(ISBN -978-81-967770-9-8)

2
Soil Science and Fertility
Management
Author
1
Vishnu Moond, Anchita Borah, Hiren Das, Jogendra Kumar
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, RNT College of Agriculture Kapasan
(MPUA&T-Udaipur) Chittorgarh, Rajasthan
2
Department of Soil science and agricultural chemistry Central Agricultural
University, Imphal
3
Department of Soil science and agricultural chemistry Assam Agricultural
University, Jorhat
4
Deptt. of Agricultural Chemistry, RMP (PG) College, Gurukul Narsan,
Haridwar (Uttrakhand) Pin: 247670
*Corresponding author's email: [email protected]
Abstract

From soil composition and structure to nutrient dynamics and

microbial interactions, the chapter elucidates the intricate web of factors
influencing the fertility of agricultural soils. It examines the impact of
human activities, such as agricultural practices and land use changes, on
soil quality and sustainability. The chapter also explores advanced soil
fertility management techniques, including precision agriculture, organic
farming, and the use of biofertilizers, emphasizing their role in optimizing
nutrient availability and promoting sustainable agriculture. By offering
insights into the dynamic relationship between soil science and fertility
management, this chapter serves as a valuable resource for researchers,

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
agronomists, and policymakers, contributing to the ongoing discourse on
maintaining healthy soils for enhanced agricultural productivity and
environmental stewardship.

Keywords: Fertility, Horizon, Leaching, Porosity, Soil science

1. Introduction to Soil Science

Definition and Scope of Soil Science:

Soil science is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on the study

of soil, encompassing various aspects related to its formation,
classification, mapping, and fertility. It draws knowledge from several
scientific disciplines, including geology, chemistry, biology, and
environmental science. The scope of soil science includes understanding
the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil, as well as its
interactions with plants, animals, and the atmosphere.

Importance of Soil in Agriculture:

Soil plays a pivotal role in agriculture as the medium that supports

plant growth. Its importance lies in several key functions:

 Nutrient Supply: Soil serves as a reservoir of essential nutrients

(such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) required for plant
growth.

 Water Retention: Soil acts as a water storage system, regulating

the availability of water to plants.

 Root Anchorage: Plants anchor their roots in the soil, providing

stability and support.

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 Treasure of Agronomy

 Biological Activity: Soil hosts a variety of microorganisms that

contribute to nutrient cycling and other biological processes
essential for plant health.

 Physical Support: Soil provides a physical substrate for plants,

allowing them to establish root systems.

Soil as a Natural Resource:

The importance of soil as a natural resource extends beyond agriculture:

 Ecosystem Services: Soil provides vital ecosystem services,

including water filtration, carbon storage, and habitat for a
diverse range of organisms.

 Biodiversity Support: Soil supports a myriad of organisms,

from microscopic bacteria to larger animals, contributing to
overall biodiversity.

 Cultural and Historical Significance: Soil plays a role in

cultural practices, and different soil types often have historical
significance in various regions.

2. Soil Formation and Classification

Soil Formation Processes:

Soil formation, also known as pedogenesis, is a complex process

influenced by various factors. The key soil formation processes include:

 Weathering: This is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into

smaller particles due to physical, chemical, and biological
processes. Weathering contributes to the formation of the parent
material for soil.

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
 Leaching: The removal of minerals and nutrients from the soil
through the percolation of water. Leaching can lead to the
development of distinct soil horizons.

 Organic Matter Accumulation: The decomposition of plant

and animal remains contributes to the accumulation of organic
matter in the soil, influencing its fertility.

 Horizon Development: Over time, soil develops distinct layers

known as horizons, each with unique characteristics. These
horizons are formed through the interactions of weathering,
leaching, and organic matter accumulation.

Soil Horizons and Profiles:

Soil horizons are the distinct layers that develop within a soil profile,
from the surface to the underlying rock or unweathered material. The
major soil horizons, known as the soil profile, include:

 O Horizon (Organic Horizon): This uppermost layer consists

mainly of organic matter, such as decomposed plant material. It
is common in forested areas.

 A Horizon (Topsoil): This layer is rich in minerals and organic

material, making it conducive to plant growth. It is often the
most fertile layer.

 E Horizon (Leached Horizon): This layer is characterized by

the leaching of minerals, particularly iron and aluminum, leaving
behind sand and silt particles.

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 Treasure of Agronomy

 B Horizon (Subsoil): Enriched with minerals leached from

above horizons, the subsoil often accumulates minerals like iron,
clay, or organic material.

 C Horizon (Parent Material): This layer consists of weathered

rock material, representing the unconsolidated material from
which the soil develops.

