1.

WAC TEST 1

GEOGRAPHY is the study and analysis of the spatial and temporal distribution of
phenomena on the Earth’s surface, and the underlying processes which cause the
observed pattern. Where are thescae phenomena, what is their pattern, but more importantly,
why is the pattern the way it is, what causes it. The spatial science of areas, natural
systems, and human-made systems.

Five Fundamental Themes of Geography

Location can be both absolute and relative. It is the spatial component of geography, the
being concerned with where things are. Location can be expressed as either absolute or
relative.

Absolute location refers to latitude and longitude, or GPS coordinates or an address.

Relative location is comparing one location to another by the distance between them as
measured in either time or miles (km).

Place refers to those characteristics that make a location unique. What makes Athens, GA
different from Athens, OH, or Athens, Greece, or any other Athens?

Movement is what, how, where, and why of the diffusion of organisms and physical events
across the Earth’s surface. This can be the migration of people across the planet, or a
hurricane across the ocean, etc.

Regions refers to the study of areas with uniform or similar cultural and/or physical
characteristics. Studying North America vs. South America vs. Europe, etc.

Human-Earth Relationships looks at the impacts of the environment on people and the
impact of people on the environment. It is the relationship between human societies and the
environment. The impacts of deforestation, human pollution, agriculture, etc. The relationship
between the environment and human activity and development.

Three Main Sub-disciplines or areas in Geography

Physical Geography: (non-human-made patterns) Biogeography, Geomorphology,

Climatology, Hydrogeography, Soil geography

Human/Cultural Geography: (human-made patterns) Economic, Political, Historical,

Cultural, Urban, Population, etc.

Techniques: (the tools of geography) Cartography, Remote Sensing, Aerial Photography,

 Geographic Information Systems/Science (GIS)

In this course we are concerned primarily with physical geography and specifically
Weather and Climate.

How is Weather different from Climate/Climatology?

Weather is the day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere. This is also called Meteorology, the
science that studies the atmosphere and Atmospheric Science. It is the study of the
constantly changing state or condition of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. It is
comprised of various factors and measured parameters: air pressure, air temperature,
humidity, clouds, precipitation, wind, visibility, and others.

Climatology is the statistical properties of the atmosphere, measures of the average

conditions, variability, etc. It is a description of the aggregate weather conditions and the
slow, long changes in these variables over long periods of time (hundreds or thousands of
years). Climatology is the study of long-term atmospheric conditions.

As an area of study, Geography is quite old and many geographers count Eratosthenes, a
Greek who lived from 275 to 195 B.C., as one of the first “geographers”. He measured
an approximate polar circumference of the Earth, was an accomplished cartographer
and developed the idea of environmental zones based on temperature (T°).

Some other early geographers

Greek scholars: Aristotle, Hipparchus

Roman scholars: Strabo, Ptolemy
Muslim scholars: Edrisi, ibn-Batuta
Chinese scholars: Phei Hsiu (Chinese geographical study has been dated as far back as
the 5th cent. B.C.)

More recent geographers

Alexander von Humboldt, (1769-1859), is considered by some the “father” of modern

physical geography and credited with bringing “scientific study” to physical geography.

Vladimir Köppen (1846-1940), developed the Köppen Classification System for climates
based on vegetation, temperature, and precipitation patterns.

Alfred Wegner (1880-1930), developed the Theory of Continental Drift, which later became
part of the Theory of Plate Tectonics.

Tetsuya Theodore Fujita (1920-1998), developed the Fujita Scale for measuring the
intensity of tornadoes.
Robert Simpson (1912-2014), developed, along with Herbert Saffir, the Saffir-Simpson Scale
for measuring hurricane intensity.

Some other prominent Physical Geographers or related scholars

Climate: Tim Oke, Lonnie Thompson, Russ Mather, Roger Barry, James Hansen,
Syukuro Manabe, Joanne Simpson, Marshall Shepherd

Geomorphology: James C. Knox, Stanley Trimble, Luna Leopold, Stanley Schumm,

Gordon Wolman, Karl Butzer, Carol Harden

Biogeography: Tom Veblen, Jarrod Diamond, Glen MacDonald, Eugene, and Howard Odum,
E.O. Wilson

EARTH’S SPHERES

The Earth can be subdivided into many spheres such as the water sphere and land sphere, or
into the hemispheres. It can also be studied based on it physical spheres, Atmosphere,
Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, and Biosphere. This approach not only studies these
individually, but also, and more importantly, how they interact.

Atmosphere is the thin gaseous veil, which surrounds the Earth from sea level to about
60,000 km (37,000 mi) above the surface. This is where the weather occurs, our air supply is
located, etc.

Hydrosphere is all the water above, on, and in the Earth in all three states of matter (solid,
liquid, gas), freshwater, saline (saltwater), and in-between. It comprises some 71% of the
Earth’s surface, primarily as oceans. It is vital for most living organisms, many weather, and
many geomorphic processes.

Lithosphere is the Earth’s crust and a portion of the upper mantle. It is the rocky, outer shell
of the planet, both land (continents) and the sea bottom.

Biosphere is all the living organisms of the planet and the interconnections between them
and their physical environment.

SYSTEMS

It is common to study “systems” or all the factors influencing an area or phenomena. For
example, a fluvial (river) system, a thunderstorm or hurricane system, or an ecosystem,
compared to simply one or two of the parts or components.

Two Basic Types of Systems

An Open System is where the boundaries or interfaces between parts of the system AND other
systems allow for the free transfer of energy and matter across them. Examples include a
weather system, river drainage system, and an ecosystem.

A Closed System is self-contained exhibiting no exchange of energy or matter across

boundaries.

Systems change, they are dynamic, but tend to be in, or in the process of being in some form of
an equilibrium state.

Equilibrium State is the changing, or relatively non-changing conditions of a system. All

systems will change over time, but at different rates, thus some are seemingly in equilibrium
while others may be moving toward a state of equilibrium.

Steady-state Equilibrium is when a system is in balance over time and is neither growing
nor contracting but is in full operation. It may exhibit small oscillations around an average
level or condition, however.

Dynamic Equilibrium is when a system exhibits wide fluctuates around an average value,
and in which the average demonstrates a trend over time.

Feedback Mechanism is a process by which when the normal operations of a system

cause a portion of the system’s output to be returned as information input. This may
cause changes which guide further system operations. What happens in one part of a system
influences other parts.

