CHAPTER 5: THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

 Types of Cells in the Epidermis

Integumentary System
 Integument means covering 1. Merkel cells
 Covers the outside of the body  Specialized epidermal cells
 Consist of the skin and accessory associated with the nerve endings
structures, such as hair, glands, and nails responsible for detecting light touch
 forms the boundary between the body and and superficial pressure
the external environment, thereby
separating us from the external environment 2. Melanocytes (melano-black + kytos-cells)
while allowing us to interact with it.  irregularly shaped cells located
between the stratum basale and
Major Functions of Integumentary System stratum spinosum
(1) Protection  produce melanin
 skin 3. Langerhans cells
- covering of the body  part of the immune system
- exposed to the external environment 4. Keratinocytes
but its structure reduces the negative  most cells of the epidermis
and harmful effects of ultraviolet light  Keratin
- prevents microorganisms from o A protein mixture they produce
entering the body and reduces water o Fills the cell making them more
loss, thus preventing dehydration
rigid and durable
(2) Sensation
o rigid cells (dead) – resist
 sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold,
abrasion and act as a
touch, pressure, and pain
permeability barrier
(3) Temperature regulation
 New cells
 skin
o Produced by mitosis in the
- regulates body temperature through
deepest layer of the epidermis
the modulation of blood flow through
o Push older cells to the surface,
the skin and the activity of sweat
glands where they slough, or flake off
(4) Vitamin D production  Outermost cells
 skin o Protect the cells underneath
- produces a molecule when exposed  Deeper replicating cells
to ultraviolet light that can be o Replace cells lost from the
transformed into vitamin D, an surface
important regulator of calcium Keratinization
homeostasis
 Precursor molecule: 7-dehydrocholesterol,  A process where cells change shape
stored in the skin. and chemical composition
 Conversion: Exposure to ultraviolet light  Involves cell death and hardening to
converts the precursor into cholecalciferol. form a protective layer
 Modification: Cholecalciferol is modified by the  Malfunctions of this can lead to skin
liver and kidneys to form active vitamin D3 diseases
(calcitriol).  Psoriasis – characterized by
(5) Excretion excessive shedding
 Small amounts of waste products are excreted  A continuous process in which
through the skin and glands distinct cellular characteristics can
be recognized
5.2 SKIN
Layers of Epidermis
Two Major Layers of the Skin
Strata
(1) Epidermis (upon the dermis)  layers of the epidermis with distinct
 superficial layer of the skin, consisting of characteristics
stratified squamous epithelial tissue  layers from deepest to most superficial
 separated by underlying dermis by a (1) Stratum Basale (stratum germinativum)
basement membrane  deepest portion of the epidermis
 not as thick as the dermis and contains no  single layer
blood vessels  consists of cuboidal and columnar
 has multiple cell layer that resists abrasion cells that undergo mitotic divisions
on the skin’s surface and reduces water about every 19 days
loss  one daughter cell remains and
 provides protection divides again while the other is
 pushed toward the surface and  Lipids – coats and surround this
becomes keratinized layer; released from the lamellar
 takes about 40-56 days for it to bodies; act as waterproofing
reach the epidermal surface and material; prevents fluid loss
slough off  Callus – a thickened area in the
(2) Stratum Spinosum skin that is subjected to friction that
 Superficial to the stratum basale makes the number of layers in this
 Many-sided cells in 8-10 layers stratum increase
 Cells flatten as they move  Corn – a corn-shaped structure
towards the surface formed when the stratum corneum
 Desmosomes break and thickens over a bony prominence
reform (2) Dermis
 Appearance: Spiny due to  a layer of dense collagenous tissue
shrinking and desmosome containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and
attachments macrophages
 Produces keratin fibers and  on average 10 to 20 times thicker than
lamellar bodies (lipid-filled epidermis
organelles)  contains blood vessels, nerve endings,
(3) Stratum Granulosum follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and
 Two to five layers of flat and lymphatic vessels
diamond-shaped cells  blood vessels – allow nutrient and waste
 Produces keratohyalin granules exchange to the cells of the dermis and the
 Lamellar bodies release lipids from living cells of the epidermis
cells to the extracellular space  free nerve endings – for pain, itch, tickle,
(4) Stratum Lucidum and temperature sensations
 Thin, clear zone between the  hair follicle – receptors for light touch
stratum granulosum and stratum  Pacinian corpuscles – deep pressure
corneum  Meissner corpuscles – detecting
 Three to five layers of dead cells, simultaneous stimulation at two point of the
appear transparent, present in thick skin
skin but absent in most thin skin  Ruffini end organs – sensing continuous
 Disperses keratohyalin around touch or pressure
