helium to protect the
welding area from atmospheric gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, otherwise which may
cause fusion defects and porosity in the weld metal. The shielding gas flow from the
cylinder, through the passage in the electrode holder, and then impinges on the work piece.

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Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the pressure and flow of gas from
the cylinder.
c) Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current. AC is preferred for welding
magnesium, aluminum and their alloys, while DC is used for welding stainless steel,
nickel, copper and its alloys.
d) In operation, the work pieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other
oxides chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
e) The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON. An arc is struck by touching the
tip of the tungsten electrode with the work piece, and instantaneously the electrode is
separated from the work piece by a small distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still
remains between the electrode and the work piece.
f) The high intensity of the arc melts the work piece metal forming a small molten metal
pool. Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the front end of the weld pool.
g) The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal.
h) The arc is extinguished by widening the gap between the work piece and the electrode.
The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying weld pool for a few seconds
even after the arc is extinguished. This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the
solidifying metal thereby increasing the strength of the joint.
Advantages
• Suitable for thin metals.
• Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a greater control over the weld.
• Strong and high-quality joints are obtained (due to the pressure of inert gas).
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean weld joints.
Disadvantages
• TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other welding processes. The welder
must maintain short arc length, avoid contact between electrode and the work piece and
manually feed the filler metal with one hand while manipulating the torch with the other
hand.
• Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten metal contaminates the same
leading to a hard and brittle joint.
• Skilled operator is required.
• Process is slower.
• Not suitable for thick metals.
Applications
• TIG welding is most commonly used to weld stainless steel and non-ferrous materials
such as aluminum and magnesium.
• Aerospace industry is one of the primary users of TIG welding process. Refrigerators, air
conditioners and chemical plants are the other users.

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GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) OR METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING

• Metal Inert gas (MIG) welding or Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a group of
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric
arc, struck between a bare (uncoated) consumable electrode and the workpiece, in the
presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• The consumable electrode acts as a filler metal to fill the gap between the two
workpieces. Figure 5.5 shows the MIG welding process.

Description and Operation

a) The equipment consists of a welding torch in which a bare (uncoated) consumable
electrode in the form of a wire is held and guided by a guide tube. The electrode material
used in MIG welding is of the same material or nearly the same chemical composition as
that of the base metal. Its diameter varies from 0.7-2.4 mm. The electrode is fed
continuously at a constant rate through feed rollers driven by an electric motor.

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b) MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent atmospheric contamination of the molten
weld pool. Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a 75% to 25% or 80% to 20%
mixture is commonly used. The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the
passage in the electrode holder, and then impinges on the work piece.
c) AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead, DC is employed, and the electrode is
positively charged. This results in faster melting of the electrode, which increases weld
penetration and welding speed.
d) In operation, the work pieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dust, grease and other
oxides, chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the electrode is
also cleaned with a wire brush.
e) The control switch provided in the welding torch is switched ON to initiate the electric
power, shielding gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
f) An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode with the work piece, and
instantaneously the electrode is separated from the work piece by a small distance of 1.5 -
3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the work piece.
g) The high intensity of the arc melts the work piece metal forming a small molten pool. At
the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts and combines with the molten metal of
the work pieces thereby filling the gap between the two work pieces. The deposited metal
upon solidification bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal.
Advantages
• MIG welding is fast and economical.
• The electrode and inert gas are automatically fed. This reduces the burden on the
operator, and also helps him to concentrate on the arc.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to the continuous wire feed.
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean welds.
• Thin and thick metals can be welded.
• Process can be automated.
Disadvantages
• Equipment is costlier.
• Dross and porosity (gas entrapment in weld pool) are the most prevalent quality problems
in this process. However, extensive edge preparation can eliminate this defect.
Applications
• Used extensively in sheet metal industry, and automobile industries.

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is a group of arc welding process in which the work pieces
are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck between a bare consumable
electrode and the work piece. The arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granulated flux.
• Thus, the arc zone and the molten weld pool are protected from atmospheric contamination
by being submerged under a blanket of granular flux. This gives the name submerged arc
welding to the process.
• Figure shows the Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) process.