Two types of Feedback Mechanisms

A Negative Feedback Mechanism tends to slow or reduce responses in a system and

promotes self-regulation of the system. This tends to keep the system in its original
condition, inhibiting change. One example is how a large mass of ice (continental ice sheet)
stays cold because the large mass of ice keeps the air above it cold, which keeps the ice cold,
which keeps the air cold, keeps the ice cold, and so on.

A Positive Feedback Mechanism tends to amplify or encourage responses in a system. It

induces progressively greater changes in other parts of the system. What might be termed
the “snowball effect”. The growth of a hurricane is one example. The system draws into it
warm, moist air off an ocean which causes it to grow, drawing in more warm, moist air,
causing it to grow further, drawing in more air, and so on.

The Earth systems as described above (equilibrium, feedback mechanisms, spheres, etc.) and
all the Earth’s component's function under the idea of uniformitarianism.

Uniformitarianism is the idea that the processes we see today functioned the same way
 in the past and will into the future. The way volcanic processes function today is the same
way that volcanoes functioned in the past and will into the future. Hurricanes, tornadoes,
ecosystems, etc. are influenced by the same processes today, in the past and into the future.

LATITUDE and LONGITUDE

Earth is a sphere or more correctly has a spheroidal shape. It is not a perfect sphere because it
has what is called a geoidal bulge at the equator. Its equatorial diameter is not the same as
its polar diameter. The Equatorial diameter is 7926 miles (12,756 kilometers) yielding an
Equatorial circumference of 24,902 miles. The Polar diameter is 7900 miles (12,714 km)
yielding a Polar circumference of 24,860 miles.

To locate places on the surface we use a grid system. Several types have been developed and
are in use. The most common or well-known is the latitude and longitude grid system.

Parallels of Latitude are the lines that run East-West. They are parallel and are measured
North or South, starting at 0° (the Equator), and ending at 90° (the N and S Pole). The
Equator is halfway between the North Pole and the South Pole yielding a Northern and
Southern Hemisphere.

Meridians of Longitude are the lines that run North-South. They are non-parallel and are
measured East or West, starting at 0° (the Prime Meridian), and ending at 180° (the
International Date Line). The Prime Meridian and International Dateline also “cut” the Earth
in half, but the placement is arbitrary, a human construction. The Prime Meridian runs through
Greenwich, England yielding an Eastern and Western Hemisphere.

The degrees of latitude and longitude can be subdivided into minutes and seconds. A degree is
part of a circle, with 360 parts or degrees in a complete circle. A degree can be further sub-
divided into 60 equal parts or minutes and a minute is further sub-divided into 60 equal parts or
seconds.

EX: 12° 35' 15" N 104° 55' 30" E would be read as 12 degrees, 35 minutes, 15 seconds North
and 104 degrees, 55 minutes, 30 seconds East.

When writing a positions latitude and longitude coordinates, latitude is written first and then
longitude such as 12° 35' 15" N 104° 55' 30" E NOT 104° 55' 30" E 12° 35' 15" N. Also, latitude
must have an N or S after it for north (N) or south (S) and longitude must have an E or W for
east (E) or west (W).

Know the following major lines of latitude and longitude:

Latitude: Equator (0°), str (23.5° N), Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S),

Arctic Circle (66.5° N), Antarctic Circle (66.5° S), North Pole (90° N), South Pole (90° S)
Longitude: Prime Meridian (0°), International Date Line (180°)

The Earth’s rotation and the Meridians of Longitude determine the Time Zones. One time zone
is 15° of longitude (360°/24hr (1 day) = 15°/h). Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) refers to the
local time in London, England (Greenwich). The difference in time (time zones) between two
locations can be determined by knowing the longitude of each location. For example, if two
locations are 105° of longitude apart, then dividing 105 by 15 yields the number of time zones
between the two locations. They are seven (7) time zones apart.

MAP PROJECTIONS

Transferring a round (3D) object, the globe (Earth), onto a flat surface (2D), a piece of paper, or
a computer screen, can be done by an orderly arrangement of crisscrossing lines, parallels of
latitude and meridians of longitude. But this will often cause distortion of the physical size
and shape of the area represented. Several methods of showing or projecting the Earth's
surface have been devised to alleviate some of the distortion thus several different map types
and projections are in use. Mercator is one of the most used projections (especially for large
wall maps). Other projections include conic, cylindrical, planar, equal-area, polar, and
gnomonic.

The Scale of a map, the ratio of distance on the map to the actual distance on the ground, is
also, important. The amount of detail a map can display will vary with the scale. The scale of a
map is shown as either a written scale, a representative fraction, or as a graphic (bar) scale.

A written scale would appear as “One-inch equals four miles” (which means that 1 inch on the
map equals 4 miles on the ground). A representative fraction would appear as 1:24,000 (which
means that 1 inch on the map equals 24,000 inches (2000 feet) on the ground). A graphic scale
(also known as a linear or bar scale) is a line marked at intervals to show the distance on the
earth which the distance on the scale represents.

Maps may be classified as small, medium, or large scale. A Large-scale map (1:24,000)
shows a relatively small area of the Earth’s surface thus more detail. A Small-scale
map (1:1000000) shows a relatively large area of the Earth’s surface thus less detail.

Types of Maps

There are various types of maps to include topographic, Road maps, Nautical Charts,
Subway/Bus maps, Weather maps, Geologic maps, Thematic maps, and others.

Thematic Maps are the most common type used in geography and may be used to show the
distribution of a phenomena (climate, language, religion, boundaries, etc.), or to show
relationships between places (population, economic activity, transportation routes, etc.), or to
show the diffusion (movement) of goods, services, ideas, people, etc. (migration routes,
diffusion of cultures, spread of religion, etc.)
Maps and Geography deal with Spatial Distribution, the idea or question, what is the
arrangement on the landscape of the feature being studied. AND then we must answer the
question why is that distribution the way it is, what causes it.

Three aspects or properties of spatial distribution are of importance:

Density, Concentration and Pattern.

Density refers to the frequency with which a feature/phenomenon occurs within a given
area. For example, the number of people per square mile, or the number of trees per acre, etc.
This can be misleading though. The United Kingdom (~58 million people) has a density of
~609 people/mile2, while China (~1.3 billion) has a density of ~311 people/mile2. China has
much more land area than the UK.

Concentration of a feature/phenomenon is the arrangement or spread of that feature over

a unit of area. Where or how are the individual units of the feature located in the landscape.
Are the individual units of the feature clustered together or spread further apart? A phenomenon
may have the same density from one area to another, but a different arrangement within each
area. For example, people across the U.S. are not evenly distributed across the landscape.

