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Indian online
Investigating chatbot users’ travel agencies
e-satisfaction and patronage
intention through social presence
and flow: Indian online travel 89

agencies (OTAs) Received 8 April 2023

Revised 29 August 2023
17 October 2023
Nisha Pradeepa S.P., Asokk D. and Prasanna S. Accepted 16 January 2024
Department of Management Studies, B. S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of
Science and Technology, Chennai, India, and
Ansari Sarwar Alam
Department of Marketing, Universal Business School, Mumbai, India

Abstract
Purpose – The concept of ubiquitous assimilation in e-commerce, denoting the seamless integration of
technologies into customer shopping experiences, has played a pivotal role in aiding e-satisfaction and,
consequently, fostering patronage intention. Among these, text-based chatbots are significant
innovations. In light of this, the paper aims to develop a conceptual framework and comprehend the
patronage behaviour of artificial intelligence-enabled chatbot users by using chatbot usability cues and
to determine whether the social presence and flow theories impact e-satisfaction, which leads to users’
patronage intention. The current research provides insights into online travel agencies (OTAs), a crucial
segment within the travel and tourism sector. Given the significance of building a loyal clientele and
cultivating patronage in this industry, these insights are of paramount importance for achieving
sustained profitability and growth.
Design/methodology/approach – The research framework primarily focused on the factors that
precede e-satisfaction and patronage intention among chatbot users, which include social presence, flow,
perceived anthropomorphism and need for human interaction. The researchers collected the data by
surveying 397 OTA chatbot users by using an online questionnaire. The data of this cross-sectional study
were analysed using covariance-based structural equation modelling.
Findings – Findings reveal that e-satisfaction is positively linked with patronage intention and the
variables of social presence and flow impact e-satisfaction along with chatbot usability cues. There were
direct and indirect relations between chatbot usability and e-satisfaction. Moreover, the personal attributes,
“need for human interaction” and, “perceived anthropomorphism” were found to moderate relations between
chatbot usability cues, social presence and flow.
Originality/value – The impact of chatbot’s usability cues/attributes on e-satisfaction, along with
perceived attributes – social presence and flow in the realm of OTAs contributes to the human–chatbot

All authors read and approved the final manuscript. No funding was received to assist with the
preparation of this manuscript. The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant Journal of Systems and
to the content of this article. Information Technology
Author contribution: Nisha Pradeepa S P, Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – Original
Vol. 26 No. 1, 2024
pp. 89-114
Draft. Asokk D, Conceptualization, Investigation, Review. Prasanna S, Conceptualization, © Emerald Publishing Limited
1328-7265
Investigation, Review. Ansari Sarwar Alam, Conceptualization, Investigation, Review. DOI 10.1108/JSIT-04-2023-0062
JSIT interaction literature. Moreover, the interacting effects of perceived anthropomorphism and the need for
human interaction are unique in the current contextual relations.
26,1
Keywords Artificial intelligence, Chatbots, Patronage intention, Social presence, Flow,
Anthropomorphism, Tourism, India, e-satisfaction
Paper type Research paper

90
1. Introduction
The attainment of customer satisfaction is a crucial aspect of business entities, as the inability to
achieve this goal may result in reduced patronage due to customers’ reluctance to repurchase a
product or service. E-satisfaction, or customer satisfaction in online business (Polites et al., 2012),
is a more arduous task than attaining customer satisfaction through the physical mode of
business. Physical enterprises derive advantages from the tactile experience they offer, as it
establishes a connection with customers’ emotions and sensations, ultimately influencing their
purchasing decisions. Therefore, the identification of drivers of e-satisfaction is vital for brands
that are vying to establish the connection that they successfully built through brick-and-mortar
businesses. E-commerce retailers are using several methods and technologies to bridge the
constraints of online businesses, thereby enhancing e-satisfaction levels. The most notable of
these technologies is artificially intelligent text-based chatbots. Chatbots, also known as digital
agents, disembodied conversational agents (Araujo, 2018) and virtual agents, have been
evolving in terms of efficacy and finesse since the first chatbot, ELIZA, was developed in the
1960s by Joseph Weizenbaum (1966). Although this innovative concept began 60 years ago, it
has matured recently. It is now extensively deployed and used in diverse contexts (Calvaresi
et al., 2021; Le, 2023) due to its manifold benefits concerning customer e-services (Følstad et al.,
2018; Prentice et al., 2020). Current artificial intelligence (AI)-powered chatbots understand
several human languages through natural language processing, which has made them more
prevalent (Cheng and Jiang, 2020) and a promising business opportunity (Brandtzaeg and
Følstad, 2017) in finance, education, health care, cyber security, information browsing, travel and
tourism and hospitality sectors.
Chatbots have gradually pervaded the travel and tourism sector in recent times. In the
aftermath of the pandemic, most brick-and-mortar companies in this sector adopted
chatbots to stay afloat. AI-based chatbots are used in 85% of customer service interactions
in tourism (Ukpabi et al., 2019). India stands as one of the foremost countries to have
deployed chatbots (Cem Dilmegani, 2023). Online travel agencies (OTAs) in India such as
Travel Triangle and redBus have embraced this AI technology, as its benefits outweigh the
drawbacks. OTAs reap the benefits of instantaneity, availability 24
7, informativity,
satiety, popularity, revenue generation and data collection (Buhalis and Cheng, 2020;
Lukanova and Ilieva, 2019). Indian OTA chatbots help travellers with “vague queries, such
as ‘Goa beach party resort’ or ‘hill station retreats’” (Saahil Nair, 2019).
Even though chatbots play a significant role with all the aforementioned benefits, their
success depends on positive user behaviour. Usability, defined as “the extent to which
specified users can use a product to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and
satisfaction in a specified context of use” (Iso, 1998), is found to have a profound influence on
performance and user behaviour (Barnard et al., 2013; Ellavarason et al., 2021). Hence the
significance of usability in the current chatbot user behaviour study is appropriate. Moreover,
past investigations reveal the positive impact of chatbots on user behavioural outcomes,
specifically e-satisfaction and patronage intention (Lou et al., 2022; Zarouali et al., 2018).
Previous studies have primarily examined various factors of chatbot user patronage, e.g.
anthropomorphic cues, trust (Toader et al., 2019) and social-oriented communication
(Chattaraman et al., 2019). The influence of chatbot usability features/cues adds to the current Indian online
corpus of human–chatbot interaction literature. The first and foremost objective of the current travel agencies
research focuses on usability, e-satisfaction and user patronage relationships. Additionally,
users experienced a feeling of interacting with a human (social presence) and were involved
and enjoyed (flow), while interacting with computers (Toader et al., 2019; Triberti et al., 2021).
These perceived attributes (social presence and flow) contributed to positive user behaviour
(Ramesh and Chawla, 2022). While the above discussions reveal an optimistic perspective of
chatbot user behaviour, on the contrary, there is negatory evidence that confirms chatbots 91
may not truly replace human social abilities (Balakrishnan et al., 2022; Brandtzaeg and
Følstad, 2017) and might cause dissatisfaction among users, a non-driver of customer
patronage. The academic debate prompted researchers to investigate the contribution of social
presence and flow theories on e-satisfaction and chatbot user patronage towards Indian
OTAs.
However, the influence of personal attributes on chatbot usability cues (CUC) can never
be neglected. Few researchers confirm the impact of user characteristics on usability
(Chaniaud et al., 2021). Past studies reveal that consumers still prefer the human touch in
retail (Lee, 2017) to novel virtual agents. Conversely, few scholarly works indicate that
consumers enjoy the interaction experience with chatbots and are in a state of flow without
interacting with humans (Jiang et al., 2022). Furthermore, the need for human interaction has
both direct and indirect effects on user behaviour (Taufik and Hanafiah, 2019). Hence, the
interacting effect of the need for human interaction on usability and flow relation is
investigated in this study. Yet another attribute, perceived anthropomorphism, improves the
usability of artificially intelligent tools significantly (Wendt, 2023). When users perceive a
chatbot to be more anthropomorphic (human-like), they tend to experience the social
presence of a human (Lee et al., 2023). However, when the chatbots’ anthropomorphic cues
increase, users expect more, leading to disappointments (Ana Rita Parcelas Quintino, 2019).
This demands an empirical validation on whether the strength of perceived
anthropomorphism increases the strength of CUC and social presence relations.
Thus, the inclusion of CUC, along with the support of social presence and flow theories, and
the moderating roles of perceived anthropomorphism and the need for human interaction
among OTAs’ chatbot users provide a significant contribution to the literature on human–
computer interactions (HCI). Prior research on chatbots was predominantly based on the
computers as social actors (CASA) paradigm, which states that customers tend to feel social
with computers (Nass and Moon, 2000). While the CASA paradigm holds for chatbots, yet, due
to technological advancements, chatbots increasingly behave like social agents, similar to
humans. Thus, the reciprocating behaviour of humans with human-like chatbots must be
researched among the native speakers of the digital language in India. Hence, the current
research’s focal points are listed in the following research questions:

