Ch 14 Notes –The Civil Rights Movement & The Vietnam War

Origins of the Civil Rights Movement

The 13th Amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment gave African Americans U.S.
citizenship with equal rights
and protection under the law. The 15th Amendment gave African American males suffrage (right
to vote). Even with these amendments, African Americans faced racism, prejudice, and
discrimination. Many Americans felt the treatment of African Americans was inconsistent with
the ideas of the Declaration of Independence and our beliefs in freedom, equality, and
democracy.

Truman and Civil Rights(Late 1940s)

Truman issued a report, To Secure These Rights, calling for civil rights legislation. However,
Congress refused to pass any civil rights legislation. Truman demanded his inauguration be
integrated. Truman issued an Executive Order to desegregate the armed forces and end
discrimination in hiring for jobs in the federal government. Jackie Robinson was the first
African-American to cross the “color line” and join a major league baseball team.

Segregation in the South

Jim Crow Laws segregated the races in the South in public places, including public schools. The
Supreme Court ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson was that state segregation of facilities was
constitutional as long as the facilities were equal (separate-but-equal). The National Association
for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was started in 1909 by W.E.B. DuBois and Ida
Wells to work on ending discrimination against African-Americans. This organization used
litigation (resolve disputes in court) to win civil rights and challenge the separate-but-equal
doctrine.

Eisenhower and Civil Rights(1950s)

Sweatt v. Painter
African-American Herman Sweatt was not allowed to attend the Law School at the University of
Texas because of segregation laws. There was an African-American law school he could attend.
The Supreme Court ruled the two law schools were not equal because African-American
students were isolated from other future lawyers being trained with whom they would later
interact.

Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

Linda Brown and other African-American students were denied admission to all-white public
schools near their homes. NAACP lawyer and later the first African-American on the Supreme
Court, Thurgood Marshall, argued segregated schools denied students the equal protection
promised them in the 14th Amendment. Education for African-Americans was inherently (by
nature) inferior because African-American students were receiving the message they were not
good enough to be educated with others. Chief Justice Earl Warren and the rest of the Supreme
Court ruled in favor of Brown and overturned Plessy v. Ferguson marking the end of legal
segregation in public schools. The Brown decision was a turning point in the Civil Rights
Movement. The Court did not specify the timetable for integrating schools, so the South took
its time integrating schools. Other Jim Crow Laws of the South remained in place segregating
the races at beaches, theaters, restaurants, water fountains, and public buses.
Montgomery Bus Boycott (Alabama)
African-American seamstress and member of the NAACP, Rosa Parks, was arrested for refusing
to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. To protest, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (pastor)
began a boycott (stop using their services) of the city’s public buses. African-Americans began
walking and carpooling. Dr. King believed in nonviolent passive resistance and integration. He
was influenced by Gandhi from India. King was arrested and his home bombed. African-
American churches became meeting places in the fight for civil rights. This boycott brought
national attention to civil rights. After 13 months, the court ruled segregation on Montgomery
city buses violated the “equal protection” clause in the 14th Amendment. City buses were
integrated.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

King believed non-violence and passive resistance to unjust laws would change the attitudes of
the aggressors. King believed in non-violent tactics such as peaceful marches, boycotts,
picketing, sit-ins, and demonstrations.

Civil Rights Act of 1957

Senator Lyndon Johnson of Texas pushed it through Congress. This Act increased African-
American voting rights in the South by putting the federal government in charge of registering
black voters, establishing the Civil Rights Commission, and creating the Civil Rights Division in
the U.S. Justice Department to investigate the denial of African-American voting rights in the
South.

Little Rock Central High School

Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus favored segregation and was in no hurry to put the Brown
decision into effect by integrating public schools. Nine African-American students (Little Rock
Nine) tried to enroll in an all-white high school. Faubus brought out the Arkansas National
Guard to prevent these students from entering the building and refused to provide these
students with protection from an angry white mob. Some believed he did this to win white
segregationist votes. Eisenhower ordered federal troops to Little Rock to ensure the Little Rock
Nine could attend school.

Southern Segregationist Governors and Congressmen

Segregationist Governors believed the federal government was interfering in state matters and
tried to resist desegregation to maintain the status quo (the existing system).

Lester Maddox
Maddox, owner of a white-only restaurant, used an ax handle to threaten African-Americans
who tried to enter his restaurant. Maddox became the Governor of Georgia.