Pattern of the feature/phenomenon refers to the geometric arrangement of that feature

across the landscape. For example, is the feature arranged in lines, squares, circles, or maybe a
grid pattern or randomly spaced.

Mental Maps

A mental map is the image in your mind (the cognitive image) of a particular area, place, or
route. What you think of when someone asks you to describe your hometown, or a place you've
visited. How you describe the route to your house or to a particular place. How would you
describe to a visitor how to walk from the Arch on North Campus to Stegeman Coliseum on
South Campus.

This involves the idea of environmental perception, your memories (sights, sounds, smells,
etc.) of a place, or route. Whether you have visited a place or not, environmental perception
shapes your idea or image of a place from any prior knowledge you have of it. For example,
think of a place in the world you would most like to visit. You have an image of it from prior
knowledge you have gained by reading about it or seeing pictures or videos about it, or from
descriptions of the place people who have visited there have told you.
EARTH/SUN RELATIONSHIPS

Greater than (>) 99% of Earth’s energy is from the Sun.

The amount (intensity) of sunlight striking the Earth varies spatially (over space or area) with
latitude. AND varies temporally (over time) with the seasons (day length) and between day
and night. These variations cause an unequal heating of the Earth’s surface which drives the
ocean currents forms wind, which in turn transports energy across the globe.

Earth Movements are Rotation on its axis and Revolution around the Sun.

Rotation is the spinning of the Earth on its axis. It makes one (1) turn about every 24 hours
defining day and night. Thus, the same side of the planet is not always facing the Sun and
solar intensity varies.

The Earth turns counterclockwise, when viewed above the North Pole and the atmosphere
rotates with the Earth, held by force of gravity. A circle of illumination forms between the area
of light (daytime) and dark (nighttime).

Revolution is the movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. It makes one orbit every
365.2422 days (365 days, 5.8 hrs.), commonly called 1 calendar year. The orbit is elliptical so,
at one time of the year it is closer to the Sun than the opposite end of the orbit and solar
intensity varies. These 2 points are known as:

Perihelion is when the Earth and Sun are closest to each other (about 1.47 X 108 km or
91,500,000 miles apart) which occurs on January 4. Thus, a little higher solar intensity.

Aphelion is when the Earth and Sun are the furthest apart (about 1.52 X 108 km or
94,500,000 miles apart), which occurs on July 4. Thus, a little lower solar intensity.

Earth’s Seasons

In general, the Earth’s seasons are due to the Earth’s orientation to the Sun thus the varying
angle the Sun’s rays strike the Earth’s surface. This is brought about by or due to
Revolution, Rotation, Tilt of the Earth on its Axis, Axial parallelism, and Sphericity.

Earth’s orientation to the Sun is a result of the tilt on its axis or the inclination of the axis,
currently 23.5° from a perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. Its Revolution around the
Sun and its daily Rotation on its axis are also major factors. The Earth’s axial parallelism or
the orientation of the North Pole of the Earth toward a specific star and the fact that the Earth
is a sphere (sphericity) are also factors controlling solar intensity at the surface.

Three of these factors, inclination (tilt) of the axis, axial parallelism, and the shape of the
Earth’s orbit (revolution), changes over long periods of time which can cause climate change.
The variation in solar intensity can be seen by the varying day length throughout the year.
Summer has longer days, with a higher solar altitude, thus more intense sunlight, and more
energy. Winter is essentially the opposite of summer, shorter days with a lower solar altitude
thus, less intense sunlight and less energy.

Solar Altitude (SA) is the angle of the Sun above the horizon at any given latitude. At a SA
of 90°, the sun is “directly overhead”, thus yields the potentially maximum solar intensity while
a SA of 45° (the sun is 45° above the horizon) yields a lower solar intensity. The Sun is never
directly overhead (SA = 90°) outside 23.5° N or S latitude (the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn).

Keep in mind that the idea of seasons based on temperature is only meaningful outside the
tropics. Between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn temperatures do not vary
throughout the year as greatly as in the Mid-Latitudes (30°-60°) or at high latitudes (60°-90°).

Solstices and Equinoxes

The five factors above cause the astronomical seasons, with four days of particular interest the
Solstices and the Equinoxes.

The March Equinox occurs on Mar 21–22 which is the start of Spring in the Northern
Hemisphere (NH) and the start of Fall in Southern Hemisphere (SH).

The June Solstice occurs on Jun 21–22 which is the start of Summer in the NH and the start
of Winter in the SH.

The September Equinox occurs on Sep 22–23 which is the start of Fall in the NH and the
start of Spring in the SH.

The December Solstice occurs on Dec 21–22 which is the start of Winter in the NH and the
start of Summer in the SH.

(Know the month in which each of the above events occurs and for each hemisphere.)

Climatologists are not only concerned with the astronomical seasons discussed above, but also
the climatological seasons. These are three whole month periods indicating each season and
those for the NH are as follows:

Winter is Dec, Jan, and Feb. Spring is Mar, Apr, and May.
Summer is Jun, Jul, and Aug. Fall/Autum is Sep, Oct, and Nov.

ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE

 A B C D
--|------------------------------------|------------------------------|--------------------
4.5 billion years 3 - 1.5 bybp .5 bybp
before present (bybp)

A: Earth formed and hot gases escape (process of outgassing).

B: Earth cooled, and gases accumulated. Atmosphere comprised mainly of CO 2 (carbon

dioxide), N2 (nitrogen), and methane. Little to no O2 (oxygen) or O3 (ozone).

C: O2 generating aquatic organisms evolve and oxygen supply slowly rises.

D: Green land plants widespread and the atmosphere has taken on its basic present conditions.
Ozone levels increase and spread.

Main process for increased oxygen levels is photosynthesis.

COMPOSITION and STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a mixture of discrete gases, with solid and liquid particles suspended within
it. Some components are stable, the Constant Gases, while others vary spatially and/or
temporally, the Variable Gases.

The Constant Gases are those found in the same proportions (%) within the lower
atmosphere (up to 50 miles of altitude).

Three Constant Gases make up almost 100% of the atmosphere, Nitrogen (N2) at ~78%,
Oxygen (O2) at ~21%, and Argon (Ar) at ~.9%.

The Variable Gases are those present in differing amounts spatially and/or temporally
within the lower atmosphere. Of the Variable Gases four are of importance by influencing
weather and life systems. Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Water Vapor (H2Ov), and
Ozone (O3).

(Make sure you know the chemical formulas of the gases in bold print.)