RQ1. How do chatbot usability cues impact e-satisfaction and patronage intention?
RQ2. Do social presence and flow theories mediate the CUC – e-satisfaction relation?
RQ3. Does “perceived anthropomorphism” act as a catalyst for the CUC and social
presence relation? Does the “need for human interaction” moderate the influence of
CUC on flow?
The rest of the sections follow this structure. Section 2 discusses the underpinning theories
and their relevant propositions. While Section 3 discusses the methodology, Section 4 details
the outcomes of the empirical data analyses. Section 5 discusses the study’s findings and
implications, and Section 6 details the limitations and future work directions.
JSIT 2. Theory and hypotheses
26,1 The following section explains the theories and the constructs that form the crux of the
conceptual framework (Figure 1).

2.1 Chatbot usability cues

2.1.1 Chatbot usability cues and social presence. Usability is the study of interaction between
92 systems and users (Weichbroth, 2020). “Usability indicates whether a product enhances
productivity or leads to unproductive tasks due to errors” (Fang and Huang, 2021). Chatbot
usability is measured using experiments (Ren et al., 2022) or questionnaires (Borsci et al., 2022).
The attributes of chatbot usability are termed CUC in the current study. Most chatbot user
behaviour studies find social presence a critical variable. When social interactions are
expanded to the computer-mediated ecosystem, the system’s usability characteristics or cues
profoundly influence social presence (Wei et al., 2012). Moreover, people who feel more socially
present during HCI are more inclined to think of computers as real social actors and dismiss
that they are more artificial than others (Kim et al., 2013). The chatbot attributes: timeliness,
ease of use and personalisation are attributed to the social presence in the e-learning context
(Huang et al., 2022). Borsci et al.’s (2022) scale is used to measure chatbot usability in the current
study. Hence, the hypothesis is postulated as follows:

H1a. CUC have a positive relationship with social presence.

2.1.2 Chatbot usability cues and flow. “The experience of complete absorption in the present
moment” (Nakamura, 2009) is flow. The application of flow theory has increased the
likelihood that computer-mediated environments would appeal to consumers (Mpinganjira,
2019) and favour user behaviour. An e-commerce study reveals the effects of system
attributes on the mental states associated with the flow experience (Xin Ding et al., 2010).
Additionally, a website’s features/cues, specifically in the tourism sector, have close knits
with the visitors’ flow experience (Skadberg and Kimmel, 2004). Similar conclusions are also

Social
Perceived presence
H5
anthropomorphism

H2a
H3a
H1a
H4 Patronage
Chatbot usability H1c
E-satisfaction
cues intention

H1b
H3b
H2b
Need For Human
interaction H6 Flow
Figure 1.
Conceptual
framework
Source: Created by authors
evident in mobile social networking sites (SNS) settings (Zhou et al., 2010). The above Indian online
research findings demonstrate a clear and direct correlation between usability cues and the travel agencies
flow experience. Nevertheless, research has revealed that virtual reality exercise
applications tend to exhibit lower levels of usability (Fang and Huang, 2021). Hence, it is
imperative to conduct an inquiry into the evaluation of the favourable or unfavourable
impact of usability cues and flow experience about chatbots. Hence, the hypothesis is
postulated as follows:
93
H1b. CUC exhibit a positive association with the flow.
2.1.3 Chatbot usability cues and e-satisfaction. Human-like chatbot communication facilitated
by machine learning and artificial intelligence (Araujo, 2018) supports positive consumer
behaviour (Servidio et al., 2016). This user behaviour by way of satisfaction is predicted by
chatbots’ usability characteristics/cues (Borsci et al., 2022). Although there are several scales to
measure the usability of conversational agents, including System usability scale (SUS),
usability metrics for user experience (UMUX) and UMUX Lite, Borsci et al. (2022) instrument
incorporated the conversational ability of chatbots as well. CUC is the most critical construct
of the study. Magno and Dossena (2022) highlight the significance of chatbot attributes or cues
as vital in influencing e-satisfaction and enhancing customer relationships with businesses.
Additionally, Orden-Mejía and Huertas’s (2022) findings reveal that chatbot attributes:
informativeness, empathy and interactivity predicted satisfaction. Few more studies claim the
same in HCI (Mekadmi and Louati, 2018; Sachan et al., 2018; Salimon et al., 2021). Hence, the
hypothesis is postulated as follows:

H1c. Chatbot usability cues have a positive relationship with e-satisfaction.

