SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGY NOTES

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES

DEFINITION OF A SYSTEM

A system is a collection of interrelated components that work together to

realize some common objective. A system can be part of a large system and
at the same time may have its own sub systems. Basically there are three
major components in every system, namely input, processing and output.

DEFINITION OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM

An information system is a system of interrelated components working
together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support
decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an
organization. Examples of IS in Organizations; Accounting IS, Human
Resource IS, Finance IS, Management Information Systems etc.
IS DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES
Refers to the framework that is used to build, structure, plan, and control the
process of developing an IS. System design methodologies are a discipline
within the software development industry that seek to provide a framework
for activity capture, storage, transformation and dissemination of
information, so as to enable the development of computer systems that are

fit for a purpose. A wide variety of such frameworks have evolved over the
years, each with its own recognized strengths and weaknesses. However,
one system development methodology is not necessarily suitable for use by
all projects hence requires a thorough analysis.
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The system-development life cycle enables users to transform a newly-
developed project into an operational one. The System Development Life
Cycle, "SDLC" for short, is a multistep, iterative process, structured in a
methodical way. This process is used to model or provide a framework for
technical and non-technical activities to deliver a quality system which
meets or exceeds a business’ expectations or manage decision-making
progression.

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The SDLC highlights different stages (phrases or steps) of the development

process. The life cycle approach is used so users can see and understand
what activities are involved within a given step. It is also used to let them
know that at any time, steps can be repeated or a previous step can be
reworked when needing to modify or improve
Traditionally, the systems-development life cycle consisted of five stages as
shown in the figure below.

The five stages have been increased to seven phases over time. Increasing
the number of steps helped systems analysts to define clearer actions to
achieve specific goals.

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The seven phases of the SDLC are described as follows:

1. Planning
This is the first phase in the systems development process. It identifies
whether or not there is the need for a new system to achieve a business’
strategic objectives. This is a preliminary plan (or a feasibility study) for a
company’s business initiative to acquire the resources to build on an
infrastructure to modify or improve a service. The company might be trying
to meet or exceed expectations for their employees, customers and

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stakeholders too. The purpose of this step is to find out the scope of the
problem and determine solutions. Resources, costs, time, benefits and other
items should be considered at this stage. Specifically, in this stage the
following activities are done:

• Define the problem and scope of existing system.

• Overview the new system and determine its objectives.
• Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.
• During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of
system are also considered.
• A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this
phase.
2. Systems Analysis
The second phase is where businesses will work on the source of their
problem or the need for a change. In the event of a problem, possible
solutions are submitted and analyzed to identify the best fit for the ultimate
goal(s) of the project. This is where teams consider the functional
requirements of the project or solution. It is also where system analysis takes
place—or analyzing the needs of the end users to ensure the new system
can meet their expectations. Systems analysis is vital in determining what a
business’ needs are, as well as how they can be met, who will be responsible
for individual pieces of the project, and what sort of timeline should be
expected.
A feasibility analysis is also done at this stage to see whether the system
development is worth undertaking. There are mainly five types of feasibilities
checks:

• Economic: Can we complete the project within the budget or not?

• Legal: Can we handle this project as cyber law and other regulatory
framework/compliances.
• Operation feasibility: Can we create operations which is expected by
the client?
• Technical: Need to check whether the current computer system can
support the software
• Schedule: Decide that the project can be completed within the given
schedule or not
During this stage the following is accomplished:

• Gather, analyze, and validate the information.

• Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.

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Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.

•
Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system
•
goal.
• A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies
the software, hardware, functional, and network requirements of the
system is prepared at the end of this phase.
There are several tools businesses can use that are specific to the second
phase. They include:

• CASE (Computer Aided Systems/Software Engineering)