Carbon dioxide and Methane are two of the “Greenhouse Gases” which help absorb and
reflect long wave or terrestrial (heat energy) emitted by the Earth, thus help regulate surface
temperatures.

Water vapor, also a “Greenhouse Gas”, is quite variable throughout the atmosphere, ranging
from ~4% by volume in tropical areas to < 1% in some deserts. It is the source materials for
cloud formation and precipitation. It also absorbs radiant energy and helps regulate
surface temperatures and is important in energy transfer within the atmosphere. Water is
the only substance found naturally in all three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas).

Carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor and nitric oxides (and a few others) are all known
as the “Greenhouse Gases”.

Ozone (O3) is concentrated in the stratosphere (10-50 km above the surface) in amounts of
<.00005% by volume of the atmosphere. It is not a “greenhouse gas” but does absorb some
of the damaging UV radiation coming from the sun. It is important not only because it helps
to block out some of the UV radiation, which is harmful to living organisms, but this also helps
regulate surface temperatures because not as much solar radiation reaches the surface.

Ozone Hole is the common term which refers to the phenomena of a depletion of ozone in the
stratosphere around the Earth’s Polar Regions at certain times of the year. This is caused by
increased amounts of a human made chemical known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the
stratosphere. The chlorine atom of the CFC molecule has been shown to break apart ozone
molecules.

Some consequences of less ozone in the stratosphere include increased amounts of UV

radiation reach the earth’s surface. This can lead to increased cases of human skin cancer and
cataracts, and increased damage to other animals and to plants. Also, increased energy
reaching the Earth’s surface thus increased surface temperatures.

Solid and Liquid particles or Aerosols are also present in the atmosphere. Most are too heavy
to stay in the air long and originate from soil, sea salts, smoke/soot, pollen, ash/dust from
volcanoes, and human activities. They can act as surfaces for water vapor (H O ) to condense
2 V
on, may absorb or reflect solar and terrestrial radiation, and help create the various colors of the
sky.

VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Two important characteristics of the atmosphere are Air Pressure and Temperature.

Air Pressure is the force by the weight of a column of air above a given point. At sea level
the average pressure is 1013 mb or 1 kg above every cm2, or 29.92 inches of mercury. There
is an inverse relationship between air pressure and height, such that air pressure decreases
with increasing height.

Regarding volume, 50% of the atmosphere is below 5.6 km (~ 3.36 mi) and 90% of the
atmosphere is below 16 km (~ 9.6 mi).

Temperature (T°) is the average molecular motion of an object. It is a measure of the degree
of hotness or coldness of a substance. T° may decrease or increase with changing altitude in the
atmosphere. In the Troposphere it normally decreases with an increase in altitude at an average
rate of 6.5°C/km, BUT if the temperature increases with altitude, it is called a temperature
inversion.

Any change in T° with a change in altitude is termed a Temperature Lapse Rate.

Layers of the Atmosphere

Two general regions or layers are based on chemical composition, the Homosphere and the
Heterosphere.

The Homosphere is an area of uniform chemical composition in the lower atmosphere

(surface to 80 - 100 km (50 - 63 mi) altitude). The Heterosphere is the area of non-uniform
chemical composition in the upper atmosphere (above the Homosphere).

There are also four layers delineated by temperature changes, the Troposphere, the
Stratosphere, the Mesosphere, and the Thermosphere.

The Troposphere is where T° usually deceases with increasing altitude from the surface to an
average altitude of 8-10 miles. The troposphere is heated from the ground up and this is
where almost all weather takes place.

The Stratosphere lies above the troposphere to an altitude of ~50km (31 mi) and contains the
ozone. For this reason, the T° stays constant or increases with altitude because the absorption
of UV radiation from the sun by the ozone heats up the ozone molecules which then emit
some of the energy as long wave radiation which causes the temperature to increase in this
layer.

The Mesosphere shows a T° decrease with increasing altitude between ~50 and 80 km (31
and 50 mi) because the heating element is the ozone layer below it.

The Thermosphere is the top layer where T° increases dramatically with altitude. It is also,
the area of the atmosphere where the aurora borealis and aurora australis occur (Northern and
Southern Lights).

RADIATION BALANCE

ENERGY is the ability or capacity to do work on some form of matter.

Potential energy is the energy of an object prior to it being released as free energy, commonly
called the energy at rest.

Kinetic energy is the free energy of motion or action.

Heat energy is the kinetic energy generated by the motion of molecules. It is measured as
the sum of all molecular motion of an object.
Radiant energy is the energy transferred as electromagnetic waves by all objects with a T°
>0°K (-273°C or absolute zero).

Energy follows the Laws of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics: In all physical and chemical changes, energy is neither
created nor destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another. (Law of
Conservation of Energy)

Second Law of Thermodynamics: When energy is changed from one form to another, some
of the useful energy is always degraded to lower-quality, more dispersed, less useful energy.

Properties of Radiant Energy or Radiation

Light, heat, radio, X-rays, etc. are all part of the electromagnetic spectrum or radiation. All
objects with a temperature > 0 degrees K emit radiation. The amount of energy emitted by
an object and the wavelength at which it is emitted, is dependent on the temperature of
the object.

As stated in the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, hotter objects emit more energy than cooler
objects, and the intensity of energy radiated increases according to the fourth power of its
absolute T°. I = σT4 where I is the intensity of radiation in watts per square meter, σ is a
constant (5.67 x 10-8 watts per square meter K4), and T = temperature of the body in °Kelvin.
Using this formula, we can calculate that the Earth emits about 390 watts of power/square meter
of its surface (T° = 59 °F). While the Sun emits about 73 million watts per square meter of its
surface (T° = 10,300 °F).

A blackbody is an object that emits the maximum possible radiation at every wavelength.
These are only hypothetical and do not exist in nature. Objects all have a particular
wavelength at which they emit their maximum energy.

According to Wien’s Law, the hotter the emitting body, the shorter the wavelength and
objects have a particular wavelength of peak emission. This can be calculated using the
formula λmax = constant/T, where λmax is the wavelength of energy radiated with greatest
intensity, constant is rounded to 2900, and T is the temperature in Kelvin.

Using both laws, we get that hotter objects emit energy at a shorter wavelength than a
cooler object and a hotter object emits more energy than a cooler object.

For example, the Sun, which has a T° = 6000°K (5700°C or 10,300°F), emits its maximum
energy at .5 micrometers, or at a wavelength which is categorized as Shortwave (SW)
radiation. Also called Solar Radiation.
The Earth, which has a T° = 300°K (15°C or 59°F), emits its maximum energy at 10
micrometers, or at a wavelength categorized as Longwave (LW) radiation. Also called
Terrestrial Radiation.