Alabama Governor George Wallace

Wallace stood at the door to the University of Alabama registrar’s office to prevent two African-
Americans from enrolling. Wallace believed in the constitutional rights of the states to operate
their public schools. Wallace was forced to let the students enter.

*Southern Democrats in Congress held powerful positions in the U.S. Congress and used that
power to stop the passage of federal
civil rights legislation.
Kennedy, Johnson and Civil Rights (1960s)
Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
This committee was organized by student civil rights activists to push for desegregation and
black voter registration. In the beginning, whites and African-Americans were members of
SNCC. Later, whites were barred from membership.

Sit-ins
Sit-ins started at Greensboro, North Carolina, to shame stores into integrating their white-only
lunch counters. African-Americans would sit at the lunch counters and refused to leave. As a
result of sit-ins, stores finally agreed to desegregate lunch counters and
hired African-American workers.

Freedom Riders
The purpose of the Freedom Riders was to draw national attention to the South’s refusal to
integrate bus terminals and public transportation. African-Americans and whites rode buses
together through the South using each other’s waiting rooms and bathrooms.
When the Freedom Riders were faced with violence and the risk of death, the federal
government was forced to intervene to protect them.

Birmingham, Alabama
To get the government’s attention, African-Americans launched non-violent demonstrations to
end segregation in Birmingham.
The Birmingham police used fire hoses, dogs, and cattle prods on the demonstrators. Millions
were horrified by the police violence seen on the television. Dr. King was arrested and jailed.
From the jail, King wrote a “Letter from the Birmingham Jail” which explained why African-
Americans could no longer wait patiently for their constitutional rights saying “everyone has a
moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws.” Because of Birmingham, Kennedy prepared a Civil
Rights bill to submit to Congress.

Reverend Billy Graham

Graham, a white preacher, rose to fame as an anti-communist. Graham paid King’s bail to get
out of jail and toured with King.
Graham was a supporter of civil rights and integration. He was a spiritual advisor to several U.S.
Presidents. Graham advised
Eisenhower to send troops to Little Rock. Billy Graham traveled the world preaching the Gospel
to millions. He was one
of the first preachers to address large crowds behind the Iron Curtain, calling for world peace.

March on Washington
The purpose of the March on Washington was to pressure Congress to pass Kennedy’s Civil
Rights bill. With 250,000 people of different races, this was the largest demonstration for
human rights in U.S. history. Dr. King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech about
looking forward to a day when Americans of all colors would peacefully live together. After
Kennedy’s assassination, Congress had a new willingness to pass Kennedy’s Civil Rights bill.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

This act ended discrimination based on race, color, religion, or ethnic origins in hotels,
restaurants, and all places of employment doing business with the federal government or
interstate commerce. Segregated schools would lose federal funding (money). The Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission was set up to enforce this act.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

President Johnson pushed this act through Congress giving the federal government the power
to register voters. This act also ended the use of literacy tests.

24th Amendment- The 24th Amendment outlawed poll taxes.

Affirmative Action
President Johnson issued an Executive Order requiring employers with federal contracts to raise
the number of their minority employees to correct past imbalances. Companies were now
required to actively recruit minority candidates. Later, women were added to affirmative action
programs. Affirmative action programs increased minority representation in colleges,
professions, and many businesses. Some people believed affirmative action programs created
reverse discrimination (against white men). In Regents of University of California v. Bakke, the
Supreme Court upheld affirmative action, but not the use of racial quotas (number of people
required). As the U.S. became a more pluralistic society, affirmative action programs were
phased out.

The Civil Rights Movement Before 1965

The Civil Rights Movement ended segregation and got protection for voters. After 1964, the
focus of the movement switched to social and economic equality.

African-American Militancy
African-Americans in the cities of the North and the West still faced prejudice, discrimination,
poverty, slums, and unemployment.
Many of these African-Americans believed Dr. King’s method of non-violence was not powerful
enough to overcome these obstacles. Many turned to other groups and methods.

Black Power Movement

This movement stressed black pride in their African roots and their distinct styles of Afro
haircuts and fashions based upon African culture. People in the Black Power Movement
rejected cultural assimilation (become like the dominant group) into the dominant white
culture. To free themselves from economic, cultural, and political domination of whites, the
Black Power Movement wanted separatism from whites by controlling their own communities
and buying from black-owned businesses.