keratin fibers  responsible for most of the skin’s structural
 Thick Skin – has all five strata and strength (collagen and elastic fibers)
is found in areas subject to pressure  Collagen
or friction, such as palms, soles, - Main type of protein fiber of the
and fingertips extracellular matrix, but elastic and
 Thin Skin – lacks the stratum reticular fiber are also present
lucidum and covers the rest of the - Cleavage Lines (tension lines)
body such as hair  Lines on the skin that indicate
 Note. The term thick and thin skin the direction of underlying
only refer to the number of collagen and elastic fibers
epidermal strata and not the overall  Resistant of stretch of the skin
thickness of the skin, which is - Stretch Marks
determined by dermis.  Lines of scar tissue that
(5) Stratum Corneum appear on the skin as a result
 Most superficial stratum of the of rapid stretching or tearing
epidermis of the dermis
 Composed of 25 or more layers of  Causes: pregnancy, weight
dead, overlapping squamous cells gain, bodybuilding, and
(cornified cells) with a hard protein hormonal changes
envelope, filled with keratin and  tanning
joined by desmosomes - strength of the dermis is produced by
 Keratin – a mixture of keratin fibers removing the epidermis and preserving the
and keratohyalin; responsible for dermis
structural strength of this stratum
Layers of Dermis
 Soft keratin – found in skin
 Hard Keratin – found in nails Dermal papillae – projection in the upper part of
and external parts of hair; the dermis
more durable; not shed  Friction ridges – parallel, curving ridges
 Dandruff – cells in the surface of found in the epidermis of the palms, soles,
the scalps from excessive sloughing and fingertips; formed by the underlying
of stratum corneum
 dermal papillae; increased friction, unique Xeroderma pigmentosum – rare, genetic
identification, and sensory function disorder where a DNA repair gene is defective
(1) Papillary Layer
 Superficial (1) Basal cell carcinoma
 Loose connective tissue with thin fibers that  most common type, affecting cells in the
are somewhat loosely arranged stratum basale and extends to the dermis
 Contains blood vessels that supply the to produce an open ulcer
overlying epidermis with oxygen and  often appears as a raised, pearly nodule
nutrients, remove waste products, and aid  rarely metastasizes
in regulating body temperature  cured through surgical removal or radiation
(1) Reticular Layer therapy
 Dense irregular connective tissue (2) Squamous cell carcinoma
 The main and deeper layer of the dermis  Develops from cells immediately superficial
 A mat of irregularly arranged fibers that to stratum basale
are resistant to stretching in many  Second most common type, affecting cells
directions in the stratum spinosum
 Provides structural support and elasticity  A nodular, keratinized tumor confined to the
to the skin epidermis
 Connects the dermis to the  Can appear as a wart-like growth, scaly
subcutaneous tissue patch, or open sore
 May metastasize
Types of Injections (3) Malignant melanoma
Injection  Least common, but most deadly
 Delivers substances, such as medicines, to  Arise from melanocytes
the body by puncturing the skin  Occasionally stops producing melanin and
 Use to administer substances at different appears skin-colored, pink, red, or purple
depths, depending on how quickly the  40% developed from pre-existing moles
material needs to enter the blood  Invades the dermis and metastasize other
(1) Intradermal Injection part of the body
 Delivers the material slowly  Difficult to treat
 Administered by drawing skin taut and Skin Color
inserting a small needle at a shallow  are determined by several factors
angle into the dermis 1. pigment of the skin
 Ex. Tuberculin skin test - Melanocytes (melano-black + kytos-
(2) Subcutaneous Injection cells)
 Achieved by pinching the skin to form a  irregularly shaped cells located
tent and inserting a short needle into the between the stratum basale and
adipose tissue of the subcutaneous tissue stratum spinosum
 Ex. Insulin injection  produce melanin
(3) Intramuscular Injection  Melanin
 Delivers material to the blood faster than  pigments primarily responsible for
intradermal and subcutaneous injection skin, hair, and eye color
 Accomplished by inserting a long needle  provides protection against
at a 90-degree angle into the skin into a ultraviolet light from the sun
muscle deep into the subcutaneous tissue  Albinism – a recessive genetic
 Ex. Most vaccines, and certain antibiotics trait that causes a deficiency or an
absence of melanin, resulting in fair
Three Main Types of Skin Cancer skin, white hair, and unpigmented
Skin Cancer irises in the eyes
 the most common type of cancer  Melanin production – determined
by genetic factors, exposure to
 Causes: Primarily caused by ultraviolet (UV) light, and hormones
radiation from sunlight - Carotene
 Other factors: Chemicals, x-rays, immune  yellow pigment found in plants
system issues, inflammation, and genetics. (squash & carrots) and can
 Mechanism: UV radiation damages DNA, accumulate in the skin, causing a
leading to mutations that can cause yellowish tint
uncontrolled cell division  Ingested as a precursor to
 Risk factors: Fair skin, prolonged sun vitamin A.