SOLAR RADIATION

Shortwave (SW) or Solar Radiation is designated as wavelengths of the electromagnetic

spectrum which are ~1 micron and smaller. Visible light is in the wavelengths from .4
microns (violet) to .7 microns (red). The Sun emits wavelengths from ~.2 to 8 micrometers. The
intensity of the Sun’s radiation when it reaches the Earth’s upper atmosphere is known as the
Solar Constant and is 1376 W/m2 (watts per square meter).

As solar radiation passes through Earth’s atmosphere, it may be scattered, reflected, or

absorbed. The amount that reaches the surface may also be reflected or absorbed. This affects
the transfer of this radiant energy to other forms, both within the atmosphere and at the surface.

Scattering is the process of incoming solar radiation (SW) being redirected from its
original path by particles in the atmosphere. Gas molecules scatter blue and violet SW better
than longer waves such as red or orange which affects the sky color we see. Some of this is
redirected back into space and that energy is lost to the Earth. There are two basic types of
scattering, Rayleigh, and Mie.

Rayleigh scattering occurs as sunlight hits gas molecules and is most effective on shorter
wavelengths. It scatters violet and blue wavelengths the most thus producing a blue sky.

Mie scattering occurs when sunlight hits aerosol particles (which are larger than gas
molecules) and is most effective on longer wavelengths. This produces a red sky at sunrise
and sunset.

Reflection is the process whereby a surface turns back a portion of the radiation that
strikes it. It “bounces-off” the surface. Radiation follows the Law of Reflection which states
that the angle of incidence (incoming) = the angle of reflection (outgoing). Regarding the
Earth, 31~% of incoming SW is reflected to space off objects in the atmosphere or at the
surface.

Albedo is the term to describe the percentage of radiation reflected off a surface compared
to the incident radiation striking it. The Albedo of a surface/object will vary dependent on its
composition, color, roughness, and the sun angles. Since ~31% of all incoming SW from the
Sun is reflected to space, the average planetary Albedo is 31. Again, this is lost energy which
cannot be converted to heat energy, chemical energy, etc. Examples illustrating the Albedo of
different surfaces or objects include thick clouds 70-80, thin clouds 30-50, fresh snow 80-85,
old snow 50-60, forest 5-10, grass 20-25, dry earth 15-25, water 3-5 (high sun altitude) to 50-80
(low sun altitude).
Absorption is the process whereby some of the energy of incoming SW radiation is
transferred into the object being struck. This energy is transferred as (changed to) heat
energy, as it increases the internal molecular motion of the object/substance. Since heat energy
is increasing in the object, so will the temperature of the substance/object increase.

Substances in the atmosphere with high absorptive characteristics for SW include O 2, O3, and
H2O, however, overall, the atmosphere is a poor absorber of incoming SW.

Absorption is the opposite of Reflection.

When all three factors (scattering, reflection, and absorption) are considered, of the 100% of
incoming radiation from the Sun that hits the top of the atmosphere ~31% is loss to space
by reflection and scattering, ~24% is absorbed by the atmosphere (clouds, gases, dust),
and ~45% reaches the surface and is absorbed.

TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

Longwave (LW) or Terrestrial (Earth) Radiation is designated as those wavelengths of the

electromagnetic spectrum which are ~1 micron and larger. Earth emits radiant energy at
wavelengths generally in the 1-30 micrometers range or in the infrared portion of the
spectrum. It can be scattered, reflected, and absorbed, with CO2, H2Ov, and CH4 being very
good absorbers of these wavelengths in the atmosphere. Water vapor molecules absorb 5X
what all the other gasses do. Some of the LW radiation emitted by the Earth is thus “trapped”
by these and other gasses in the atmosphere. This process is commonly called the Greenhouse
Effect and what heats the lower atmosphere thus the Earth.

The Greenhouse Effect causes the atmosphere to be heated from the ground up as the
LW radiation is "bounced" back and forth between the atmosphere (clouds, dust, and
Greenhouse Gasses) and the ground. (Remember that the main Greenhouse Gases are
carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane.)

The Greenhouse Effect helps to keep the Earths average temperature warmer than if the
process did not exist. With the Greenhouse Gases in place the Earth’s worldwide average
temperature is 15°C (59°F) and without them it is estimated that the average temperature would
be -18°C (0 °F).

The actual process of warming the atmosphere is a more complicated than the simple
Greenhouse Effect. The basic Greenhouse Effect process does not incorporate the effect of air
movement (convection or vertical movement or horizontally which is advection or wind)
thus, a more accurate term is the Atmospheric Effect which does incorporate these air
movements.

The idea of Global Warming is basically an enhanced Greenhouse Effect, or what I like to call,
the Greenhouse Effect on ‘overload’.
HEAT BALANCE

HEAT energy is measured as the total kinetic energy of all the atoms and molecules of an
object or substance. (Remember temperature is the average kinetic energy.)
so
A calorie is the term which refers to the heat required to raise the T° of 1 gram of water by 1°C.
Heat is often measured in calorie units.

After solar energy is absorbed and changed to heat energy in a substance some of that energy
may be transferred to other molecules of the substance or to other substances. This transfer
of energy is by three primary mechanisms, Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.

Conduction is the process of transferring heat through matter molecule by molecule. This
is done by direct contact and transfer from one molecule to the next. For example, if you heat
one end of a metal rod, then some of that energy will be passed molecule by molecule to the
other end.

Some substances will more easily transfer heat via conduction than others, solids (metals) for
example, and these are known as conductors of heat. Substances which are poor transferors of
heat (air for example) are known as insulators. As heat energy flows through a substance, it
will flow from an area of higher temperature toward an area of lower temperature.

Conduction is an important mechanism for heating the Earth’s surface and the air in
contact with the surface, but not for heating the air high into the atmosphere.

Convection is the process of transferring heat through matter by mass movement of

material within the substance. A portion of the material is heated and moves as a mass
through the substance. For example, as water in a pan is heated on a stove, molecules at the
bottom of the pan are heated and move toward the top of the pan as a mass or group.

Convection is the most important mechanism of vertical heat transfer in the atmosphere. This
transfer of energy from the surface up into the atmosphere is comprised of two processes or
methods which make up the overall process of convection, Sensible Heat Flux (flow) and
Latent Heat Flux (flow).