Malcolm X
Malcolm X believed in the Black Power Movement. Malcolm X was a Black Muslim leader who
believed African-Americans should meet violence with violence and not depend upon the
goodness of white people to do the right thing. Malcolm X believed in black superiority, black
nationalism, and separatism. African-Americans should control their own communities and
support their own
businesses.
Black Muslims
Black Muslims believed Islam should be the religion of African-Americans, and they should form
their own black state.

Black Panthers
The Black Panthers were founded in Oakland, California. The Panthers started their own
newspaper and carried weapons to protect black neighborhoods from the police. They started
free breakfast programs for African American children. The Black Panther Ten-Point Program
called for full employment, decent housing, education, and the freedom to determine their
destiny. The Black Panthers called for reparations to be given to the black community for
centuries of oppression.

Ghetto Riots
Homeowners in white communities refused to sell homes to African-Americans. Many African-
Americans were forced to live in ethnic communities in decaying inner cities. These areas were
called ghettos. Landlords didn’t maintain the buildings and city inspectors cut back on
inspections. For three summers in a row, African-Americans rioted in Northern cities.

Kerner Commission
The Kerner Commission was set up to investigate the causes of these riots. The commission
found lack of job opportunities, urban poverty, and white racism were factors behind the riots.
Riots showed work had to be done to eliminate racism and introduce equal
opportunities in America.

King’s Assassination
Dr. King was assassinated by white supremacist James Earl Ray, in Memphis, Tennessee. King’s
murder caused race riots, deaths, property damage, and destruction all over America by angry
African-Americans.

Results of the Civil Rights Movement

There were more African-American politicians and voters who held political power. Segregation
was ended. More job opportunities were given to African-Americans. Slums, poverty, and
unemployment still existed. The Civil Rights Movement led to later efforts by women, other
ethnic minorities, the disabled, the young, and the old to obtain equal opportunities.

Chicano Movement (Mexican-Americans)

Chicanos faced discrimination, racism, and exploitation in the U.S. The Chicano Movement
started in the 1960s to address the issues of farm workers, voting rights, and political rights.

Hector Perez Garcia (1940s)

An educated surgeon and World War II veteran Garcia noticed Mexican-Americans in Texas
were barred from restaurants, swimming pools, and hospitals. They also faced restrictions in
voting, office holding, and employment. When Dr. Garcia learned a funeral home refused to
allow its chapel to be used by an American soldier’s Mexican-American family, Garcia arranged
a highly publicized burial at Arlington National Cemetery. Dr. Garcia became the first Mexican-
American to serve on the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.

Cesar Chavez
When traveling from farm to farm looking for work, migrant farm workers performed seasonal
jobs such as planting and harvesting crops. Chavez started the United Farm Workers Association
to demand higher wages and better conditions. Chavez advocated (supported) non-violent
methods to achieve his goals such as strikes and boycotts (asking consumers not to buy certain
products from certain companies to show support for the migrant farm workers). Chavez
walked in a 340 mile pilgrimage (long journey for a purpose) from Delano to Sacramento,
California, to draw attention to the problems farm workers faced. Chavez used fasting or
hunger strikes (refusing to eat) to stop violence against strikers and to get legislation passed to
improve the lives of the farm workers.

Dolores Huerta
Huerta was a Mexican-American labor leader who helped Chavez start the United Farm
Workers Association. Huerta worked for aid to farm families, women’s rights, environmental
protection, and immigration policies.

Chicano Mural Movement

To express appreciation of their culture, Mexican-American artists copied the great Mexican
muralists of the 1930s, like Diego Rivera, and began painting murals in barrios (ethnic
neighborhoods) throughout the Southwest. Murals provided a presence to people who lacked
representation in public life. Murals showed legends and heroes like Garcia, Chavez, and
Huerta.

Mexican-American Rights and the Supreme Court

In a series of cases in which the courts ruled on Mexican-American rights, litigation (disputes
settled by courts) played a key role in the expansion of civil rights for minority groups.

Mendez v. Westminster School District- California had no state segregation law concerning
Mexican-Americans. However, California was segregating Mexican-American children in public
schools. The ruling was that segregation of children of any group was illegal without a special
state law requiring it.

Delgado v. Bastrop ISD- This was exactly like Mendez v. Westminster except it was happening
in Texas. The ruling was that segregation of Mexican-American children was illegal in Texas.

Hernandez v. Texas- Hernandez was found guilty of murder by an all-white jury. No Mexican-
Americans had ever served on a jury in the county where this trial took place. This violated
Hernandez’s right to “equal protection under the law” guaranteed by the 14 th Amendment. The
Supreme Court ruled that Mexican-Americans, though not a separate race, were still entitled as
a class to protections under the 14th Amendment.