Figure 1. Soil horizon

Soil Taxonomy and Classification Systems:

Soil taxonomy involves the systematic classification of soils into

categories based on their properties. The United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) soil taxonomy is a widely used system, which
includes:

 Order: The broadest category that classifies soils based on

general characteristics.

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
 Suborder: A more specific classification within an order, based
on additional soil properties.

 Great Group: Further subdivision based on additional

properties, providing more detailed information about soil
characteristics.

 Subgroup: The finest level of classification, offering specific

details about the soil's properties and behavior.

3. Physical Properties of Soil

Soil Texture and Structure:

Soil Texture: Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt,
and clay particles in a soil. These three components make up the mineral
fraction of the soil.

 Sand: The largest particles, providing good aeration and

drainage.

 Silt: Intermediate-sized particles that contribute to fertility.

 Clay: The smallest particles, influencing water retention and

nutrient availability.

Soil Structure: Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles

into aggregates or clumps. Good soil structure is crucial for root
penetration, water movement, and aeration.

 Granular Structure: Aggregates are rounded, like cookie

crumbs.

 Blocky Structure: Aggregates are block-like.

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 Treasure of Agronomy

 Platy Structure: Aggregates are flat and platelike.

 Prismatic Structure: Aggregates are vertically oriented

columns.

Soil Porosity and Permeability:

Soil Porosity: Porosity refers to the volume of pore spaces in the soil.
Pores can be filled with air or water and are crucial for the movement of
gases, water, and the growth of roots.

 Macropores: Larger pores that allow for the movement of air

and water.

 Micropores: Smaller pores that retain water and nutrients.

Soil Permeability: Permeability is the ability of soil to transmit water

and air. It is influenced by soil texture and structure.

 Sandy Soils: Generally have high permeability, allowing water

to move rapidly.

 Clayey Soils: Tend to have lower permeability, leading to slower

water movement.

Soil Water Retention and Movement:

Soil Water Retention: Soil's ability to retain water is influenced by

texture and organic matter. Clay soils retain more water than sandy soils
due to their finer particles.

 Field Capacity: The amount of water soil can hold against

gravity.

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
 Wilting Point: The moisture level where plants can no longer
extract water effectively.

Soil Water Movement: Water movement in soil is affected by gravity,

capillary action, and root uptake. It follows paths of least resistance
through pore spaces.

 Capillary Rise: Water moves upward against gravity through

capillary action.

 Saturated Flow: Rapid movement of water through larger pores

when the soil is saturated.

 Unsaturated Flow: Slower movement of water through partially

filled pores.

4. Chemical Properties of Soil

Soil pH and Buffering Capacity:

Soil pH: Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. It is

determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. The
pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Values below 7
indicate acidity, and values above 7 indicate alkalinity.

 Acidic Soils (pH < 7): Can limit the availability of certain
nutrients like phosphorus and calcium.

 Alkaline Soils (pH > 7): May lead to nutrient deficiencies,

especially for elements like iron and manganese.

Buffering Capacity: Buffering capacity is the soil's ability to resist

changes in pH. Soils with high buffering capacity can resist rapid changes
in pH, while soils with low buffering capacity are more prone to pH

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 Treasure of Agronomy

fluctuations.

 High Buffering Capacity: Resists rapid changes, providing

stability in pH.

 Low Buffering Capacity: Prone to pH fluctuations, making it

challenging to maintain a stable pH.

Soil Nutrients and Their Functions:

The major nutrients are divided into macronutrients and micronutrients.

Macronutrients:

1. Nitrogen (N): Essential for the formation of proteins, enzymes,

and chlorophyll.

2. Phosphorus (P): Important for energy transfer, root

development, and flowering.

3. Potassium (K): Aids in photosynthesis, water uptake, and

overall plant vigor.

4. Calcium (Ca): Supports cell wall structure and root

development.

5. Magnesium (Mg): Essential component of chlorophyll, involved

in photosynthesis.

Micronutrients:

1. Iron (Fe): Involved in chlorophyll synthesis and electron

transport.

2. Manganese (Mn): Aids in photosynthesis and enzyme

activation.

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
3. Zinc (Zn): Essential for enzyme function and seed development.

4. Copper (Cu): Important for enzyme activation and chlorophyll

formation.

5. Boron (B): Supports cell wall formation and seed development.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and Anion Exchange:

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): CEC is a measure of a soil's ability

to retain and supply cations (positively charged ions) to plant roots. Soils
with high CEC can hold more nutrients, reducing the risk of nutrient
leaching.

 Clay Soils: Typically have higher CEC due to their higher

surface area and negative charges.

 Sandy Soils: Have lower CEC, making them less capable of

holding onto nutrients.

Anion Exchange: Similar to cations, soil also has the capacity to retain
and supply anions (negatively charged ions) to plant roots. Anion
exchange is crucial for nutrient availability, especially for elements like
phosphorus and sulfur.