Sensible Heat Flux is the process of transferring energy using the dry components or
molecules of the air (O2, CO2, N2, etc.).

Latent Heat Flux is the process of transferring energy, using water vapor molecules via
the process of evaporation and condensation.

Latent heat is the heat energy added to a substance without changing the temperature of
the substance but only changing the state if matter if the substance (solid to liquid to gas,
 etc.).

It takes a specific number of calories (energy) to raise the temperature of a molecule of

substance, but then an additional amount to change it from a solid to a liquid, or a liquid to a
gas. The molecules will store this energy and then release it when changing from a gas to a
liquid, or a liquid to a solid. So, when a liquid water molecule at the surface (say in a lake)
changes from a liquid to a gas (evaporates), it takes energy to do this, and that energy is held by
the now gaseous water molecule. If that gaseous water molecule changes back into a liquid
molecule (condenses), then the heat energy it held is released into the air thus transferring that
energy from the surface up into the atmosphere.

Radiation is the wavelike transfer of energy, as discussed earlier, by UV radiation, visible light,
infrared radiation, etc.

EARTH’S HEAT BUDGET refers to how the Earth system balances the energy of
incoming (solar or SW) radiation with outgoing (terrestrial or LW) radiation. It also
encompasses all the various pathways and types of energy involved within the Earth system. If
there was no balance of incoming and outgoing energy, then the Earth would be too cold
or too hot.

The two formulas below simplify the process of radiation and heat balance within the Earth
system. The full processes are more complicated, however.

Q* = net radiation = (SW↓ - SW↑) + (LW↓ - LW↑) = incoming ( ↓ ) minus outgoing ( ↑ )

Q* = QG + QSH + QLE
ground sensible latent
heat heat heat
flux flux flux
(conduction) (dry convection) (wet convection)
(evaporation/condensation)

Remember that the latent heat flux (Qle) is most important in the humid tropics and that
sensible heat flux (Qsh) is most important in the arid tropics.

This balance involves both a temporal (over time) and spatial (over an area/space)
component. It will vary with time periods (daily, monthly, annually, etc.) and in different areas
of the Earth. It varies from daytime versus nighttime, and summer versus winter. It varies from
the tropics versus the polar regions.

The horizontal (spatial) imbalance of energy over the Earth's surface leads to a surplus in the
tropics and a deficit at the poles. The earth system prefers a status of equilibrium, so it tries
to balance this imbalance.
Energy is redistributed by moving excess energy from one place to another across the Earth’s
surface. Fluids are the most efficient method to do this and the two primary fluids on the
Earth are water and air. Energy is thus moved by air flow, atmospheric circulation
(winds) and the flow of water oceanic circulation (currents).

Most of this heat transfer takes place between 30° and 60° latitude N and S (the Mid-Latitudes)
and a large portion of the weather generated on the Earth (Mid-Latitude Wave Cyclones,
hurricanes, etc.) is attributable to this transfer of heat energy.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature (T°) is measured as the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules of an
object or substance. (Remember heat is the total kinetic energy.) When the atoms of a
substance or object are moving faster this means greater kinetic energy, which means the
substance will have a higher T°.

T° is NOT heat such that the amount of heat energy in one object or substance may be different
than another even though they have the same temperature. For example, an 8 oz. glass of water
and a filled bathtub can have the same T°, but will not have the same amount of heat energy
because of different volumes.

Three T° Scales are commonly used, Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. The Fahrenheit scale is
the one most used in the U.S. while Celsius and Kelvin are commonly used in science. The
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are based on the freezing point and boiling point of liquid water.
The Kelvin scale is based on the idea that when no molecular motion is present in a molecule or
substance, thus not emitted any energy, it has a temperature of zero (0). This is called absolute
zero.

Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin

freezing pt
of water 0° 32° 273°

boiling pt
of water 100° 212° 373°

range 100° 180° 100°

0°K = no molecular motion or absolute zero which = -273°C = -459°F. To convert from one
scale to another, the formulas below can be used.

C° = (F° - 32) x 5/9 F° = (C° x 9/5) + 32 K = C + 273 or C = K – 273

When relaying the temperatures of a broad area on a map, it is customary to use isotherms. An
isotherm is a line on a map or chart which connects points of equal temperature.
Basic temperature data includes the average daily maximum T°, average daily minimum T°,
daily mean T°, average daily mean T°, average monthly mean T°, annual mean T°, daily T°
range, and annual T° range.

The average daily maximum T° for any given day is calculated by adding the maximum
T°(high T°) for each occurrence of that day over a 30-year period and dividing by the number of
days used (30). The current 30-year span of data uses 1990-2020 to calculate the averages. For
example, we would add up the max T° for say each January 20th from 1990 to 2020 and divide
by 30. This is then used as the average maximum T° for January 20th from 2021 to 2030.

The average daily minimum T° is calculated in the same manner as above but using the
minimum (low) T° for each day.

The daily mean T° is the average of the daily max and min T° for each day.

The average daily mean T° is the calculated by using the daily mean T° of each day over the 30-
year period.

The average monthly mean T°, the annual mean T°, the daily T° range, and the annual T° range
are other statistics commonly calculated and recorded.

A temperature gradient refers to the difference in temperature between to points. This can
be over a horizontal distance or a vertical distance.

Factors Which Control T°s at the Earth’s Surface

Several factors will determine the temperature of a location from one day to the next,
throughout the year, and over decades. Some of the major factors include the Receipt of Solar
Radiation, the Differential Heating of Land and Water Surfaces, the Geographic Setting and
Position of the location, Ocean Currents, the location’s Elevation, and the Cloud Cover and
Albedo at any given moment.

Receipt of Solar Radiation refers to the amount of solar radiation a location receives. This is
determined by the latitude of the location. On an annual basis, lower latitudes (closer to 0°,
the Equator) receive more solar radiation than higher latitudes (near the Poles). This is the
primary control of temperatures at the earths surface.

Differential Heating of Land and Water Surfaces refers to the fact that land and
water surfaces heat up and cool down at different rates and will reach higher or lower
temperatures when exposed to the same amount of solar radiation. Land surfaces cool and
warm more quickly than water surfaces, and to lower and higher temperatures due to
several factors.

Water is more transparent (SW can pass through it), while land is opaque (thus SW does
not pass through it). Thus, the solar energy striking the land only needs to transfer energy to
the top portion of the ground, but it must try to ‘heat-up’ a greater volume of water. Also, the
specific heat of water is 3X greater than land. (Specific heat is the heat needed to raise 1 gm
of a substance1°C.)