Description and Operation

a) The equipment consists of a welding head carrying a bare consumable electrode and a
flux tube. The flux tube remains ahead of the electrode, stores the granulated or powdered
flux, and drops the same on the joint to be welded. The flux may contain oxides of
calcium, silicon, magnesium, aluminum or manganese along with alloying elements
depending on the requirements. The flux shields and protects the molten weld metal from
atmospheric contamination.
b) The electrode which is bare (uncoated), and in the form of wire is fed continuously
through feed rollers. It is usually copper plated to prevent rusting and to increase its

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electrical conductivity (since it is submerged under flux). The diameter of the electrode
ranges from 1.6 - 8 mm and the electrode material depends on the type of the work piece
metal being welded.
c) The process makes use of either AC or DC for supplying the required current.
d) In operation, edge preparation is carried out to obtain a sound weld. Flux is deposited at
the joint to be welded.
e) Welding current is switched ON. An arc is struck between the electrode and the work
piece under the layer of flux. The flux covers the arc thereby increasing the heat near the
weld zone. This heat melts the filler metal and the work piece metal forming a molten weld
pool. At the same time, a portion of the flux melts and reacts with the molten weld
pool to form a slag. The slag floats on the surface providing thermal insulation to the
molten metal thereby allowing it to cool slowly.
f) The welding head is moved along the surface to be welded, and the continuously fed
electrode completes the weld.
g) The un-melted flux is collected by a suction pipe and reused. The layer of slag on the
surface of the weld portion is chipped out, and the weld is finished.
h) Since the weld pool is covered by flux, solidification of molten metal is slow. Hence, a
backing plate made from copper or steel is used at the bottom of the joint to support the
molten metal until solidification is complete.

Advantages
• High productivity process, due to high heat concentration.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to continuous wire feed. Hence, single pass welds can be
made in thick plates.
• Deep weld penetration.
• Less smoke, as the flux hides the arc. Hence, improved working conditions.
• Can be automated.
• Process is best suitable for outdoor works, and in areas with relatively high winds.
• There is no chance of spatter of molten metal, as the arc is beneath the flux.
Disadvantages
• The invisible arc and the weld zone make the operator difficult to judge the progress of
welding.
• Use of powdered flux restricts the process to be carried only in flat positions.
• Slow cooling rates may lead to hot cracking defects.
• Need for extensive flux handling.
Applications
• Used especially for large products, and in the fabrication of pressure vessels, penstocks,
boilers etc.

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GAS WELDING
Principle
• Gas welding is a fusion welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat
of a strong flame generated by the combustion of a fuel gas and oxygen.
• The fuel gas may be acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane.
• When the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding torch and
ignited the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficient enough to melt the edges of
the workpiece metals. A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.
The two familiar fuel gases used in gas welding are:
(i) Mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas- called oxy-acetylene welding process.
(ii) Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas- called oxy-hydrogen welding process.
• Oxy-acetylene welding is the most versatile and widely used gas welding process due to
its high flame temperature of upto 3500°C when compared to that of oxy-hydrogen
process having a flame temperature of 2500°C.

OXY-ACYTELENE WELDING

• When oxygen and acetylene are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding torch and
ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch has a temperature ranging from
3200°C - 3500°C , which is sufficient enough to melt and fuse the workpiece metals.
• Filler metal may or may not be used during the process. Figure 5.8 show s the
arrangement of the process.