• Requirements gathering
• Structured analysis
3. Systems Design.
The third phase describes, in detail, the necessary specifications, features
and operations that will satisfy the functional requirements of the proposed
system which will be in place. This is the step for end users to discuss and
determine their specific business information needs for the proposed system.
It’s during this phase that they will consider the essential components
(hardware and/or software) structure (networking capabilities), processing
and procedures for the system to accomplish its objectives.
The Design phase models the way a software application will work. Some
aspects of the design include:

i. Architecture – Specifies programming language, industry practices,

overall design, and use of any templates or boilerplate
ii. User Interface – Defines the ways customers interact with the
software, and how the software responds to input
iii. Platforms – Defines the platforms on which the software will run, such
as Apple,
Android, Windows version, Linux, or even gaming consoles iv.
Programming – Not just the programming language, but including methods
of solving problems and performing tasks in the application
v. Communications – Defines the methods that the application can
communicate with other assets, such as a central server or other
instances of the application
vi. Security – Defines the measures taken to secure the application, and
may include
SSL traffic encryption, password protection, and secure storage of user
credentials

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There are two kinds of design documents developed in this phase:

Logical design or High-Level Design (HLD)

• This is a brief description and name of each module.

• It is an outline about the functionality of every module.
• It describes the Interface relationship and dependencies between
modules
• Identifies Database tables along with their key elements
• Complete architecture diagrams along with technology details
Physical design or Low-Level Design (LLD)

• Functional logic of the modules is defined

• Actual database tables, which include type and size
• Complete detail of the interface designs
• Addresses all types of dependency issues
• Listing of error messages
• Complete input and outputs for every module
4. Development
The fourth phase is when the real work begins—in particular, when a
programmer, network engineer and/or database developer are brought on to
do the major work on the project. This work includes using a flow chart to
ensure that the process of the system is properly organized. The
development phase marks the end of the initial section of the process.
Additionally, this phase signifies the start of production. The development
stage is also characterized by instillation and change. Focusing on training
can be a huge benefit during this phase.
5. Integration and Testing
The fifth phase involves systems integration and system testing (of programs
and procedures)—normally carried out by a Quality Assurance (QA)
professional—to determine if the proposed design meets the initial set of
business goals. Testing may be repeated, specifically to check for errors,
bugs and interoperability. This testing will be performed until the end user
finds it acceptable. Another part of this phase is verification and validation,
both of which will help ensure the program’s successful completion.
6. Implementation
The sixth phase is when the majority of the code for the program is written.
Additionally, this phase involves the actual installation of the newly-
developed system. This step puts the project into production by moving the

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data and components from the old system and placing them in the new
system via a direct cutover. While this can be a risky (and complicated)
move, the cutover typically happens during off-peak hours, thus minimizing
the risk. Both system analysts and end-users should now see the realization
of the project that has implemented changes.
7. Operations and Maintenance
The seventh and final phase involves maintenance and regular required
updates. This step is when end users can fine-tune the system, if they wish,
to boost performance, add new capabilities or meet additional user
requirements.
Importance of the SDLC
It is important to have an SDLC in place

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It helps to transform the idea of a project into a functional and

completely operational structure.
• In addition to covering the technical aspects of system development,
SDLC helps with process development, change management, user
experience, and policies.
• Another benefit of an SDLC is that it allows for planning ahead of time,
determine costs and staffing decisions, define goals, measure
performance, and validate points at each phase of the cycle to boost
the quality of the final product.
System Development Methodologies/Approaches
There is flexibility within the SDLC. In recent decades a number of different
methodologies have gained popularity. These include the following:
1. Waterfall
The waterfall approach is one of the oldest SDLC methodology, but it has
fallen out of favor in recent years. This methodology involves a rigid
structure that demands all system requirements be defined at the very start
of a project. Only then can the design and development stages begin. Once
development is complete, the product is tested against the initial
requirements and rework is assigned. Companies in the software industry
typically need more flexibility than what the waterfall methodology offers,
but it still remains a strong solution for certain types of projects especially
government contractors.