Evaporation from a water body is greater than land. Energy is used not only to raise the
temperature of the water molecules but also to evaporate liquid water molecules thus not all the
energy can be used to simply heat up the water.

Water is turbulent and moves causing water that has been heated to be replaced by cooler
water that must be heated. This movement will be both horizontal and vertical.

Thus, it takes more solar energy (sunlight) to heat up water than it does the same amount of
land given an equal input of solar radiation (energy).

Water has a moderating influence on T° such that average monthly T°s of a location near a
large water body will not vary as much between summer and winter compared to a location far
away from the ocean. Thus, inland locations show a greater temperature variation between
winter and summer compared to a coastal location. This is the idea of continentality.

Geographic Setting and Position refers to the T° differences brought about by a

location being on one side of a continent versus the other. This is related to a location’s
relationship to wind patterns, and whether that wind is coming off a large water body or a large
land surface. This is the idea of windward vs. leeward side of a continent.

Windward refers to the side/direction the wind is coming from, and Leeward refers to the
side/direction the wind is going toward. For North America the windward coast is the West
Coast, and the prevailing winds come off a water surface (the Pacific Ocean), thus
temperatures do not vary as much between winter and summer. The leeward coast is the
East Coast, and the prevailing winds come off a land surface (the continent of North America),
thus temperatures vary more between winter and summer.

Ocean Currents will influence air temperature of both the ocean area and the adjoining
land area where the current is located.

Warm currents will help keep the temperatures higher (warmer) than it would be without
the current. This is especially true in winter. For example, the Gulf Stream helps keep the
British Isles a little warmer than they would be without it.

Conversely Cold currents will help keep the temperature lower (cooler) than it would be
without a current. This is especially true in summer. For example, the California Current helps
keep the U.S. west coast a little cooler than it would be without the current.

Ocean current patterns will also influence precipitation patterns.

Elevation influences T° simply because within the troposphere as elevation/altitude increases,
T° normally decreases. Thus, locations at higher elevations usually have lower average
annual temperatures compared to lower locations.

Cloud Cover and Albedo affect surface temperatures by controlling the levels of solar
and terrestrial radiation at the earths surface. Clouds trap-in terrestrial radiation keeping
the surface warmer (Greenhouse Effect), but they will also reflect solar radiation coming in
causing the surface to be cooler. Thus, a cloudy day or night versus clear night will be
different.

A cloudy day is usually cooler than a clear day and a cloudy night is usually warmer than a
clear night.

Worldwide T° Patterns

The variations in temperature seen across the Earth’s surface are controlled by the above
factors, with one of the key factors being the proportion of land to water over the Earth's
surface. The Southern Hemisphere has a higher percentage of water than does the Northern
Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere has 81% water and 19% land, while the Northern
Hemisphere has 61% water and 39% land. These leads to T°s in the Southern Hemisphere
having less variation and a smaller range on an annual basis. The Northern Hemisphere sees
greater T° variations over the land surfaces and greater wintertime variations with latitude than
summer. Annually the coldest temperatures are usually over land at high latitudes in winter
(Siberia and Antarctica) and the warmest temperatures are usually in the tropical deserts
in the summer (Sahara).

A few other terms related to temperature are Wind Chill Temperature Index, Heat Index,
Heating Degree-Days, and Cooling Degree-Days.

Wind Chill Temperature Index refers to the effect of wind and cold temperatures on a
person’s body. The wind moves heat generated by the body away from the body, thus the body
must work harder to generate more heat. A stronger wind = greater heat loss, which can lead to
hypothermia. Hypothermia in humans is defined as a person with a body core temperature
below 35.0 °C (95.0 °F). In mild hypothermia, there is shivering and mental confusion. In
moderate hypothermia, shivering stops, and confusion increases. In severe hypothermia, there
may be hallucinations. In the most severe situations death can occur.

Heat Index refers to the effect of humidity and temperature on a person’s body which can
lead to an increase of body temperature. The body cools down by sweating because as the
sweat evaporates it takes heat energy with it (latent heat). High humidity (the amount of water
vapor in the air) decreases the body’s ability to cool down by sweating because the air has too
much water vapor and no place for the sweat to evaporate. Thus, the body feels it must work
harder to try and cool down the body. This can lead to heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or heat
stroke, different levels of heat related stress which if severe enough can lead to death.
Heating Degree-Days refers to an index of the amount of seasonal heating needed for
buildings in a location. It is an indication of how much a house’s heating system needs to be
used during the year because of that location’s weather/climate conditions.

Cooling Degree-Days is an index of the amount of seasonal air conditioning required

for a location. It is an indication of how much a houses air conditioning system needs to be
used during the year because of that location’s weather/climate conditions.

Cooler locations use less air conditioning and more heating while warmer locations use more
air conditioning and less heating.

AIR PRESSURE and WIND

Air Pressure is measured as the force of the air pushing down on a surface. In
meteorology it is measured by the height of a column of mercury (Hg) and expressed in units of
millibars (mb) or inches of Hg. It will vary both spatially and temporally, with the average
sea-level barometric pressure being 1013 mb. When displayed on a map, lines of equal
barometric pressure are called isobars.

A High or “heavy” pressure cell is represented by an H

A Low or “light” pressure cell is represented by an L

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) is the difference in biometric (awarmir) pressure

between two points. If this difference is horizontal across the Earth’s surface, this will
initiate the horizontal movement of air or the process of advection, commonly called
WIND.

Air pressure and the PGF determine wind direction and wind strength or speed. A steep
pressure gradient, a strong PGF, will yield stronger (faster) winds. A gentle pressure
gradient, a weak PGF, will yield weaker (slower) wind.

WINDS will flow (blow) from an area of HIGHER pressure towards and area of LOWER
pressure.
These differences in pressure are set-up by differences in T° created by differential heating. A
portion of the Earth’s surface which receives more solar radiation will absorb more energy and
heat-up. This will in turn heat the air above it and this warm air will rise. As the air rises, it
exerts less force/pressure on the surface and an area of Low barometric pressure is
formed.

Conversely, colder air from higher in the Troposphere will sink, exerting more force
(pressure) on the surface. This forms an area of High barometric pressure. Also, as that
sinking air reaches the surface it will spread out away from the center of High pressure and
flow towards an area of Low pressure.

An energy imbalance at the surface leads to a T° difference which leads to a Pressure difference
which leads to the formation of wind. Winds generated by a PGF would flow in relatively
straight paths, but do not because of other forces (Coriolis Force and Friction) acting on them.