2.2 Social presence theory as a mediator

The present research work is supported by social presence theory (Short et al., 1976), which
discusses that social presence is the feeling of interacting with a human while conversing
with a computer. It is conceived as a quality communication medium. In the present research
context, it implies the communication quality of chatbots. Additionally, the authors expound
on how communication medium affects communication. The extent of social presence varies
across media, and these differences affect the behaviour of individuals. Also, the developers
of social presence theory believed that media with a more robust social presence seem
welcoming and personal (Short et al., 1976). Hence, this study investigates users’ social
presence with chatbots.
Social presence in HCI is the “subjective experience of being present with a ‘real’ person
and having access to his or her thoughts and emotions” (Biocca and Harms, 2002; Biocca
and Levy, 2013). In the past, computer-mediated communication supported the user with
minimal verbal and non-verbal information, which limited users’ social presence. Now,
technological advancements have made it more pervasive (Oh et al., 2018) and socially
present. Moreover, prior research findings have proved social presence to be a notable
mediator in how users use technology, evaluate it and respond to it in diverse circumstances
(Li et al., 2021; Sundar et al., 2015), e.g. in human–robot interaction (Kim et al., 2013; Lee et al.,
2006) and social media (Jin et al., 2019). Additionally, it was found that social presence
played an intermediary role in the chatbot’s human-like features and satisfaction relations
(Konya-Baumbach et al., 2023). Hence, the hypothesis was postulated as follows:

H2a. Social presence is a mediator between CUC and e-satisfaction.

JSIT 2.3 Flow theory as a mediator
26,1 Along with the variable of social presence theory, the other variable of flow theory is used
with CUC to understand users’ patronage intention. The flow theory is used to understand
whether or not a chatbot user is easily connected with the chatbot interaction process.
According to flow theory, if a person is highly involved in a work and not distracted from
that work, then the person is positively connected with the particular product or service. The
94 same notion is applied in the present research work. Virtual flow experience yields the same
result. Virtual flow is a state in which a person is completely immersed in a task and can
delve into the technology to which they have access (Fathima et al., 2022; Zhu and Yang,
2023). Researchers found that virtual flow aided the quality of chatbot interaction, paving
the way for the success of AI-based chatbots (Beard, 2015). This cognitive attribute was
primarily constructed by a positive psychological researcher, Csikszentmihalyi (1990).
According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), a person is said to be in flow when they sense a
balance between the barriers associated with and their capacity to complete the goal despite
these barriers or challenges. Individuals describe being “in the flow” as a positive
psychological experience (Waldman, 2021) and a pleasurable one (Catherine Moore, 2019).
Flow theory is the most used among the various positive psychological theories (e.g.
commitment trust theory, uses and gratification theory) that explain user experiences in a
computer-mediated environment (Mahdi Hosseini and Fattahi, 2014). Flow theory acts as the
crux of HCI (Ghani and Deshpande, 1994), hence included as one of the pertinent constructs
of the study. Earlier studies asserted the flow’s role as a mediator in the context of computer
user behaviour (Ghani and Deshpande, 1994; Mahdi Hosseini and Fattahi, 2014). Past
researchers confirm the mediating effects of flow in website quality studies (Hsu et al., 2012)
and social media studies (Li et al., 2018). Thus, the hypothesis was postulated as follows:

H2b. Flow acts as a mediator between CUC and e-satisfaction.

2.4 E-satisfaction
E-satisfaction refers to the level of content a customer experiences regarding their previous
purchasing interactions with a specific e-commerce firm (Anderson and Srinivasan, 2003).
This also applies to other technologies. While most research on e-satisfaction with
technologies predominantly focussed on mere satisfaction, only a few studied the role
of technical characteristics and other driving forces of e-satisfaction (Qimei Chen et al., 2008).
The current study included the influence of social presence on e-satisfaction. Gunawardena
and Zittle (1997) and Li et al. (2021) suggest perceived social presence as a significant
predictor of satisfaction in computer-mediated communication. Studies by Bulu (2012) and
Richardson et al. (2017) demonstrate similar findings in virtual worlds and online
environments, respectively. However, So and Brush (2008) expounded that the relation
between social presence and satisfaction was positive yet insignificant in a blended learning
ecosystem. And, Salimon et al.’s (2021) findings reveal social presence’s indirect effect on
e-satisfaction. Therefore, the social presence and e-satisfaction link in the chatbot realm
demands empirical validation. Hence, the proposition was postulated as follows:

H3a. Social presence profoundly influences e-satisfaction.

The flow experience, according to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), can be attained by humans while
interacting with machines, leading to a sense of satisfaction that reinforces itself. Thus,
reinstating that flow directly affects consumers’ e-satisfaction (Chang, 2013). The study
considered flow experience as a single strong construct rather than multiple variables
measuring the same, similar to the study of Chang (2013). Hence, the hypothesis was Indian online
postulated as follows: travel agencies
H3b. The flow experience of chatbot users positively impacts e-satisfaction.

2.5 Patronage intention

Patronage intention is characterised by the willingness to buy a product or service in future 95
and recommend the brand (Mathwick et al., 2001). In the realm of chatbots, patronage
intention can be defined as the inclination to engage with a chatbot, make purchases, return
for future interactions and suggest it to others. Building patronage intention is important for
the long-term growth of businesses (Southworth, 2019). The greater the customer satisfaction,
the greater the patronage intention (Zeng et al., 2009). The level of customer satisfaction
substantially impacts their subsequent behaviour toward the product. This paves the way for
the current empirical investigation in understanding the impact of e-satisfaction on customers’
patronage intention. Moreover, researchers confirm the positive role of e-satisfaction on
patronage intention (Deb et al., 2021). Prior studies in the online ecosystem researched
satisfaction as a crucial driver of patronage intention (Kim et al., 2007; Syah and Olivia, 2022;
Tella and Ngoaketsi, 2022). Therefore, the fourth proposition was postulated as follows:

H4. There is a profound influence of e-satisfaction on patronage intention.