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Description and Operation

a) The equipment consists of two large cylinders: one containing oxygen at high pressure,
and the other containing acetylene gas. Two pressure regulators fitted on the respective
cylinders regulate (or control) the pressure of the gas flowing from the cylinders to the
welding torch as per the requirements.
b) The welding torch is used to mix both oxygen and acetylene gas in proper proportions
and burn the mixture at its tip. A match stick or a spark lighter may be used to ignite the
mixture at the torch tip.
c) The resulting flame at the torch tip has a temperature ranging from 3200°C- 3300°C and
this heat is sufficient enough to melt the workpiece metal. Since a slight gap usually
exists between the two workpieces, a filler metal may be used to supply the additional
material to fill the gap.
d) The molten metal of the filler metal combines with the molten metal of the workpiece
and upon solidification form a single piece of metal.
Note:
The pressure regulator in each of the cylinders is fitted with two gauges.
One gauge indicates the gas pressure inside the cylinder and the other gauge indicates the
reduced pressure at which the gas goes out.
• The filler metal used must be of the same material or nearly the same chemical
composition as that of the workpiece material.
• Flux, if required, may be used during the process. It can be directly applied to the surface
of the workpiece, or the heated end of the filler metal may be dipped in a flux material
and used.
Advantages
• Process is simple and inexpensive.
• Eliminates skilled operator.
• Temperature of the flame can be controlled depending on the thickness and type of the
material being welded .
Disadvantages
• Acetylene gas is slightly costlier.
• Not suitable for thick and high melting point metals.
• Refractory metal like tungsten, molybdenum etc., and reactive metals like zirconium,
titanium etc., cannot be gas welded.
• Acetylene gas is highly explosive. Hence, precautions should be taken during its storage
and welding.

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TYPES OF FLAMES PRODUCED IN GAS WELDING PROCESS

• Before commencing the oxy-acetylene welding process, the welder should make himself
thoroughly familiar with the appearance and the characteristics of the flame produced.
• Three different types of flames can be produced at the torch tip by regulating the ratio of
oxygen to acetylene. They are:
(i) Neutral flame - oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportions
(ii) Oxidizing flame - excess of oxygen (Gas ratio = 1.15 to 1.5)
(iii) Reducing flame - excess of acetylene. (Gas ratio = 0.95 to 0.99)

(i) Neutral flame - oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportions
• A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and
acetylene are burnt at the torch tip.
• All the carbon supplied by acetylene (C H ) is being consumed and the combustion is
2 2
complete.
• The flame is named neutral , because it does not produce any chemical change in the
molten weld metal and therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal. Refer figure
5.9(a).
• The flame has a nicely defined inner whitish cone surrounded by a sharp blue flame.
• The temperature of the neutral flame is around 3260 °C.
• Neutral flame is commonly used for welding mild steel, cast iron, aluminum , copper
etc., and can also be used for metal cutting.
• It has the least chemical effect on the heated metal
(ii) Oxidizing flame - excess of oxygen
• If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is further
increased , the result will be an oxidizing flame.
• In other words, it is a flame in which there is excess oxygen than is required for
complete combustion. Refer figure 5.9(b).
• An oxidizing flame tends to be hotter than the other two types of flames due to excess
oxygen which causes the temperature to rise as high as 3500°C.
• The oxidizing flame appears similar to the neutral flame but with a shorter inner white
cone, and the outer envelope being narrow and brighter in colour.
• Oxidizing flame is used in special applications for welding copper-base metals, zinc-
base metals etc.
• It should not be used for welding steels, as it oxidizes the steel.

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(iii) Reducing flame - excess of acetylene.

• If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the resulting flame
will be a carburizing or reducing flame i.e., rich in acetylene.
• Combustion is incomplete with unconsumed carbon being present in the flame. Refer
figure 5.9(c).
• A reducing flame can be recognized by an acetylene feather which exists between the
inner cone and the outer envelope.
• The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame, and is usually much
brighter in colour.
• The temperature of the reducing flame is around 3065°C and is used for hard
surfacing, welding monel (Ni-Cu -alloy), and a few non-ferrous metals.
• Carburizing flame should not be employed for welding steel, as unconsumed carbon
may be introduced into the weld to produce a hard and brittle deposit .

REACTIONS IN GAS WELDING

• When suitable proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed and ignited at the torch
tip, a flame with a temperature of about 3300°C is produced.
• For complete combustion to take place, two volumes of acetylene is combined with
five volumes of oxygen. The reaction is given below:

Complete combustion takes place in two stages as described below:

• First stage combustion
• Second stage combustion
First stage combustion
• At the beginning of the process, when the gas torch is ignited, equal volumes of
oxygen and acetylene are issued from the torch to burn in the atmosphere.
• The reaction occurs due to which the inner cone is visible at the torch tip. Refer
figure 5.10(a).
• For example, consider one volume of each oxygen and acetylene.