Coriolis Force is the apparent deflection in movement of an object (wind, ocean currents,
planes, etc.) from a straight path due to the Earth’s rotation.

The Earth is a sphere which rotates on its axis and the whole Earth’s surface does not spin at the
same velocity. Also, objects that move independent of the Earth’s rotation will be affected by
its rotation. This causes objects moving over the surface to be deflected from a straight path.
This works on both air (wind flow) and water (ocean currents). With your back to the wind (the
direction the wind is coming from), deflection is to the right of the original path in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left of the original path in the Southern Hemisphere.

Characteristics of Coriolis Force (CF)

Coriolis Force is strongest at the poles and zero at the equator. An objects speed will alter
the amount of deflection with a higher speed yielding greater deflection. Coriolis Force alters
direction, but NOT the speed of an object. Coriolis Force affects not only wind, but ocean
currents, flight paths of planes and missiles, etc.

TYPES OF WIND: Geostrophic and Surface

Geostrophic winds (upper-level winds) are those which flow 1-2 kms above the surface.
They are formed, like all winds, by Pressure Gradient Force and affected by Coriolis Force.
This yields a net effect such that when shown on a map, geostrophic winds flow parallel to the
isobars.

Two main patterns of flow thus emerge, Zonal and Meridional.

Zonal flow is a pattern which exhibits a more ‘flattened’ air flow with a primarily E-W or
W-E orientation.

Meridional flow exhibits a more curved flow or pattern with distinct curves, ridges, and
troughs, showing a more N-S orientation in the general E-W, or W-E flow.

Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind pattern of particular interest and importance. It is a

meandering “river” of air 100-300 miles wide, 3000-7000' deep at an attitude between
25,000'-35,000' above sea level. It has average wind speeds between 50 and 110 mph, but can
reach 190 mph. They are highly turbulent, and their speeds and location will vary considerably.
Two of interest are the Polar Jet Stream and the Subtropical Jet Stream.

Rossby Waves are essentially a subset of the Polar Jet Stream stretching from one trough to
another, their wavelengths on the order of thousands of kilometers in length. Often a series of
Rossby Waves circle the planet, forming a meridional pattern of ridges and troughs.

Surface winds are those which flow below 1-2 kms altitude thus are in contact with the
Earth’s surface, unlike geostrophic winds. They are formed, like all winds, by Pressure
Gradient Force and affected by Coriolis Force, but unlike geostrophic winds are also affected
by Friction Force with the ground. This yields a net effect such that when shown on a map,
surface winds flow across the isobars.

The effect of all these forces on wind patterns in relation to a High- and Low-pressure cell
will thus, be different.

Low pressure cells have Cyclonic or counterclockwise flow or circulation, in the NH

(clockwise flow in the SH).

High pressure cells have Anticyclonic or clockwise flow or circulation on the NH

(counterclockwise flow in the SH).

So, remember all the aspects of how winds flow in relation to a High cell versus a Low cell:

In a High-pressure Cell winds sink and diverge (flow away) from the center in a clockwise
rotation/circulation (in the NH).

In a Low-pressure Cell winds converge towards the center in a counterclockwise rotation/

circulation (in the NH) and then rise.

Wind Measurements

Direction is measured by compass directions, north, south, east, west, NE, SW, etc.

Winds are always named for the direction they are coming FROM!

Speed is recorded by an anemometer in mph or kph or knots. Some common wind terms and
the associated wind speeds include calm = <1mph, moderate wind = 13-18mph, gale = 39-
46mph, and hurricane = >73 mph.

Winds are classified at three or four different scales (sizes), Macroscale which includes
Planetary (1000 - 40,000 km across or 620-24,850 miles) such as the Westerlies, and Synoptic
(100 - 1500 km or 62-900 miles) such as hurricanes. Also, at thoscale (16-160 km or 10-100
miles) such as T-storms, and at the Microscale (3.5 km (2 miles) or less) such as tornadoes, and
dust devils.

Types of Local Winds

Land/Sea Breezes often form along ocean coastal areas because of differential heating
between the land and water surfaces, which forms a PGF between the two areas.

A Sea Breeze is one that flows from the sea/ocean towards the land and forms in the late
afternoon when an area of lower pressure forms over the land as the land heats up more
than the water during the day and an area of higher-pressure forms over water which
stays cooler.

A Land Breeze is one that flows from the land toward the sea and forms in the early
morning when an area of lower pressure forms over the water, which is now warmer than
the land, and an area of higher-pressure forms over the land which has cooled down during
the night.

Higher pressure over the land and lower pressure over the water forms a Land Breeze.

Higher pressure over the sea and lower pressure over the land forms a Sea Breeze.

Valley/Mountain Breezes often form in mountainous regions when warm air flows up the
mountain during the day and cool air flows down the mountain at night. This pattern occurs
on the same side of the mountain.

Chinook wind is a warm, dry wind coming off (down) the mountains that started on the
opposite side of the mountain.

The term Chinook wind is used for winds which occur in the Rocky Mts. of the U.S. and
Canada. The term Santa Ana winds is often applied to winds which occur in southern
California as air moving from the interior heads toward the coast.

Katabatic wind is a flow of dense cold air downslope under the influence of gravity in areas
of large continental ice sheets such as Greenland and Antarctica. These may reach speeds
of over 100 mph.

GLOBAL PATTERNS of AIR PRESSURE and WIND

AIR PRESSURE

Air pressure changes both temporally and spatially and is altered by the pattern of land masses
and seasonality of heating or differential heating.
Low Pressure Belts or Cells are areas of convergence at the surface and uplift (rising air),
often producing unstable, severe weather. The two main patterns are the intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ) and the subpolar lows (SPL).

High Pressure Belts or Cells are areas of divergence at the surface and subsidence (sinking
air), often producing stable, nice weather. The two main patterns are the subtropical highs
(STH), and the polar highs (PH).

Know the major pressure belts/cells: ITCZ, STH, SPL, PHP. Know whether the air is rising
or sinking, converging, or diverging for each of these.

WINDS

As discussed earlier, winds are controlled by Pressure Gradient Force, Coriolis Force, and
Friction Force. On a global scale, a simplified 3-cell model can be identified, but the
interaction of these cells and overall weather processes forms a more complex system of winds.

Know the major wind patterns: Northeast Trade Winds (0°-30° N), the Southeast Trade
Winds (0°-30° S), the Westerlies (30°-60° in both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere),
and the Easterlies (60°-90° in both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere). Know at what
latitudes they will be found, and which direction they are moving.