2.6 Moderating effect of perceived anthropomorphism

Positive perceptions of anthropomorphism (human-like cues) made users more sociable with
chatbots (Schanke et al., 2021), i.e. if a chatbot with a sound system design possesses human-
like cues, people perceive their interaction to be human-to-human. In the context of robots,
researchers discovered that anthropomorphic cued robots provide a better social presence to
bot users and improve social interaction (Blut et al., 2021). The same applies to disembodied
agents such as chatbots and other technologies as well. Even in an experiment, users
thoughtlessly use social rules and attach human traits to computers when provided with
simple human-like and technological cues (Kim and Sundar, 2012). While most researchers
reveal the significant effects of anthropomorphism in HCI (Cai et al., 2022), on the contrary, few
other researchers argue the mitigating effects of anthropomorphism (Ho and MacDorman,
2010). To the authors’ understanding, it is found that past literature does not show a
moderating influence of perceived anthropomorphism on the relationship between chatbot
usability cues and social presence. Hence, the fifth hypothesis was postulated as follows:

H5. Perceived anthropomorphism moderates the relationship between chatbot usability

cues and social presence.

2.7 Moderating effect of the need for human interaction

The need for human interaction offers a personalised connection between consumers and
employees and an enhanced customer experience (Taufik and Hanafiah, 2019). To be more
precise, it is inferred as “the need that some individuals feel for interacting with
the service employee in a service encounter” (Pratibha A. Dabholkar, 1992). Few users feel
the need to interact with employees as a positive aspect of service in computer-mediated
communication (Hendriks et al., 2020). On the other hand, a chunk of users reap hedonic
benefits such as fun, enjoyment and playfulness based on the usability of computers, which
JSIT lessens their need for human interaction (Sheehan et al., 2020). Fun and enjoyment are
26,1 related to flow, which is usually accompanied by complete involvement, cognitive arousal
and positive emotional outcomes during HCI (Faiola and Smyslova, 2009; Triberti et al.,
2021; Webster et al., 1993). The chances of considering chatbots for service are higher among
individuals with a low need for human interaction (NFH) than those with an increased
demand for human communication (Ashfaq et al., 2020; Sheehan et al., 2020). Researchers
96 wanted to know whether the need for human interaction enhances CUC and flow
relationships. To the best of the authors’ comprehension, it is found that past literature does
not show the relationship between the need for human interaction with CUC and flow.
Hence, the sixth hypothesis was postulated as follows:

H6. The need for human interaction moderates the relationship between CUC and flow.

3. Methodology
3.1 Constructs measurement
The survey instrument was structured into two parts. The former part assessed the socio-
demographic profile along with questions on the type of device used for interaction and the
frequency of chatbot usage (Table 1). The latter was used to gauge constructs including
social presence, flow, CUC, e-satisfaction, patronage intention, perceived anthropomorphism
and the need for human interaction. The primary constructs were measured using a five-
point Likert scale (5 – strongly agree, 1 – strongly disagree). The target participants were
introduced to the meanings of chatbots and the images of chat screens and bots of popular
OTAs operating in India, such as MakeMyTrip (Myra), Travel Triangle (Trip Planner) and
redBus (Red Buddy). These not only ensured clarity but also helped responders differentiate
a chatbot from a live chat, which usually is a human–human interaction. Two screening
questions were included to filter the right audience. The authors adopted the Bot usability
scale (BUS-15) scale validated by Borsci et al. (2022). In the current research context, the
eight items of BUS-15 were considered to measure CUC following expert consultation from
academia and the online travel industry. Factor analyses resulted in four items that explain
interaction, comprehension, informativeness and timeliness. Interaction, characterised by
clear communication; informativeness, indicated by accurate and precise information
throughout the chat; timeliness, characterised by shorter waiting time to receive responses
from chatbots; and comprehension, characterised by simple, understandable chat language,
has been included in the study.
Similarly, the three items measuring Flow from Gao and Bai (2014) and Nguyen et al.
(2021) were modified and included. Four items of social presence were adapted with changes
from Han (2021), Liew et al. (2017) and Adam et al. (2021). Five items of e-satisfaction were
adapted from Boon-it (2015), Hsu et al. (2012) and Kim et al. (2009). Patronage intention was
assessed using the scale of Liew et al. (2017) and Zhang et al. (2021). The study used the scale
of Balakrishnan et al. (2022) and Han (2021) to gauge perceived anthropomorphism. The need
for interaction with service employee scale of Jesús Manuel Lopez-Bonilla (2014) and Taufik
and Hanafiah (2019) was adapted to measure the Need For Human interaction. A detailed
description of items explaining the constructs is included in Appendix (Table A1).
Additionally, in response to experts’ suggestions, the questionnaire underwent pilot testing
with 50 participants, whose results indicated that all the examined variables had achieved
acceptable levels of reliability, exceeding a threshold of 0.70. Furthermore, a statistical
analysis using G*Power 3.1.9.7 established that this research necessitated a minimum of 118
participants, adhering to the detailed step-by-step procedure of Memon et al. (2020).
 Socio-demographic statistics (in %)
Indian online
Respondents’ profile (In %) travel agencies
Gender
Male 51.5
Female 48.5
Age 97
<25 46.7
26–35 26.1
36–45 18
>45 9.2
Highest level of education
High school 7
Graduate/Diploma 53
Post-graduate 32
Doctorate 8
Occupation
Student 12.3
Working 74.5
Professional 3
Business 10.2
The device used for interaction (open-ended question)
Mobile 65
Laptop 23
Desktop 12
Frequency of use on a weekly basis
Once 85.6
Twice 6
Thrice 4
Daily 4.4 Table 1.
Socio-demographic
Source: Created by authors statistics