White v. Regester- Voting district boundaries were changed in Texas. The way the districts
were set up in these counties made it impossible for African-Americans and Mexican-Americans
to be elected into public offices. The Supreme Court ruled that Texas could not discriminate by
setting up multi-member districts. The Texas legislature had to make smaller districts, giving
Mexican- American barrios the chance to elect their own candidates for office.

Edgewood ISD v. Kirby- Edgewood was a poor school district with a large Mexican-American
population. Schools with upper and middle class students were getting more state funding
(money) than the poorer schools. The Texas Constitution promised a “fair and efficient” public
school system. The ruling required changes in school finance to increase funding for students in
poorer school districts.

Women’s Liberation Movement (Feminist Movement)

In the early 1950s and 1960s, working class women worked outside the home, but middle class
and upper class women were stay-at-home wives and mothers. Although they could vote,
women had not achieved equality at work or in the home. The Women’s Liberation Movement
tried to achieve economic and social equality.

Reasons for the Women’s Liberation Movement

1. Women were dissatisfied being housewives and wanted to be free to use their talents in
careers and work.
2. Many women worked in the Civil Rights Movement and were inspired to use lobbying
(working to influence members of the
government), sit-ins, demonstrations, boycotts, and strikes to promote women’s rights.
3. Margaret Mead and other social scientists believed women had low status in Western
societies that were dominated by males.
Women wanted to attack the myth of female passivity and submission to males.
4. Women objected to being treated as “sex objects” instead of human beings.
5. In the Sexual Revolution, sex education was taught in public schools and birth control pills
protected women from pregnancy.
6. Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem were educated, talented leaders of the Feminist
Movement. Steinem founded Ms. Magazine
devoted to modern women’s issues and viewpoints.

Betty Friedan
Ms. Friedan wrote The Feminine Mystique challenging the belief that women were happy to be
stay-at-home wives and mothers.
Friedan believed women were as capable as men and should be able to compete for the same
jobs. Friedan helped form the National Organization of Women (NOW), a voice for the women’s
movement.

Achievements of the Women’s Liberation Movement

Affirmative action programs caused universities, military colleges, law schools, and medical
schools to no longer discriminate on the basis of sex in their admissions process. Most colleges
became co-educational and hired women professors. Feminists wanted to end discrimination in
hiring with equal job opportunities. The Equal Pay Act required companies to pay women the
same wages as men for the same work. Feminists objected to beauty contests, opposed sexist
language (policeman instead of policeperson), opposed women being used as sex objects in
advertising, objected to women’s contributions being ignored in textbooks, and lobbied (group
campaign to influence members of Congress) for more funds to research women’s diseases
(breast cancer). Also, feminists believed men could do housework too.

Equal Rights Amendment

In 1923, suffragette Alice Paul, founder of the National Women’s Party, proposed the Equal
Rights Amendment to Congress to give women equal rights. In 1972, the Equal Rights
Amendment was passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. The Equal Rights
Amendment fell three states short of the support needed for ratification (approval).

Phyllis Schlafly
Conservative Schlafly was an outspoken critic of the Women’s Liberation Movement and the
Equal Rights Amendment. She felt these would reduce the rights of wives, harm the family, and
deprive women the right to be supported and protected by men. Schlafly believed the Equal
Rights Amendment would lead to unisex restrooms and women in combat.

Roe v. Wade
Many states had laws prohibiting abortion. Feminists believed a woman should have the right
to decide for herself whether or not
to end her pregnancy (pro-choice). The Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade gave a woman
the right to end her
pregnancy in the first three months.

Title IX
Title IX is a part of the Educational Amendments Act. Title IX banned sex discrimination in
educational institutions by guaranteeing
girls in school the same opportunity as boys. If schools didn’t promote gender equality, they
would lose federal funding (money).
Title IX helped women pursue higher degrees, compete in sports, enter jobs and schools
previously dominated by men. Today, more women attend college than men.

American Indian Movement (AIM)

In the 1950s, the federal government gave state governments authority over Native Americans
still living on reservations. This failed because state governments lacked the funds (money) to
provide the same level of services that had been provided by the federal government. In 1963,
the federal government took back their responsibilities and encouraged tribal reservation life.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination against Native Americans. In 1970,
President Nixon said the federal government would honor its obligations.