The waterfall method is a rigid linear model that consists of sequential

phases (requirements, design, implementation, verification, maintenance)

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
focusing on distinct goals. Each phase must be 100% complete before the
next phase can start. There’s usually no process for going back to modify the
project or direction.
Pros:

• The linear nature of the waterfall development method makes it easy

to understand and manage.
• Projects with clear objectives and stable requirements can best use the
waterfall method.
• Less experienced project managers and project teams, as well as
teams whose composition changes frequently, may benefit the most
from using the waterfall development methodology.
• Ideal for supporting less experienced project teams and project
managers, or project teams whose composition fluctuates.
• The orderly sequence of development steps and strict controls for
ensuring the adequacy of documentation and design reviews helps
ensure the quality, reliability, and maintainability of the developed
software.
• Progress of system development is measurable
Cons:

• The waterfall development method is often slow and costly due to its
rigid structure and tight controls.
• These drawbacks can lead waterfall method users to explore other
software development methodologies.
• Inflexible, slow, costly and cumbersome due to significant structure
and tight controls.
• Little room for use of iteration, which can reduce manageability if used.
• Depends upon early identification and specification of requirements,
yet users may not be able to clearly define what they need early in the
project.
• Problems are often not discovered until system testing.
• System performance cannot be tested until the system is almost fully
coded
• Difficult to respond to changes. Changes that occur later in the life
cycle are more costly and are thus discouraged.
• Produces excessive documentation and keeping it updated as the
project progresses is time-consuming.

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• Written specifications are often difficult for users to read and

thoroughly appreciate.
• Promotes the gap between users and developers with clear division of
responsibility.
Situations where most appropriate

• System performance cannot be tested until the system is almost fully

coded
Difficult to respond to changes. Changes that occur later in the life
cycle are more costly and are thus discouraged.
• Produces excessive documentation and keeping it updated as the
project progresses is time-consuming.
• Written specifications are often difficult for users to read and
thoroughly appreciate.
• Promotes the gap between users and developers with clear division of
responsibility.
2. Prototyping
The prototyping methodology is a systems development method in which a
prototype is built, tested and then reworked as necessary until an acceptable
outcome is achieved from which the complete system or product can be
developed. This model works best in scenarios where not all of the project
requirements are known in detail ahead of time. It is an iterative, trial-and-
error process that takes place between the developers and the users.
Steps of the prototyping model

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In most cases, the steps of the prototyping model are as follows:

1. The new system requirements are defined in as much detail as

possible. This usually involves interviewing a number of users
representing all the departments or aspects of the existing system.
2. A preliminary, simple design is created for the new system. A first
prototype of the new system is constructed from the preliminary
design. This is usually a scaled-down system, and represents an
approximation of the characteristics of the final product.
3. The users thoroughly evaluate the first prototype and note its
strengths and weaknesses, what needs to be added and what should to
be removed. The developer collects and analyzes the remarks from the
users.
4. The first prototype is modified, based on the comments supplied by the
users, and a second prototype of the new system is constructed. The
second prototype is evaluated in the same manner as was the first
prototype.
Steps 3 and 4 are iterated as many times as necessary, until the users are
satisfied that the prototype represents the final product desired. The final
system is constructed, based on the final prototype. The final system is
thoroughly evaluated and tested. Routine maintenance is carried out on a
continuing basis to prevent large-scale failures and to minimize downtime.
Types of prototype models

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There are a few types of prototype models that can be implemented by

development teams based on their needs:

• Rapid throwaway- This method involves exploring ideas by quickly

developing a prototype based on preliminary requirements that is then
revised through customer feedback. The name rapid throwaway refers
to the fact that each prototype is completely discarded and may not be
a part of the final product.
• Evolutionary- This approach uses a continuous, working prototype that
is refined after each iteration of customer feedback. Because each
prototype is not started from scratch, this method saves time and
effort.
• Incremental- This technique breaks the concept for the final product
into smaller pieces, and prototypes are created for each one. In the
end, these prototypes are merged into the final product.
• Extreme- This prototype model is used specifically for web
development. All web prototypes are built in an HTML format with a
services layer and are then integrated into the final product.
Advantages of the prototyping model
Using a prototype model can bring multiple advantages, including:

• Customers get a say in the product early on, increasing customer

satisfaction.
• Missing functionality and errors are detected easily.
• Prototypes can be reused in future, more complicated projects.
It emphasizes team communication and flexible design practices.
• Users have a better understanding of how the product works.
• Quicker customer feedback provides a better idea of customer needs.
Disadvantages of the prototyping model
The main disadvantage of this methodology is that it is more costly in terms
of time and money when compared to alternative development methods,
such as the spiral or Waterfall model. Since in most cases the prototype is
discarded, some companies may not see the value in taking this approach.
Additionally, inviting customer feedback so early on in the development
lifecycle may cause problems. One problem is that there may be an
excessive amount of change requests that may be hard to accommodate.
Another issue could arise if after seeing the prototype, the customer
demands a quicker final release or becomes uninterested in the product.