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 Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester:03 Module-4

• This is an exothermic reaction that produces CO and H as products of the first stage
2
of combustion.

Second stage combustion

• The second stage combustion involves the combustion of CO and H which are the
2
products of combustion of first stage.
• Both these products are capable of supporting combustion, and hence utilize O from
2
the surrounding atmosphere for combustion.
• The resulting flame due to the second stage combustion is shown in figure 5.10(b).
The reactions are as follows

• Carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon dioxide, while hydrogen combines with
oxygen to form water.
• The combustion is therefore complete and carbon dioxide and water (turned to
steam) are the chief products of combustion.

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 Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester:03 Module-4

TORCH USED IN GAS WELDING PROCESS

• Gas torch or welding torch is that part, the welder holds and manipulates to make a weld.
• The oxygen and acetylene gas from the respective cylinders enters the gas torch where
they are mixed in suitable proportions and issued from the torch to burn in the atmosphere.
Construction and Working
• Figure 5.11 shows a high pressure or equal pressure type of gas torch.
• The gas torch consists of three parts:
 torch body,
 mixing chamber and
 torch tip.

Construction and Working

• The torch body- consists of two connections and two valves, each for oxygen and
acetylene gas. The hose (gas pipe) from the respective cylinders are assembled to the
connections as shown in the figure. The gases from the cylinders are fed to the torch body
at equal pressures through the respective hose and valve. The torch body is well insulated
for protection since it is held and operated by the welder.
• The gases from the torch body enter the mixing chamber where it gets mixed and then
enters the torch tip through a single line.
• The tip of the torch has a goose neck shape with an opening at its end through which the
oxygen and acetylene gas mixture passes prior ignition and combust ion. The tip is
usually made of copper metal. A match stick or a spark lighter may be used to ignite the
mixture at the torch tip.

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 Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester:03 Module-4

WELDING TECHNIQUES

• There are two techniques in gas welding process depending on the way in which the
welding rod or the welding torch may be used. They are:
i. Forehand or Leftward technique
ii. Backhand/Backward or Rightward technique

(i) Forehand or Leftward technique

• Forehand technique is used for welding thin metals having thicknesses less than 5 mm.
Figure 5.12(a) shows the technique.
• In the forehand technique, the welder holds the welding torch in his right hand while the
filler rod in his left hand, and proceeds from the right end of the workpiece towards the
left end.
• The torch flame is directed away from the pre-finished weld, while the filler rod moves
steadily along the edges allowing the flame to melt and deposit the metal.

(ii) Backhand/Backward or Rightward technique

• Backward technique is used for welding metals over 5mm thick, because, in this
technique more heat is concentrated into the workpiece metal, and hence
penetration of the weld metal can be achieved.
• Figure 5.12(b) shows the backhand technique in which the welding torch held in the
right hand while the filler rod in the left hand is moved front the left end of the
workpiece towards the right end.

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• The torch flame is directed towards the completed weld , while the filler metal
remains between the flame and the completed weld.

REFERENCES:

1. Ghosh, A. and Mallik, A. K., (2017), Manufacturing Science, East-West Press.

2. Parmar R. S., (2007), Welding Processes and Technology, Khanna Publishers.
3. Little R. L. – ‘Welding and Welding Technology’ – Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi – 1989
4. Grong O. – ‘Metallurgical Modelling of Welding’ – The Institute of Materials – 1997 –
2nd Edition
5. Kou S. – ‘Welding Metallurgy’ – John Wiley Publications, New York – 2003 – 2nd
Edition.
6. Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid – ‘Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology’ – Prentice Hall – 2013 – 7th Edition
7. Principles of foundry technology, 4th edition, P L Jain, Tata McGraw Hill, 2006.
8. Advanced Welding Processes technology and process control, John Norrish, Wood Head
Publishing, 2006.
9. A text book of “Manufacturing Process-I” by Kestoor Praveen, Suggi Publishing

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