American Indian Movement (Red Power Movement)

Feeling mistreated, American Indians wanted respect for their culture. The term Native
American was introduced. The American Indian Movement protested against textbooks,
television shows, and movies that showed anti-American Indian bias (prejudice).
To dramatize the problems of the American Indians, they occupied government monuments on
Alcatraz Island and in Wounded Knee, South Dakota.

Religious Freedom
In Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Supreme Court struck down a Wisconsin state law that required
Amish children to attend school beyond Grade 8. The court found this state law violated the
parents’ freedom of religion since the state’s secondary education conflicted with Amish values
and beliefs and was contrary (different) to their way of life.

Election of 1960
This was one of the closest elections in history. Television became an important political tool
(ads and debates). The 1st televised presidential debates influenced people to vote for Kennedy.
Republican Richard Nixon (Eisenhower’s Vice President) and Democrat Senator John Kennedy
were the two candidates running for the office of the President. Kennedy stressed separation of
church and state, civil service, and the missile gap (U.S. falling behind the Soviets in missile
power).Kennedy was the youngest elected President and the 1st Irish Catholic President.

Kennedy Inspired the Youth

In his Inaugural Address, Kennedy said, “Ask not what your country can do for you, but what
you can do for your country.” Kennedy’s New Frontier symbolized the vigor of youth. Kennedy
inspired the youth of America to get involved by serving their country and making the world a
better place. Kennedy and his wife, Jackie, brought an elegant style to the White House.

Kennedy’s Domestic Programs (New Frontier)

Kennedy wanted to use the power of the federal government to solve the nation’s problems.
Kennedy proposed tax cuts to stimulate the economy, the creation of Medicare (health care for
the elderly), civil rights legislation, and aid to education. However, he couldn’t get these
programs passed through Congress because the Republicans and Dixiecrats didn’t like him or
his programs.

President Johnson’s Great Society (Domestic Policies)

When John Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963, Vice President and
Texan Lyndon Johnson became the President. Johnson’s goal was to turn the nation into a
Great Society by opening up opportunities and improving the quality of life for all Americans.
Johnson also declared a war on poverty. Johnson’s Great Society programs included equality of
opportunity, enrichment of urban life, restoration of natural beauty, expansion of education,
ending poverty, health care for the elderly, and greater racial equality. Not since Roosevelt’s
New Deal had so many programs been proposed by a President.

Great Society Programs

1. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 barred discrimination based on race or gender.
2. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ensured the African American vote.
3. The Economic Opportunity Act helped create jobs and fight poverty.
4. The Job Corps helped train underprivileged youths.
5. Johnson introduced affirmative action programs.
6. The Medicare Act of 1965 expanded Social Security by providing medical care, hospital
insurance, and post-hospital nursing for
people over the age of 65.
7. The Department for Housing and Urban Development was headed by Robert Weaver (first
African American cabinet member).

Changes in Immigration
1. The McCarren-Walter Act of 1952 kept immigration quotas (required numbers) at 1920
levels, favoring Western Europe and
allowing very few Asians into America.
2. The Immigration Act of 1965 was less biased giving each country an identical quota (required
number) for its number of legal
immigrants. Preference was given to people with relatives already living in the U.S. or with
valuable skills. For the first time,
immigration from Latin America was limited.
Election of 1964: Barry Goldwater
Goldwater was the Republican candidate running against Johnson. Goldwater helped revive
conservatism (going back to traditional ways and avoiding change). Goldwater wanted to stand
tough against the Soviets and opposed arms-control talks. Goldwater criticized the Great
Society Programs because the government was getting too involved in our lives. Many
Americans felt Goldwater was an extremist (goes too far and not willing to compromise) who
would lead us into nuclear war. Johnson won the election.

The Great Society Fails

The cost of the Vietnam War forced Johnson to withdraw funding from many Great Society
programs because the money was used for the war. Many Americans remained in poverty.
Because of the divisions in the nation over the Vietnam War, Johnson did not
seek another term as President in 1968.

Vietnam War: History of Vietnam

In the1800s, the French took Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (French Indochina) as their colonies.
In World War II, Japan took Vietnam from the French. To fight the Japanese in hopes of gaining
independence in the future, nationalist leader Ho
Chi Minh joined the Allies and started the League for Independence of Vietnam (Vietminh).
After World War II, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnamese independence and turned Vietnam into a
communist country. After World War II ended, the French wanted to take back French
Indochina (Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam). However, they lacked the money to finance a
military effort to take it. To contain communism, the U.S. sent money, supplies, and advisors to
help the French take back Indochina. At the French fort of Dienbienphu, the Vietnamese
nationalists, led by Ho Chi Minh, defeated their French rulers and the French withdrew from
Indochina.