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
Situations where most appropriate

• Project is large with many users, interrelationships, and functions,

where project risk relating to requirements definition needs to be
reduced  Project objectives are unclear.
• User is not fully knowledgeable.
• No need exists to absolutely minimize resource consumption
• Pressure exists for immediate implementation of something
3. Rapid application development
Rapid application development (RAD) is a condensed development process
that produces a high-quality system with low investment costs.

Steps in Rapid Application Development

Step 1. Define and finalize project requirements
At the very beginning, rapid application development sets itself apart from
traditional software development models. It doesn’t require you to sit with
end users and get a detailed list of specifications; instead, it asks for a broad
requirement. The broad nature of the requirements helps you give specific
requirements at different points of the development cycle
During this step, stakeholders sit together to define and finalize project
requirements such as project goals, expectations, timelines, and budget.
When you have clearly defined and scoped out each aspect of the project’s
requirements, you can seek management approvals.
Step 2: Begin building prototypes
As soon as you finish scoping the project, you can begin development.
Designers and developers will work closely with clients to create and
improve upon working prototypes until the final product is ready.
This is where the actual development takes place. Instead of following a
strict set of requirements, developers create prototypes with different
features and functions as fast as they can. These prototypes are then shown

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to the clients who decide what they like and what they don’t. More often
than not, these prototypes are quickly made to work, just to show off certain
features, without proper polish. This is normal, and the final product is only
created during the finalization stage where the client and developer can both
agree on the final product.
Step 3: Gather user feedback
In this step, prototypes and beta systems are converted into working models.
Developers then gather feedback from users to tweak and improve
prototypes and create the best possible product.
In this stage, feedback on what’s good, what’s not, what works, and what
doesn’t is shared. Feedback isn’t limited to just pure functionality, but also
visuals and interfaces. With this feedback in mind, prototyping continues.
These two steps are repeated until a final product can be realized that fits
both the developers’ and client’s requirements Step 4: Test, test, test
This step requires you to test your software product and ensure that all its
moving parts work together as per client expectations. Continue
incorporating client feedback as the code is tested and retested for its
smooth functioning.
Step 5: Present your system
This is the final step before the finished product goes to launch. Here,
features, functions, aesthetics, and interface of the software are finalized
with the client. Stability, usability,

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and maintainability are of paramount importance before delivering to the

client. It also involves data conversion and user training.
Advantages of RAD Disadvantages of RAD
Requirements can be changed at Needs strong team collaboration
any time
Encourages and priorities Cannot work with large teams
customer feedback
Reviews are quick Needs highly skilled developers
Development time is drastically Needs user requirement throughout the life
reduced cycle of the product
More productivity with fewer Only suitable for projects which have a small
people development time
Time between prototypes and More complex to manage when compared to
iterations is short other models
Integration isn’t a problem, since Only systems which can be modularised can
it integrates from project be developed using Rapid application
inception development
RAD is used when

• The team includes programmers and analysts who are experienced

with it
• There are pressing reasons for speeding up application development
• The project involves a novel ecommerce application and needs quick
results
• Users are sophisticated and highly engaged with the goals of the
company
• Senior management commitment exists to ensure end-user
involvement
• Project is of small to medium scale and of short duration
• Application is highly interactive, has a clearly defined user group.
4. Spiral
The spiral methodology allows teams to adopt multiple SDLC models based
on the risk patterns of the given project. A blend of the iterative and
waterfall approaches, the challenge with the spiral model is knowing when is
the right moment to move onto the next phase. Business that aren’t sure
about their requirements or expect major edits during their mid to high-risk
project can benefit from the scalability of this methodology. Steps in the
spiral methodology