exposure, age, and history of sunburn  Excess carotene can lead to
 Locations: Commonly affects areas
yellow skin.
exposed to sunlight, like the face, neck,
ears, and hands
 - Skin color is influenced by the  Vellus hairs – short, fine, and usually
location of pigments and other unpigmented, replace the lanugo on the
substances. rest of the body

 Dark pigment in deeper layers Hair Structure

of the skin can scatter light,
 Hair Follicle
producing a blue hue. This
 where hair arises from; an
effect is seen in tattoos,
bruises, and some blood imagination of the epidermis that
vessels extends deep into the dermis
 The presence of collagen  tubelike invagination of the
fibers and the depth of epidermis that extends into the
pigments affect the color. dermis
 arrector pili
2. blood circulating through the skin  smooth muscle cells associated
 Blood Flow – imparts reddish with each hair follicle
hue  extend from the dermal root
 Erythema sheath to the papillary layer of
 An intensified reddish the dermis
color or reddish skin  goose bumps – a raised area
discoloration of a skin produced when hair
 caused by increased become more perpendicular to
blood flow due to the skin’s surface (stand on
inflammation or other end) due to the contraction of
factors the arrector pili
 Cyanosis (parts of hair follicle)
 Decrease in the blood  Dermal Root Sheath
O2 content produces  The portion of the dermis that
bluish skin color surrounds the epithelial root
3. the thickness of the stratum corneum sheath
 Epithelial Root Sheath
5.3 SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE (HYPODERMIS)
 External root sheath – opening
 a layer of loose connective tissue with collagen,
of the follicle; has all the strata
elastic fibers, fibroblasts, adipocytes, and
found in thin skin
macrophages
 Internal root sheath – envelops
 not part of the skin or the integumentary system
the lower portion of the hair
 connect the skin to underlying muscle & bone
shaft but doesn’t extend past
 supplies skin with blood vessels and nerves
isthmus (middle segment) of
 Adipose tissue – padding and insulation;
hair
contains half the body’s stored lipids
 Shaft
 contributes to body shape differences
 divides the hair
 Skin fold measurements can estimate total body
 protrudes above the surface of the
fat that varies with age, sex, and diet
skin
 Females – 21% to 30%
 Root
 Males – 13% to 25%
 located below the surface
5.4 ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES  Hair Bulb
 Expanded base of the root
 Attached or embedded into the skin  Produce hair
 Hair, glands, and nails  Matrix – a mass undifferentiated
(1) Hair epithelial cells inside the hair bulb
 Found everywhere on the skin except  Hair papilla – dermis of the skin
the palms, the soles, the lips, the projects into the hair bulb; has blood
nipples, parts of the external genitalia, vessels that provide nourishment to
and the distal segments of the fingers the cells of the matrix
and toes  Medulla
 Hair structure and coloration change as  the central axis of the hair
a person ages  consists of two to three layers of
 Lanugo – delicate and upigmented hair cells containing soft keratin
in the fifth or sixth month of fetal  Cortex
development  Surrounds the medulla and forms
 Terminal Hairs – replace the lanugo of the bulk of the hair
the scalp, eyelids, and eyebrows  Cells contain hard keratin
 Males 90%  Cuticle
 Females 35%  Covers the cortex
  A single layer of cells also  Hair color can change with age
containing hard keratin due to decreasing melanin,
 Edges of cuticle cells overlap like leading to fading or whitening.
shingles on a roof
 Gray hair combines unfaded,
Hair Growth faded, and white hairs.