5. Soil Fertility

Definition and Factors Influencing Fertility:

Definition of Soil Fertility: Soil fertility refers to the soil's ability to

provide essential nutrients to plants in adequate quantities and in the right
proportions for optimal growth. Fertile soil supports healthy plant
development, leading to better crop yields.

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Factors Influencing Soil Fertility: Several factors influence soil fertility,

including:

1. Nutrient Content: The availability of essential nutrients in the

soil, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
micronutrients.

2. pH Level: Soil pH affects nutrient availability. Most plants

prefer a slightly acidic to neutral pH for optimal nutrient uptake.

3. Organic Matter: The presence of organic matter enhances soil

fertility by improving soil structure, water retention, and nutrient
availability.

4. Microbial Activity: Soil microbes play a crucial role in nutrient

cycling, making nutrients available to plants.

5. Climate and Weathering: Climate influences the rate of

weathering, affecting the release of nutrients from rocks and
minerals.

6. Parent Material: The type of rock or mineral from which the

soil forms influences its mineral composition and nutrient
content.

Soil Amendments and Organic Matter:

Soil Amendments: Soil amendments are materials added to the soil to

improve its physical and chemical properties. Common soil amendments
include:

 Lime: Used to adjust soil pH, particularly in acidic soils.

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 Gypsum: Aids in improving soil structure and drainage,
especially in clayey soils.

 Organic Materials: Compost, well-rotted manure, and cover

crops contribute organic matter, enhancing soil fertility.

Organic Matter: Organic matter is composed of decomposed plant and

animal residues. It significantly influences soil fertility by:

 Improving Soil Structure: Organic matter enhances soil

aggregation, promoting good soil structure.

 Nutrient Content: Decomposition releases nutrients, making

them available to plants.

 Water Retention: Organic matter improves the soil's water-

holding capacity.

Nutrient Availability and Plant Uptake:

Nutrient Availability: Nutrient availability refers to the concentration

and form of nutrients in the soil solution that plants can take up. It is
influenced by factors such as soil pH, microbial activity, and the presence
of organic matter.

 pH Influence: Soil pH affects nutrient solubility and,

consequently, their availability to plants.

 Microbial Activity: Soil microorganisms play a role in nutrient

cycling, making nutrients available to plant roots.

 Soil Texture: The texture of the soil influences nutrient retention

and release.

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Plant Uptake: Plant uptake is the process by which plants absorb

nutrients from the soil through their roots. Plants take up nutrients in
various forms, primarily as ions dissolved in water.

 Root Absorption: Plant roots absorb essential nutrients in the

form of ions through active and passive transport mechanisms.

 Water Transport: Nutrients are often transported with water

from the soil to various parts of the plant.

7. Fertilizers and Fertilization

Types of Fertilizers:

There are various types of fertilizers, classified based on their nutrient

content and composition:

1. Nitrogen Fertilizers:

 Ammonium Nitrate, Urea, Ammonium Sulfate: These

provide nitrogen, crucial for plant growth, leaf
development, and overall vigor.

2. Phosphorus Fertilizers:

 Superphosphate, Triple Superphosphate: These supply

phosphorus, essential for root development, flowering,
and fruiting.

3. Potassium Fertilizers:

 Potassium Chloride, Potassium Sulfate: These provide

potassium, vital for plant stress resistance, water uptake,
and overall plant health.

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
4. Compound Fertilizers:

 NPK Blends: These contain a mix of nitrogen,

phosphorus, and potassium in varying ratios, providing a
balanced nutrient supply.

5. Organic Fertilizers:

 Compost, Manure: Derived from organic sources, these

fertilizers improve soil structure and provide a slow-
release of nutrients.

6. Micronutrient Fertilizers:

 Zinc Sulfate, Copper Sulfate: These supply trace

elements like zinc, copper, and manganese, essential in
small amounts for plant growth.

Nutrient Management Practices:

Key nutrient management practices include:

1. Soil Testing:

 Regular soil testing helps assess nutrient levels, enabling

precise fertilizer recommendations.

2. Fertilizer Application Timing:

 Applying fertilizers at the right growth stages ensures

that nutrients are available when plants need them most.

3. Appropriate Fertilizer Rates:

 Calculating and applying the correct amount of fertilizer

prevents overuse or underuse, optimizing plant nutrition.

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4. Placement of Fertilizers:

 Proper placement ensures that nutrients are placed where

plant roots can access them effectively.

5. Integration of Organic Matter:

 Incorporating organic matter improves soil fertility and

nutrient-holding capacity.

6. Crop Rotation:

 Rotating crops helps break pest and disease cycles and

improves nutrient availability in the soil.