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1. Determine the Objectives: Similar to the system conception phase of

the Waterfall Model. Objectives are determined, possible obstacles are
identified and alternative approaches are weighed.
2. Identify and resolve risks: Possible alternatives are examined by the
developer, and associated risks/problems are identified. Resolutions of
the risks are evaluated and weighed in the consideration of project
continuation. Sometimes prototyping is used to clarify needs.
3. Development and test: Detailed requirements are determined and the
software piece is developed.
4. Plan the next iteration: The customer is given an opportunity to
analyze the results of the version created in the Engineering step and
to offer feedback to the developer

Pros:

• The risk assessment component of the Spiral Model provides both

developers and customers with a measuring tool that earlier Process
Models do not have. The practical nature of this tool helps to make the
Spiral Model a more realistic Process Model than some of its
predecessors.
• Focuses attention on reuse
• Accommodates changes, growth
• Eliminates errors and unattractive choices early
• Limits to how much is enough (not too much design, reqs, etc)
• Treats development, maintenance same way
Cons:

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• It may be difficult to convince customers that the evolutionary

approach is controllable
• It demands considerable risk assessment expertise and relies on the
expertise for success
• Need for further elaboration of project steps (clearer milestones)
Situations where Spiral is most suitable

• Risk avoidance is a high priority

• If a project is to benefit from a mix of other development
methodologies.
• A high degree of accuracy is essential
• Implementation has priority over functionality which can be added in
the later versions
5. End user development (EUD)
EUD is "a set of methods, techniques and tools that allow users of software
systems, who are acting as non-professional software developers, at some
point to create, modify, or extend a software artifact" (Lieberman et al
2006). In particular, EUD enables end users to design or customize the user
interface and functionality of software. This is valuable because end users
know their own context and needs better than anybody else, and they often
have real-time awareness of shifts in their respective domains. Through EUD,
end users can tune software to fit their requirements more closely than
would be possible without EUD.
End users usually do not have training in professionals' programming
languages, formal development processes, or modeling and diagramming
notations. Moreover, end users often lack the time or motivation to learn
these traditional techniques, since end users usually write code in order to
achieve a short- or medium-term goal rather than to create a durable
software asset that will produce a continuing revenue stream. Consequently,
supporting EUD requires providing appropriate tools, social structures, and
development processes that are highly usable, quickly learned, and easily
integrated into domain practice. EUD overlaps with two similar concepts,
end-user programming and end-user software engineering. End-user
programming (EUP) enables end users to create their own programs (Ko et al
2011). This subset of EUD is the most mature from a research and practice
perspective, so we focus a later section of this article on that portion of EUD.
The difference between EUP and EUD is that EUD methods, techniques, and
tools span the entire software development lifecycle, including modifying
and extending software, not just the "create" phase.

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End-user-developed systems can be completed more rapidly than those

developed through the conventional systems life cycle. Allows users to
specify their own business needs Improves requirements gathering. Leads to
a higher level of user involvement and satisfaction with the system. Focus on
the fundamental activities of any information system: input, processing,
output, storage, and control.
Advantages of EUD

• Frees IS resources for higher priority projects.

• May help reduce the hidden backlog.
• Faster design/implementation cycle.
• More acceptable to users.
• Reduces communications problems between users and IS.
• Encourages innovation and creative solutions.
Disadvantages of EUD

• Duplication or effort and waste of resources

• Greatly increased costs
• Loss of control over data
• Loss of control of quality in both programs and data
• Incompatibles prevent sharing
• Can be used to circumvent control processes, such as the steering
committee
• Generally, produces narrow, inflexible systems with short lives
Choosing the Best SDLC Methodology
When selecting the best SDLC approach for your organization or company,
it's important to remember that one solution may not fit every scenario or
business. Certain projects may run best with a waterfall approach, while
others would benefit from the flexibility in the agile or iterative models.
Before deploying an SDLC approach for your teams and staff, consider
contacting a knowledgeable IT consultant at Innovative Architects for advice.
Our experts have seen how the different models function best in different
industries and corporate environments. We are adept at finding a good fit for
any situation.
Each one has its own strengths and weaknesses and works effectively in
different situations. When choosing your development methodology, think
about combining the elements of each method that work best for your team

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and your current project. In this way, you can create a hybrid development
methodology that’ll get you to production securely and efficiently.

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