Geneva Accords 1954

After the French withdrew, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam were independent. Vietnam was
temporarily divided at the 17th parallel. North Vietnam was a communist country led by Ho Chi
Minh. South Vietnam was far from a democracy. South Vietnam was an anti-communist pro-
Western (relating to the Americas and parts of Europe not under communist rule) dictatorship
led by Ngo Dinh Diem. After the French left, the U.S. protected the pro-Western government in
South Vietnam. An election for reunification (creation of one Vietnam) was scheduled for 1956.
Fearing the elections in North Vietnam wouldn’t be free, Diem and the U.S. wouldn’t allow the
reunification elections.

Eisenhower, Kennedy and Vietnam

Eisenhower and Kennedy believed in the domino theory, if South Vietnam fell to communism,
neighboring countries would also fall to communism. Also, Kennedy believed a successful
democracy in South Vietnam might serve as a model for other developing countries in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America. Eisenhower and Kennedy continued to provide South Vietnam with
money, supplies, and advisors.

South Vietnam v. the Vietcong

To reunite the whole country under communism, the Vietcong (South Vietnamese
Communists), supported by North Vietnam, began fighting against the government of South
Vietnam by assassinating South Vietnamese officials and seizing control of rural South
Vietnamese villages. North Vietnam and the Vietcong used guerrilla warfare where a small
group of combatants used ambushes, sabotage, raids, surprise, assassinations, and mobility to
dominate a larger and less-mobile traditional army. After striking a target, they withdrew
immediately.

Diem and His People

Diem was an unpopular pro-Western leader in South Vietnam. Diem was a Catholic and the
majority of his people were Buddhists. When Diem banned the flying of Buddhist flags on
Buddha’s birthday, monks set themselves on fire in protest. Given approval from Kennedy and
the CIA, the South Vietnamese generals led a coup (surprise overthrow of a government usually
by the military) to overthrow Diem’s government. Diem was assassinated.

Johnson and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Johnson announced U.S. ships were attacked in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin. As a
result of this attack, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving President Johnson its
war powers to send troops without a declaration of war. Johnson used the Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution to escalate (increase) the war by the massive bombing of North Vietnam and
sending combat troops into South Vietnam. Years later, it was revealed that the U.S. ships had
been in North Vietnamese waters with South Vietnamese warships that were bombing North
Vietnam.

Operation Rolling Thunder

Johnson was afraid to invade North Vietnam because it was being supplied by China and the
Soviet Union. Johnson was afraid an invasion would bring China into the war. He placed limits
on the war which made it hard to win. The Ho Chi Minh Trail was a network of jungle paths
through Laos and Cambodia used by North Vietnam to send supplies, troops, and advisers to
help the Vietcong in South Vietnam. During Operation Rolling Thunder, the U.S. military made
sustained bombing raids on North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the Ho Chi Minh Trail to stop
supplies from getting to the Vietcong. The U.S dropped more bombs on Vietnam than it had
dropped in all of World War II. The dropping of napalm (jellied gasoline that burned everything)
and agent orange
(chemical that strips away leaves destroying the ability of the enemy to hide) damaged the
environment by turning farmlands and forests into wastelands.

Difficulties of Guerilla Warfare

American soldiers were unfamiliar with the Vietnamese language, people, and physical
environment. They were unable to tell who was friendly and who was an enemy. The jungle
was an ideal cover for guerilla warfare and secret enemy movement. The communists could
easily send supplies through neighboring countries.

Tet Offensive
The U.S. government had been telling the American public that the power of the enemy was
weakening. During a New Year’s truce, the North Vietnamese Army and the Vietcong broke the
truce and launched a massive offensive in South Vietnam. They took over more than 100 cities
in South Vietnam. Roy Benavidez was a Mexican American who won the Medal of Honor for
carrying his comrades to safety despite his own wounds. The Tet Offensive was a turning point
in the war. Although this was a military victory for the U.S. because we took back all the cities, it
was a political victory for the communists because Americans began to distrust their
government’s information concerning the Vietnam War. Americans didn’t believe the
government rhetoric (exaggerated information used to influence or persuade) that victory was
close and the Vietcong were weak, under-supplied, disorganized, and low in morale.