 Hair color is controlled by
Hair – produced in cycles involve a growth
multiple genes, and dark hair is
stage and a resting stage not always dominant over light.
1) Growth Stage
 A hair increases in length as new (2) Glands
matrix cells are produced, Major Glands of the Skin
differentiate, become keratinized, 1. Sebaceous Glands
and die  Simple, branched acinar glands
 Hair grows longer as cells are  Mostly connected by a duct to the
added at the base of the hair root superficial part of a hair follicle
 Hair growth stops; the hair follicle  Sebum
shortens and holds the hair in  Produced by sebaceous glands
place  Oily, white substance rich in lipids
 Average rate of hair growth is 0.3  Released by holocrine secretion
mm/day  Lubricates the hair and skin’s
 Ex. Eyelash 30 days surface
and Scalp hair 90%  Prevents drying and protects
2) Resting Stage against bacteria
 Follows the growth stage, 2. Sweat Glands (Sudoriferous glands)
after which a new cycle begins  Eccrine Sweat Glands (Merocrine
and a new hair replaces the sweat glands)
old hair, which falls out of the  Most common type of sweat gland
hair follicle  Simple, coiled, tubular glands that
 Ex. Eyelash 105 open directly onto the surface of
days and 100 scalp hairs/day the skin through sweat pores
is normal  Release sweat by merocrine
 Pattern baldness secretion
– most common kind of  consist of a deep, coiled portion in
permanent hair loss the dermis and a duct leading to
– hair follicles shrink, the skin
producing shorter, invisible  produce a secretion that is mostly
vellus hair, and eventually water with few salts
stop producing hair altogether  Sweat is released to cool the body
– common to men but some and can also be produced due to
woman experienced emotional stress.
– causes include genetics and  Emotional sweating is used in lie
testosterone detector tests.
 widely distributed but are most
Hair Color numerous in the palms and soles.
 absent from the lips, labia minora,
1. Melanin
and the tips of the penis and
 The pigment that determines
clitoris.
hair color
 Apocrine Sweat Glands
 Produced by melanocytes in
 simple, coiled, tubular glands that
the hair bulb matrix
typically open into hair follicles.
 Passed to keratinocytes in the
 located in the axillae, genitalia,
hair cortex and medulla
and around the anus.
 Different amounts and types of
 do not play a significant role in
melanin result in different hair
temperature regulation.
colors:
 become active at puberty due to
(a) Blonde: little black-
brown melanin sex hormones.
(b) Jet black: most black-  secretions contain organic
brown melanin substances that, when
(c) Brown: intermediate metabolized by bacteria, cause
amounts of black-brown body odor.
melanin  These glands may signal sexual
(d) Red: varying amounts of maturity in mammals
red melanin
  Cuticle (eponychium) – stratum corneum
that extends onto the nail body or grows
onto the nail body
3. Other Glands  Hyponychium – beneath the free edge of
 Ceruminous Glands the nail body; a thickened region of the
 Modified eccrine sweat glands stratum corneum
located in the ear canal (external  Nail matrix
auditory canal) – where the nail root extends distally
 Cerumen – thicker than a nail bed and produces
– earwax that is composed of the nearly all of the nail
combined secretions of – composed of epithelial tissue, with a
ceruminous and sebaceous glands stratum basale that gives rise to the cells
– together with hair in the ear that form the nail
canal protects the tympanic lunula
membrane by preventing dirt and  small part of the nail matrix
small insects from moving deeply  seen through the nail body as a
into the ear canal whitish crescent-shaped area at the
– accumulation can block the ear base of the nail
canal and make hearing difficult  seen best on the thumb, appears
 Mammary Glands white because blood vessels do not
 Modified apocrine sweat glands show through the thicker nail matrix
located in the breast  Nail bed
 Produce milk – under the nail where the nail is attached
– located between the nail matrix and the
Acne (acne vulgaris) hyponychium
 Most common type of skin condition – composed of epithelial tissue, with a
 Inflammation of the hair follicles and stratum basale that gives rise to the cells
sebaceous glands that form the nail
 No tried-and-true cure – visible through clear nail and appears