3.2 Research design and respondents

In the current research, responses were collected by using online surveys created through
Google Forms. The authors adhered to the guidelines by Benfield and Szlemko (2006) for
using electronic data collection in the study. The researchers used the virtual snowball
sampling approach to access a challenging-to-reach population segment, specifically the
proficient users of OTA chatbots in India. The term “hard to reach” refers to a specific
population characterised by difficulties in identification and little knowledge about their
behaviours (Marpsat and Razafindratsima, 2010), which aligns well with the target
responders’ profile. Moreover, the sampling method is expected to yield better response
rates than traditional sampling methods, and statistical generalisations can also be made
from such data (Baltar and Brunet, 2012). While the theoretical concept of snowball
sampling suggests that initial participants are picked randomly, the practical
implementation of this approach is challenging, often resulting in the use of convenience to
choose participants (Baltar and Brunet, 2012). The current study used social networking
sites which are “a good complement for sampling hard-to-reach/hard-to-involve
populations” (Baltar and Brunet, 2012) for recruitment, similar to the works of Pan et al.
JSIT (2021). Furthermore, the likelihood of SNS users frequently sharing links, shorts or reels
26,1 with their friends as a way of engagement aided the snowballing of OTA chatbot users.
Specifically, Instagram has propelled the growth of the travel industry due to its visual
storytelling. Moreover, Meta Foresight (2017), Facebook IQ Podcast, Facebook asserts that
70% of avid travellers use Instagram to post their itineraries, and 67% use Instagram to
discover travel-related activities. Therefore, invitations were sent to Instagram followers of
98 OTAs to participate in the electronic survey through Instagram direct messages.
Additionally, we requested the recruiters to share the links with others through SNS
(Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp). The first dichotomous screening question, “Have
you used an OTA chatbot before?” in the survey link filtered the desired sample. The second
dichotomous question, “Can you share this survey link with other OTA chatbot users,
please?” ensured more referrals. Although the sample was not representative, it was diverse
(Table 1). Around 438 responses were received over three months (November 2022–January
2023), of which 41 were excluded owing to incorrect and incomplete responses (responses
missing >10% of information were excluded (Hair Joseph, 2009), yielding a final sample size
of 397.

3.3 Measures’ validation

The present study’s usage of self-report measures, where individuals are asked to provide
direct information on their behaviours/attitudes/intentions, may result in a problem of
common method bias (CMB) (Holbrook, 2008). To avoid CMB, the items measuring the
constructs were written at a good level of comprehension, with simple vocabulary and
response options. The study avoided ambiguous and double-barrel questions, which is one
of the significant causes of CMB (MacKenzie and Podsakoff, 2012). Each of the questions is
included in Table A1. Apart from the procedural remedies, statistical measures of CMB were
also carried out by conducting the widely used, common latent factor (CLF) method. CLF
shows that the difference between standardised estimates with CLF and without CLF was
less than 0.20, proving no CMB issue (Gaskin, 2021a, 2021b).

4. Results
The primary aim of covariance-based structural equation modelling (CB-SEM) is to evaluate
the fit between a theoretical model and empirical data obtained from real-world settings. In
contrast to partial least square-structural equation modelling, which is primarily used for
exploratory research, it is best suited for explanatory research (Memon et al., 2017).
Therefore, data was analysed using CB-SEM.

4.1 Measurement model

4.1.1 Cronbach’s alpha and exploratory factor analysis results. Even though the hypotheses
are based on well-established literature, researchers performed exploratory factor analysis
(EFA) to measure the internal reliability of the constructs and their items and to ensure
further the modified items are valid and reliable. The SPSS Maximum likelihood method
was used to produce the EFA output. Table 2 shows the commonalities after illegitimate
item elimination. A few items’ corrected item-total correlation was in the range of 0 to 0.19,
indicating that those items were not discriminating well, hence eliminated. The results
confirmed seven factors with loadings greater than 0.40 (see Table 2). The Kaiser–Meyer–
Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.89. The Chi-square of Barlett’s test of sphericity
was 5036.69 for 300 degrees of freedom. The significant value of 0.00 (Table 2), which is
<0.05, indicates that the variables do not relate to one another (Table 2).
 Communalities
Indian online
Items Initial Extraction travel agencies
CUC1 0.586 0.634
CUC2 0.553 0.627
CUC3 0.517 0.556
CUC4 0.554 0.607
NF1 0.458 0.545 99
NF2 0.476 0.556
NF3 0.465 0.564
FLW1 0.517 0.550
FLW2 0.532 0.618
FLW3 0.473 0.558
SP1 0.496 0.596
SP2 0.571 0.696
SP3 0.578 0.678
PA1 0.511 0.569
PA2 0.526 0.611
PA3 0.504 0.581
PA4 0.572 0.672
ESAT1 0.634 0.577
ESAT2 0.650 0.645
ESAT3 0.629 0.551
ESAT4 0.548 0.494
ESAT5 0.523 0.468
PI1 0.533 0.673
PI2 0.490 0.545
PI3 0.533 0.642
Extraction method: maximum Likelihood
KMO and Bartlett’s test
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy 0.890
Bartlett’s test of sphericity Approx. chi-square 5036.699
df 300
Table 2.
Sig. 0.000 Communalities and
KMO and Bartlett’s
Source: Created by authors test

The psychometric properties of the constructs were assessed by the reliability test of
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. All constructs had confidence intervals more significant than
0.7, with the lowest being “perceived anthropomorphism” with alpha ¼ 0.78 and the most
critical being “e-satisfaction” with alpha ¼ 0.87.
4.1.2 Multi-variate assumptions. The four multi-variate assumptions: linearity,
normality, multicollinearity and homoscedasticity, were included in the study. Linearity was
confirmed after performing ordinary least square linear regression for each independent–
dependent variable pair. The corresponding significant value seemed to be less than 0.05 for
each pair. Skewness and kurtosis values were less than three times their corresponding
standard error, adhering to the rule for normality mentioned by Gaskin (2021a, 2021b).
Additionally, the skewness and kurtosis coefficients (in Table 3) were between 1 and 1,
thus validating the data to be normal (Kim, 2013).
Moreover, the variable inflation factor (VIF) scores (Table 4) were well within 3.0,
implying that there is no impact of multicollinearity on the variance of the regression
estimates (O’Brien, 2007). Tolerance values range from 0.31 to 0.94 (Table 4).
JSIT Composite
26,1 Constructs Items Estimates reliability AVE Skewness Kurtosis