Popularity of the Nationalist Cause in Vietnam

The U.S was unable to win the war for a number of reasons. The North Vietnamese and many
South Vietnamese saw Ho Chi Minh as the “father of their country.” They were willing to suffer
large losses in their fight for independence and reunification. The government of South Vietnam
was weakened by the war. As corruption spread, successive South Vietnamese governments
failed to win the popular support of the people. In 1967, South Vietnam was ruled by a military
dictator.

The Anti-War Movement

The media (newspapers, radio, television) influenced public opinion about the war. This was the
first war to come into our living rooms on televisions. The American media criticized the war.
The U.S. government told us that we were winning. Nightly news coverage of the Vietnam War
showed a different story. This led to a credibility gap which made it hard to believe what the
government was saying about the Vietnam War after seeing the reality of the situation on
television. Vietnam divided the country. Hawks supported the war to defend the free South
Vietnamese from communist repression. Doves opposed this undeclared immoral war in which
innocent civilians were being bombed and killed. Doves wanted our troops withdrawn from
Vietnam because it was a civil war and none of our business. Doves believed the U.S.
government was giving false information to the public about the war.
To protest against U.S. involvement in Vietnam, some young people burned their draft cards,
marched on the Pentagon, held rallies, staged demonstrations (marches, sit-ins), organized
teach-ins (abandon class to discuss opposition to the war), and ran peace candidates. In Tinker
v. Des Moines, the Supreme Court ruled students had a right to protest the Vietnam War by
wearing armbands.

Election of 1968
Johnson did not seek re-election.. Division among Democrats over the war, the assassination of
Robert Kennedy, and violence at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago led to the
election of Republican Richard Nixon. Nixon promised to restore law and order at home and to
end the Vietnam War with “peace and honor.” The Vietnam War continued for another five
years.

Henry Kissinger
Kissinger was Special Assistant for National Security Affairs and later, Secretary of State.
Kissinger wanted increased bombing and diplomacy. Under the new U.S. policy of
Vietnamization, the army of South Vietnam would gradually take over the brunt of the fighting,
allowing the withdrawal of U.S. forces. At the same time, Nixon increased bombing of North
Vietnam and provided military aid to South Vietnam.

Nixon’s Foreign Policies

Nixon believed a President’s most important role was dealing with foreign policy. Henry
Kissinger was his foreign policy expert. Nixon’s two greatest foreign policy successes were the
opening of diplomatic relations with Communist China and the beginning of détente (relaxation
of tensions) with the Soviet Union.

Relations with China (1972)

Since the Communist Revolution in China (1949), U.S. leaders would not establish diplomatic
relations with Communist China because they recognized Nationalist China in Taiwan as the
official government of China. The U.S. also vetoed attempts of Communist China to enter the
United Nations. Nixon wanted Communist China to put pressure on North Vietnam to end the
war. Nixon restored diplomatic relations with Communist China and was the first U.S. President
to visit mainland China.

Détente with the Soviet Union

President Nixon wanted the Soviet Union to put pressure on North Vietnam to end the war and
to halt the build-up of nuclear weapons. Nixon became the first President to visit Moscow
(capital of the Soviet Union), where he signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT)
limiting development of defensive missile systems. Nixon also agreed to sell American grain to
the Soviet Union. In 1973, when war broke out in the Middle East, the U.S. and the Soviet Union
pressured Israel and Arab states to conclude a cease-fire.

U.S. Invasion of Cambodia

Nixon believed the war would be shortened if supply routes through Cambodia from North to
South Vietnam could be cut. In 1970, American troops invaded Cambodia. As a result of Nixon’s
invasion of Cambodia, Congress repealed (reversal of law/ cancel) the Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution.

Anti-War Protests Increase

Because of the Cambodian invasion and escalation of the war, the number of anti-war protests
increased. Many anti-war protests were conducted on college campuses and in major U.S.
cities. At Kent State University (Ohio), four student demonstrators were killed by the National
Guard. President Nixon insisted that most Americans still supported the war. He called them
the “silent majority.” Sometimes the exchanges between the anti-war protesters and pro-war
supporters became violent.

Pentagon Papers
The Department of Defense researched Vietnam and events that led up to the war and wrote
their findings in the Pentagon Papers.
Defense Department employee, Daniel Ellsberg, leaked the Pentagon Papers to the press. The
Pentagon Papers showed several Presidents before Nixon had lied to the American people
about Vietnam; although these Presidents felt they could not
win in Vietnam, none of them wanted the disgrace of defeat associated with their Presidency.
These papers proved the government had not been honest with the public about the Vietnam
War. The Supreme Court ruled that newspapers could publish the Pentagon Papers because of
their 1st Amendment right of freedom of the press.