 Whitehead – accumulated sebum behind the pink because of blood vessels in the dermis
blockage
 Blackhead – develops when accumulating Nail Growth
mass of cells and sebum push through the grow at an average of 0.5-1.2 mm per
hair follicle opening day
 Pimple – forms when the wall of the hair fingernails grow more rapidly than
follicle ruptures and bacteria enter the tissue toenails
causing an infection and inflammation grow continuously throughout life and
 Four Factors Responsible for Acne do not have a resting phase unlike hair
(a) Hormones
(b) Sebum 5.6 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AS A
(c) Abnormal production of cells DIAGNOSTIC AID
(d) The bacterium Propionibacterium acnes
- Found in sebum-rich area Skin color can indicate underlying health conditions:
 Cyanosis
- Three strains: One strain of P. acnes Bluish tint due to decreased blood oxygen
is more dominant in people with Indication of impaired circulatory or respiratory
acne-free skin and is beneficial to the function
host. The other two strains are  Jaundice
pathogenic (good and bad) Yellowish skin color due to liver damaged by a
(3) Nails disease, such as viral hepatitis
Excess bile pigments are not excreted and
 a thin plate consisting of layers of dead
accumulate in the blood
stratum corneum cells that contain tough Rashes and lesions can be symptoms of systemic
type of keratin diseases:
 located on the distal ends of the digits  Scarlet fever
Bacterial infection causing a pink-red rash.
Structure of Nail  Hives
Allergic reaction producing swelling and
 Nail root – nail covered by skin (under the reddening
skin); proximal Skin condition reflects nutritional status:
 Nail body – visible part of the nail; distal  Vitamin A deficiency
 Nail fold – skin that covers the lateral and Rough, sandpaper-like texture.
proximal edges of the nail  Iron-deficiency anemia:
 Nail groove – holds the edges in place Flat or concave nails.
Hair analysis can detect:
 Lead poisoning: High levels of lead.
 Drug use and poisoning: Forensic analysis.
Note: Hair analysis is not a reliable indicator of general health  Painless due to destruction of pain
or nutritional status. receptors
5.7 BURNS  So severe that amputation or complete
removal of damages tissue is required
Burn  Increased susceptibility to infection can
 Injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, cause death
friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation  Debridement
 Classified according to the extent of – removal of dead tissue from the burn
surface area involved and the depth of the – prevent infections by cleaning the wound
burn and removing tissue where infections could
 Rules of Nines develop
 Divides the body into areas that are  Skin Graft
approximately 9%, or multiples of 9%, – a procedure where the epidermis and
of the body surface area part of the dermis are removed from
 Adult: Head 9%, Trunk 18% (front or another part of the body and placed over
back, upper limb 9%, lower limb 18%, the burn
genitalia 1%  Venous thrombosis
 Child: Head 15%, trunk 16% (front or – another complication of burns wherein
back), upper limb 9%, lower limb 17%, there is a development of a clot in a vein
genitalia 1%
1. Partial-thickness burns
 Part of the stratum basale remains
viable
 Regeneration of the epidermis occurs
from and within the burn area and the
edges of the burn
 painful
(a) First Degree Burns
 Only the epidermis and are
red and painful
 Slight edema (swelling) may
be present
 Caused by sunburn or brief
exposure to very hot or very
cold objects
 Heals without scarring in
about 1 week
(b) Second Degree Burns
 Damage both the epidermis
and the dermis
 Minimal dermal damage
– symptoms: redness, pain,
edema, and blisters
– takes about 2 weeks to heal
with no scarring
 Deep Dermal Burn
– wound appears red, tan, or
white
– takes several months to heal
– might scar
2. Full-thickness burns (third-degree
burn)
 The epidermis and the dermis are
completely destroyed, sometimes
deeper tissue
 Recovery occurs from the edges of the
wound
 Often surrounded by first and second-
degree burn
 Painless because the sensory
receptors are in epidermis and dermis
have been destroyed
 Appear white, tan, brown, black, or
deep cherry red
3. Fourth-degree burn
 Damage tissue deeper than
subcutaneous tissue, including muscle
and bone