Chatbot usability cues (CUC) CUC1 0.801 0.861 0.607 0.037 0.881
CUC2 0.781 0.055 1.130
CUC3 0.751 0.033 0.999
CUC4 0.777 0.018 1.085
100 Social presence (SP) SP1 0.674 0.788 0.602 0.081 1.282
SP2 0.783 0.029 0.812
SP3 0.806 0.080 1.062
SP4 0.832 0.025 1.273
Flow (FLW) FLW1 0.787 0.810 0.587 0.201 1.047
FLW2 0.801 0.139 1.195
FLW3 0.708 0.087 0.938
E-satisfaction (ESAT) ESAT1 0.755 0.877 0.589 0.007 0.685
ESAT2 0.851 0.200 1.025
ESAT3 0.741 0.179 0.585
ESAT4 0.740 0.016 0.896
ESAT5 0.746 0.109 0.836
Patronage intention (PI) PI1 0.806 0.823 0.608 0.025 0.882
PI2 0.744 0.251 0.772
PI3 0.787 0.114 0.900
Perceived anthropomorphism (PA) PA1 0.757 0.858 0.603 0.011 0.927
PA2 0.773 0.111 0.839
PA3 0.767 0.061 0.866
PA4 0.807 0.020 1.028
Need For human interaction (NFH) NFH2 0.713 0.788 0.553 0.052 1.054
Table 3. NFH3 0.778 0.125 0.008
Factor loadings, NFH4 0.739 0.092 0.907
convergent validity,
skewness, kurtosis Source: Created by authors

Constructs Cronbach’s alpha ESAT CUC PA FLW SP NFH PI VIF Tolerance

ESAT 0.876 0.768 2.682 0.466

CUC 0.861 0.765 0.779 2.146 0.466
PA 0.787 0.332 0.287 0.744 1.053 0.949
Table 4. FLW 0.809 0.677 0.601 0.187 0.766 3.250 0.308
SP 0.856 0.323 0.227 0.132 0.112 0.776 1.038 0.964
Discriminant NFH 0.858 0.077 0.102 0.151 0.065 0.016 0.776 1.207 0.829
validity, Cronbach’s PI 0.821 0.585 0.510 0.325 0.476 0.089 0.064 0.779
alpha, VIF, tolerance
values Source: Created by authors

Homoscedasticity was measured using a scatter diagram, with construct on the x-axis and
its residual on the y-axis. The graph obtained showed a consistent pattern.
4.1.3 Validity, reliability and model fit. The measurement model’s validity, reliability and
model fit were verified by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in AMOS software (v24.0)
using the maximum likelihood method, allowing covariance among all the latent constructs.
The regression estimates of the study’s measurement model were above 0.5. All were
retained for further structural model analysis (Hair Joseph, 2009). The composite reliability
surpasses the threshold value of 0.7 (Hair Joseph, 2009), with values exceeding 0.9 for all the Indian online
constructs, demonstrating strong reliability. Additionally, the average variance extracted travel agencies
(AVE), surpasses 0.5, affirming the latent constructs’ convergent validity. criterion was
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
established (refer Table 4). As intended, the diagonal values representing AVE exceeded
the shared correlations of each construct, thereby assessing discriminant validity of the
instrument (see Table 4). CFA showed a good fit based on the model-fit indices, whose
values (Table 5) were on par with those of Bentler and Bonett (1980), Bentler (1992) and Hu 101
and Bentler (1995). The indices were CMIN/df, GFI, AGFI, CFI, TLI, RMSEA, SRMR and
PCLOSE explained in (Table 5).

4.2 Structural model

The model fit indices (Table 5) were verified and found to be a good fit. Further on,
hypothetical relations were analysed. Table 6 and Figure 2 show that CUC have a significant
positive relationship with social presence (b ¼ 0.28 t ¼ 5.92, p < 0.001), flow (b ¼ 0.65, t ¼
16.75, p < 0.001) and e-satisfaction (b ¼ 0.48, t ¼ 16.56, p < 0.001), supporting hypotheses,
H1a, H1b and H1c. Similarly, E-satisfaction is significantly and positively influenced by
social presence (b ¼ 0.16, t ¼ 7.76, p < 0.001) and flow (b ¼ 0.36, t ¼ 12.91, p < 0.001),
supporting hypotheses, H3a and H3b. E-satisfaction further has a significant positive
relation with chatbot users’ patronage intention (b ¼ 0.66, t ¼ 17.81,
p < 0.001), supporting the proposition, H4. To summarise, all the hypotheses stated in
Table 6 were supported. The framework explained 44% of the variance in patronage
intention (R2 ¼ 0.44).

Model fit indices Measurement model Structural model Acceptable criteria Source

CMIN/DF 1.669 1.956 #3 Bagozzi et al. (1991)

GFI 0.922 0.934 0.80 Hair et al. (2010)
AGFI 0.9 0.913 0.90 Hair et al. (2010)
CFI 0.965 0.966 0.90 Bagozzi et al. (1991)
TLI 0.959 0.96 0.90 Bagozzi et al. (1991)
RMSEA 0.041 0.049 #0.05 Henry and Stone (1994)
SRMR 0.04 0.0428 #0.08 Hair et al. (2010)
Table 5.
PCLOSE 0.985 0.55 > 0.05 Hair et al. (2010) Model fit indices:
Measurement and
Source: Created by authors structural model

Direct effects Paths Coefficients Result

H1a CUC ! Social presence 0.285*** Supported

H1b CUC ! Flow 0.650*** Supported
H1c CUC ! E-satisfaction 0.482*** Supported
H3a Social presence ! E-satisfaction 0.164*** Supported
H3b Flow ! E-satisfaction 0.365*** Supported
H4 E-satisfaction ! Patronage intention 0.667*** Supported
Table 6.
Source: Created by author Hypotheses relations
JSIT Social
26,1 Perceived
0.101
presence
anthropomorphism

0.047

0.164

0.285
102 0.482 0.667
Chatbot usability Patronage
E-satisfaction
cues intention

0.650
0.365
0.238

Need for human –0.091

interaction Flow
Figure 2.
Standardized
regression estimates
Source: Created by authors

4.2.1 Mediating effect. The study assessed how social presence and flow mediated the CUC
and e-satisfaction relation. The results revealed a significant mediating effect of social
presence on the CUC-e-satisfaction linkage (b ¼ 0.04, t ¼ 2.82, p < 0.001). The mediator flow
also significantly affected the CUC-e-satisfaction relationship (b ¼ 0.23, t ¼ 4.80, p < 0.001).
Furthermore, the direct influence of CUC on e-satisfaction was also significant (b ¼ 0.48, t ¼
16.56, p < 0.001). Hence social presence and flow partially mediated the relations between
CUC and e-satisfaction. Table 7 and Figure 2 present the mediation analysis summary.
4.2.2 Interaction effect. The interaction effects of “perceived anthropomorphism” on
the CUC and e-satisfaction relationship and “need for human interaction” on the CUC and
flow relationship was analysed in the study. There was a significant negative interaction
impact of need for human interaction on CUC-flow relations (b ¼ 0.09, t ¼ 2.52, p ¼
0.012, H6) and a significant positive interaction impact of perceived anthropomorphism
on CUC-social presence links (b ¼ 0.10, t ¼ 2.12, p ¼ 0.034, H5), H5 and H6 were
supported (refer Table 8).
Figure 3 shows the interaction effect using slope analysis. When perceived
anthropomorphism is low, CUC-social presence strength decreases. Similarly, when
perceived anthropomorphism is high, CUC-social presence strength increases invariably.
Figure 3 indicates that perceived anthropomorphism strengthens the positive relationship
between CUC and social presence.