Sustainable Fertilization Practices:

Key principles of sustainable fertilization include:

1. Precision Agriculture:

 Using technology to apply fertilizers precisely where

they are needed, optimizing nutrient use efficiency.

2. Cover Cropping:

 Planting cover crops during fallow periods helps

improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen, preventing
erosion, and adding organic matter.

3. Nutrient Recycling:

 Recycling organic waste, such as crop residues or

manure, contributes to sustainable nutrient management.

4. Agroecology:

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
 Considering ecological principles in farming practices to
maintain soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem
services.

5. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM):

 Combining organic and inorganic sources of nutrients to

optimize nutrient availability and enhance soil fertility.

6. Green Manure:

 Growing specific plants as green manure adds organic

matter and nutrients back into the soil.

8. Soil Management Practices

Conservation Tillage:

Conservation tillage is an agricultural practice that involves

minimizing soil disturbance during planting and cultivation. Unlike
traditional tillage, which involves extensive plowing and soil disruption,
conservation tillage aims to maintain the soil structure and reduce
erosion. Key aspects of conservation tillage include:

1. Minimum Tillage: Reduced or no-till systems involve

disturbing the soil only in the planting row, leaving the rest of the
soil undisturbed.

2. Mulch Cover: Crop residues from the previous harvest are left
on the field to create a protective mulch layer. This mulch helps
conserve soil moisture, suppress weed growth, and reduce
erosion.

Irrigation and Drainage:

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Irrigation: Irrigation involves the artificial application of water to the

soil to assist in crop growth. Various irrigation methods include drip
irrigation, sprinkler systems, and flood irrigation. Key aspects of
irrigation include:

1. Water Efficiency: Irrigation ensures consistent water supply,

particularly in regions with irregular rainfall, improving crop
yields.

2. Precision Irrigation: Technologies like drip irrigation enable

precise water application, minimizing water wastage.

Drainage: Drainage involves the removal of excess water from the soil to
prevent waterlogging. Proper drainage is crucial for several reasons:

1. Root Health: Excess water can deprive plant roots of oxygen,

leading to root rot and poor plant health.

2. Soil Structure: Improper drainage can result in soil compaction,

reducing aeration and nutrient availability.

3. Preventing Erosion: Well-designed drainage systems help

prevent soil erosion by managing water runoff.

9. Soil Erosion and Conservation

Causes and Types of Soil Erosion:

Causes of Soil Erosion:

1. Water Erosion:

 Raindrop Impact: The impact of raindrops can

dislodge soil particles, initiating erosion.

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
 Surface Runoff: Excess water running over the soil
surface can carry away soil particles.

2. Wind Erosion:

 Wind Detachment: High-speed winds can detach and

lift soil particles into the air.

 Transportation: Wind carries these suspended

particles, depositing them elsewhere.

Types of Soil Erosion:

1. Sheet Erosion: Thin layers of soil are removed uniformly across

a large area.

2. Rill Erosion: Small channels or grooves are formed on the soil

surface due to concentrated water flow.

3. Gully Erosion: Larger and deeper channels are formed, often

leading to the formation of gullies.

4. Wind Erosion: Wind carries away loose soil particles, leading to

soil loss.

5. Ephemeral Erosion: Occurs during intense, short-term events

like heavy rainstorms.

Climate Change and Soil Management:

Climate change has significant implications for soil management,

affecting various aspects of soil health, fertility, and productivity. Key
considerations include:

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1. Temperature Changes: Altered temperature regimes can impact

microbial activity, nutrient cycling, and crop growth.

2. Water Availability: Changes in precipitation patterns and

increased frequency of extreme weather events can lead to soil
erosion, waterlogging, or drought stress.

3. Carbon Sequestration: Soils play a crucial role in carbon

sequestration, helping mitigate climate change by storing carbon.
Sustainable soil management practices, such as cover cropping
and conservation tillage, contribute to carbon sequestration.

4. Adaptation Strategies: Implementing adaptive soil management

practices, such as adjusting planting dates or selecting drought-
resistant crops, helps mitigate the impacts of climate change.

5. Mitigation Measures: Sustainable soil management practices

contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing greenhouse
gas emissions, enhancing carbon sequestration, and promoting
overall soil health.

Conclusion

Human activities, including agricultural practices, profoundly

impact soil quality, emphasizing the need for informed fertility
management strategies. The incorporation of precision agriculture,
organic farming, and innovative biofertilizers emerges as a crucial
pathway to optimize nutrient availability and mitigate environmental
impacts. As global demands for food production intensify, this chapter
serves as a roadmap for cultivating resilient and productive soils. The
insights provided contribute to a holistic understanding of soil science,

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Soil Science and Fertility Management
offering a foundation for sustainable fertility management practices that
safeguard agricultural productivity while promoting long-term ecological
health.

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