26th Amendment
Many soldiers were old enough to be drafted to fight in Vietnam at the age of 18, but not old
enough to vote. The 26th Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
The End of the War
Nixon negotiated with Vietnam’s Communist allies, China and the Soviet Union, to put pressure
on North Vietnam to end the war. After Nixon introduced Vietnamization, American forces
were gradually reduced. In 1973, Kissinger went to Paris to negotiate with the North
Vietnamese. In 1973, an agreement was made to pull out all U.S. troops from Vietnam. North
Vietnam agreed to release American prisoners of war. After the U.S. withdrawal in 1973,
fighting still continued between North and South Vietnam. In 1975, the Vietnam War ended
when North Vietnam took over South Vietnam and reunited the country under communism.
The Fall of Saigon (today called Ho Chi Minh City) marked the end of the Vietnam War. South
Vietnamese government officials, military officers, and soldiers who had supported the
American presence in Vietnam were sent to communist “re-education camps,” where they
faced torture, disease, and malnutrition.

Legacy of the Vietnam War

Over 58,000 Americans died and many others suffered physical and psychological injuries. Over
a million Vietnamese were killed and millions more were left homeless. Because of the war, the
U.S. had a huge national debt (cost $150 billion). The U.S. had to end some Great Society
programs and experienced inflation. The war demonstrated that government actions can be
affected by public opinion. The American people lost respect for their government and
politicians. Vietnam was the most divisive (divided the people) war in U.S. history and led to a
crisis in American self-confidence. Americans were more aware of the limits of U.S. power and
cautious about where America should become involved in world affairs.

War Powers Resolution

In both Korea and Vietnam, presidents sent U.S. troops into battle without a declaration of war
from Congress. Congress attempted to re-claim its constitutional power by passing (over the
veto of President Nixon) the War Powers Resolution. The War Powers Resolution limited the
President’s power to send troops to major military operations in foreign nations. The War
Powers Resolution allowed the President to deploy (send in) troops quickly. However, Congress
had to be told two days before the deployment of U.S. troops. Within 60 days, Congress would
decide whether to leave the troops in or withdraw them.

1960s Literature
The counter-culture was in full swing. Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five and Joseph Heller’s
Catch 22 were written to expose the absurdity (ridiculous unreasonableness) of armed conflicts.
Norman Mailer wrote his novel, Why Are We in Vietnam?, to criticize the war. Mailer also wrote
books on anti-protests, such as Armies of the Night. In the 1960s, some books were written
about human consciousness and sexuality such as Philip Roth’s Goodbye Columbus and
Portnoy’s Complaint. Roth also wrote American Pastoral dealing with middle class radicalism of
the 1960s.

Visual Arts
Visual arts were very diverse, ranging from abstract impressionism to pop art. Mark Rothko was
another abstract-expressionist. Andy Warhol created pop art using symbols from our mass-
produced, mass-marketed consumer culture, like a Campbell’s soup can or a portrait of Marilyn
Monroe, which he repeated multiple times on one canvas. Warhol also produced music groups
and films. Other pop artists were Jasper Johns and Roy Lichtenstein.
Youth Culture of the 1960s
Some “baby boomers” reached their twenties in the 1960s and 1970s. This generation was
influenced by the 1950s prosperity, new permissive methods of child care, and exposure to
television. In the mid-1960s, some youth adopted a spirit of rebellion, objecting to the
impersonal life-style of corporate America and challenging the materialism of those in charge of
society, the “Establishment”. They were shocked at the Establishment’s indifference to poverty
and other problems in society. New fashions and long hair for males became symbols of the
new youth culture of the 1960s. Artist and song writer Bob Dylan brought the influence of folk
music to rock and roll. The Beatles, an English rock band, started the “British Invasion” and
introduced new fashions and long hair for males. They were followed by other English bands
such as The Rolling Stones and the Who. In the 1960s, artists like Jimi Hendrix, Country Joe and
the Fish, and Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young became icons of the counter-culture and anti-war
movement. Many of their songs protested the Vietnam War or celebrated the psychedelic
experience (an altered state of awareness induced by the consumption of hallucinogenic
drugs). Many youth experimented openly with drugs and sex. Some “hippies” left mainstream
society to live together on self-sufficient communes.