Confidence
interval
Direct Indirect Lower Upper
Indirect paths effect effect bound bound p- value Conclusion

H2a. CUC ! SP ! ESAT 0.482*** 0.047 0.031 0.064 *** Partial mediation
H2b. CUC ! FLW ! ESAT 0.482*** 0.238 0.195 0.282 *** Partial mediation
Table 7.
Mediating effects Source: Created by author
Figure 4 demonstrates the nature of the interaction effects of need for human interaction Indian online
through simple slope analysis. The line depicting Low need for human interaction in the travel agencies
figure is steep, and as need for human interaction increases, the strength of the CUC-flow
relationship decreases. Figure 4 indicates the dampening impact of need for human
interaction on the positive influence of CUC on flow.

Relationship Beta CR p-value 103

CUC ! FLW 0.650 16.753 ***
NFH ! FLW 0.105 2.712 0.007
CUC_x_NFH ! FLW 0.091 2.523 0.012
CUC ! SP 0.285 5.927 ***
PA ! SP 0.133 2.777 0.005
CUC_x_PA ! SP 0.101 2.120 0.034

Note: ***p <0.001 Table 8.

Source: Created by author Interaction effects

4.5

4
SP

3.5 Moderator
Low PA
3
High PA
2.5 Linear (Low PA)
Linear (High PA)
2

1.5
Figure 3.
1 Interaction effect of
Low CUC High CUC PA using slope
analysis
Source: Created by authors

4.5

4
FLW

3.5 Moderator
Low NFH
3
High NFH
2.5 Linear (Low NFH)
Linear (High NFH)
2

1.5
Figure 4.
1 Interaction effect of
Low CUC High CUC NFH using slope
analysis
Source: Created by authors
JSIT 5. Discussion and implications
26,1 5.1 Discussion
The present research work’s focus revolves around the three crucial research questions: first,
to study the impact of CUC on e-satisfaction and patronage intention. The study revealed
that the usability cues of chatbots highly satisfied their users (b ¼ 0.48, p < 0.001), validated
by other researchers in HCI (Magno and Dossena, 2022; Orden-Mejía and Huertas, 2022;
104 Ruan and Mezei, 2022; Telner, 2021). CUC significantly influenced e-satisfaction, which
subsequently impacted patronage intention (b ¼ 0.66, p < 0.001), contributing to the
theoretical literature on chatbots.
Second, to analyse the role of social presence and flow as mediators in CUC and e-
satisfaction relations. The direct relationship between CUC and e-satisfaction does not
entirely vanish when social presence and flow are mediators; hence they partially mediate,
validating H2a and H2b. In addition, CUC positively influenced social presence and flow,
which further impacted e-satisfaction (H1a, H1b, H3a, H3b). Thus, the perceived
attributes – social presence and flow and the usability attributes of AI-based chatbots
contribute to shaping the e-satisfaction and patronage of chatbot users.
Third, to study the catalytic effect of perceived anthropomorphism on the CUC-social
presence link and the need for human interaction on the CUC-flow relationship. This study
confirms that perceived anthropomorphism strengthens the positive CUC-social presence
relations (b ¼ 0.10, p ¼ 0.13), validating H5, similar to Kim and Sundar’s (2012)
investigations. If the users perceive chatbots to be human-like based on their functionalities,
they tend to feel the social presence of a human during their interaction. Anthropomorphism
associated with chatbots has positively impacted consumer behaviour (Sheehan et al., 2020).
Contrary to the proposition of the study, the moderator, need for human interaction
mitigates the positive CUC-flow relations (b ¼ 0.091, p ¼ 0.012), not supporting H6. Thus,
it indicates that the consumers’ increased preference to engage with chatbots reduced the
need for human interaction to avail of travel-related services such as online ticket booking
and trip planning. Chatbots have the advantage of surpassing humans by working 24
7.
Previous studies confirmed the insignificant role of need for human interaction in user
experience and satisfaction with self-service technologies in tourism (Taufik and Hanafiah,
2019), which aligns with the current research finding.

5.2 Theoretical implications

This study establishes a connection between the domains of AI, consumer behaviour and
destination marketing, specifically examining post-adoption chatbot user behavioural
outcomes: e-satisfaction and patronage intention. With this objective, the research uncovers
the under-explored impact of CUC, mediated by social presence and flow, on post-adoption
behaviour. The investigation of the study’s antecedents reveals intriguing perspectives on
OTA chatbot user e-satisfaction and patronage intention.
In addition, the study delves into a novel role of perceived anthropomorphism as a
moderator on CUC–social presence relations. While the need for human interaction has been
explored in the past as a moderator in contexts, such as anthropomorphism–adoption
(Sheehan et al., 2020) and perceived usefulness–adoption links (Taufik and Hanafiah, 2019),
its catalytic effect on CUC–flow relations adds a unique contribution to academia.
The framework involving multiple theories (social presence, flow) and constructs
collectively has not been studied hitherto. This is a novel contribution that adds to the HCI
literature. The model, encompassing usability, personal and perceived attributes that
influence post-adoption behaviour, sets a precedent for all future human–technology
interactions.
 In sum, this research sheds new light on the interplay between AI technology, consumer Indian online
behaviour and the evolving landscape of chatbot user experiences. travel agencies
5.3 Managerial implications
One of the findings that highlight the direct positive relations between CUC, e-satisfaction
and patronage intention is closely tied to the practical aspect that technologies featuring
robust usability cues result in user satisfaction and brand patronage. Hence, it is apparent
that CUC function as a tool to gauge them. Furthermore, the presence of CUC heightens the
105
perception of interaction as socially present and fosters a seamless flow experience, thereby
contributing to enhanced user satisfaction. Moreover, satisfied users tend to develop
emotional attachments to online products or services, leading them to repeat their use and
recommend them to their near and dear ones. They tend to patronise cutting-edge
technologies owing to their ease of use in information search and buying decisions (Pae and
Hyun, 2002; Zhu and Yang, 2023). Consequently, destination marketers and OTA managers
can leverage CUC to increase user patronage, which subsequently impacts brand affinity,
profits, number of first-time and repeated users and thereby gaining a larger market share in
OTAs.
In addition, the incorporation of human-like cues in chatbots helps create a seamless
consumer journey among the OTAs. These anthropomorphic cues coupled with usability
enable chatbot users to feel the presence of a human while interacting with chatbots. As a
result, chatbots with good anthropomorphic traits contribute to reinforcing a brand’s image
and value, driving OTAs to prioritize customer support through chatbots.
Furthermore, the need for human interaction diminishes when users interact with
chatbots possessing usability features and engage in a flow experience. Low need for human
interaction individuals irresistibly engage with chatbots, while those with high need for
human interaction prefer humans. When dealing with customers who have high need for
human interaction, personalised anthropomorphic chatbots would solve the purpose
(Sheehan et al., 2020).
Overall, the integration of CUC, along with social presence, flow, perceived
anthropomorphism and need for human interaction, are the crucial aspects that impact post-
adoption AI–user behaviour in the rapidly evolving digital landscape.

6. Conclusion, limitations and future recommendations

The study aimed to expand the existing corpus of knowledge by examining the experiences
of OTA chatbot users regarding post-adoption user behaviour. Incorporating CUC,
alongside other constructs, into the existing framework enhanced the comprehensive
understanding of user e-satisfaction and patronage. CUC was found to have a direct positive
influence on social presence, flow and e-satisfaction, providing a novel insight. Social
presence and flow as mediators, enhanced the CUC and e-satisfaction relationship, as
supported by previous researchers in the context of technology utilization (Mahdi Hosseini
and Fattahi, 2014; Sundar et al., 2015). Interestingly, the study unveiled that perceived
anthropomorphism strengthened the positive influence of CUC on social presence, while the
need for human interaction dampened the influence of CUC on flow. Although, the need for
human interaction as a catalyst has been explored in the past (Sheehan et al., 2020), not in the
present context, perceived anthropomorphism has not been previously studied as a
moderator within the realm of human–chatbot interactions. These findings have proven the
constructs’ relevance in the context of post-adoption behaviour and OTAs, indicating their
applicability and potential for further research. The study’s contributions are noteworthy on
several fronts. Firstly, it addresses a notable gap in the literature by investigating the
JSIT influence of CUS on e-satisfaction and patronage intention, shedding light on the
26,1 intermediary roles of social presence and flow and the catalytic effects of anthropomorphism
and the need for human interaction, which were validated and found significant. Secondly, it
offers a conceptual framework that can guide future studies in related domains.
Practitioners in the fields of travel and tourism, aviation and hospitality stand to benefit
from the insights provided by this research. This study’s comprehensive approach not only
106 advances theoretical understanding but also offers practical implications that can shape the
development and implementation of chatbot systems, ultimately enriching user experiences
and contributing to the growth of these sectors.
While this study yielded notable novel perspectives, it is essential to acknowledge a few
limitations. The study’s participants were drawn from a specific demographic, which might
limit the generalizability of the results to a broader Indian population. The sample primarily
comprised OTA chatbot users, potentially neglecting perspectives from users of other
platforms or individuals less accustomed to technology. Additionally, longitudinal studies
that offer a more robust understanding of how factors evolve and influence each other may
be used in future. The effect of contextual concepts such as cultural differences, and
personal traits such as the need for cognition and cognitive innovativeness can be
investigated further by future researchers.

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Further reading
Aiman-Smith, L. and Green, S.G. (2002), “Implementing new manufacturing technology: the related
effects of technology characteristics and user learning activities”, Academy of Management
Journal, Vol. 45 No. 2, pp. 421-430.
Khalifa, M. and Shen, N. (2004), “System design effects on social presence and telepresence in virtual
communities”, ICIS (International Conference on Information Systems) 2004 Proceedings, 2004.

Corresponding author
Asokk D. can be contacted at: [email protected]
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Table A1.
Questionnaire items
Constructs Items Source

Chatbot usability cues Communicating with the chatbot was clear BUS-15 Bot usability scale
(CUC) The chatbot’s responses were easy to understand Waldman (2021)
The chatbot gives me the required amount of information
My waiting time for a response from the chatbot was short
Need for human interaction Human contact makes services pleasant to me Jesús Manuel Lopez-Bonilla
(NFH) The personal attention by service employee is important to me (2014); Taufik and Hanafiah
I prefer interacting with a person rather than a machine (2019)
Perceived Chatbots are natural; I do not feel fake about them Balakrishnan et al. (2022),
anthropomorphism (PA) Chatbots are more human-like Han (2021)
Chatbots feel lifelike and not artificial
Chatbots are elegant in engaging
Flow (FLW) When interacting with a chatbot, it is difficult to detach myself Gao and Bai, (2014),
In my interaction with a chatbot, I am immersed Nguyen et al. (2021); Zhou
When interacting with the chatbot intensely, I found a lot of pleasure (2013)
Social presence (SP) Using chatbots would make me feel like I am communicating with a human Adam et al. (2021), Han
I could feel that I was in the room with a human while conversing with a chatbot (2021); Liew et al. (2017)
There is a sense of human warmth in the interaction with a chatbot
There is a sense of human sensitivity in the interaction with a chatbot
Appendix. Items used in measuring constructs of the study

E-satisfaction (ESAT) I am satisfied with the information I receive from the travel agencies’ chatbot Boon-itt (2015), Hsu et al.
I am happy with the usage of OTA chatbots (2012); Kim et al. (2009)
My interaction with the chatbots is very satisfying
I am satisfied with the response time of chatbots
I am pleased with the services provided by online travel agencies’ chatbots
Patronage intention (PI) I will use the OTAs’ chatbot services again Liew et al. (2017); Zhang
I will recommend the chatbot services to someone who seeks my advice et al. (2021)
I would like to use chatbot services in the future