Chapter 23

Radioactivity

In this chapter you will:

• explain the term ‘background radiation’ and list some of its sources
• describe how ionising nuclear radiation is measured
• describe the nature and behaviour of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

describe some practical uses of radioactive emissions

• describe radioactive decay

use nuclear notation to write equations for radioactive decay

• define and calculate radioactive half-life

• consider the safety issues around ionising nuclear radiation.
Getting started
In this chapter we will look at the radiation emitted from the nuclei of
unstable isotopes, which can cause ionisation. This will include high
frequency electromagnetic radiation.
The sentences above include a lot of key words you have met elsewhere in
this book. Write down as many as you can in a table. Try to define each
word from memory before referring to your notes or to the glossary at the
back of the book. Research shows that trying to recall information like this
is a great way of getting it to stick in your mind.
Definition from Definition from notes
Key word
memory or glossary

REFLECTION
Did you remember the key parts of the definitions? How can you help
yourself to learn important definitions?
Consider making revision cards and regularly checking what you know.
Find out about mobile phone apps which help you do this.

THE RADIUM GIRLS

Radioactivity was first discovered in 1896. Soon afterwards, in 1898, Marie

Curie discovered radium which was found to be useful in treating cancer. It
was assumed that these emissions which could cure cancer, must be
healthy. Radium was used to treat any conditions where the patient seemed
to need more energy, from anaemia to impotence. An industry developed
selling products such as radioactive water, toothpaste and face creams to
give you a ‘healthy’ glow. Figure 23.1 shows an advert for such a cream.
Figure 23.1: The name Tho-Radia refers to the radioactive isotopes of
thorium and radium used in this face cream.

Radium was used in paint which converted the radiation it emitted into
light. The process is called luminescence. This was used to make watch and
clock faces visible in the dark.
The radium was painted on to these watches by young women in factories.
These jobs were popular as radium was a glamorous, expensive product
and the work was much cleaner than other factory work. The women used
camel hair brushes to apply the radioactive paint. They were told to squeeze
these brushes between their lips as they worked to keep a fine point on the
brush. These instructions came from factory owners who knew that
research was beginning to show that radium was a dangerous substance and
so limited their own exposure to it. Some workers questioned whether the
radium was safe and were reassured that they were not at risk.
Figure 23.2: The radium girls painted luminous radioactive paint on clock
and watch faces.

Radium is chemically similar to calcium and the radium replaced calcium

in the bones of the women, weakening and damaging their bones. They
experienced pain and many – probably thousands – developed bone and
other cancers which were often fatal. When the women began to die, some
factory owners tried to blame their deaths on a virus, or on syphilis.
Eventually the women won a court case in 1928 and the survivors received
compensation, though the companies appealed and it was only in 1939 that
the case was finally won. Luminous watches were still sold until the 1960s,
though the painting techniques were changed.
Discussion questions
1 Why did the factory owners not inform the workers about the dangers
of working with radium?
2 Do you think this situation could happen today? Consider ways in
which laws and access to information may have made this less likely.
23.1 Radioactivity all around us
We need to distinguish between two things: radioactive substances and the
radiation that they give out. Many naturally occurring substances are
radioactive. Usually the radiation in these substances is not very concentrated, so
they do not cause a problem. There are two ways in which radioactive
substances can cause us problems:
• If a radioactive substance gets inside us, its radiation can harm us. We say
that we have been contaminated.
• If the radiation a radioactive substance produces hits our bodies, we receive
a dose of radiation. We have been irradiated.
In fact, we are exposed to low levels of radiation all the time – this is known as
background radiation. In addition, we may be exposed to radiation from
artificial sources, such as the radiation we receive if we have a medical X-ray.
Figure 23.3 shows the different sources that contribute to the average dose of
radiation received by people across the world. It is divided into natural
background radiation (about 85%) and radiation from artificial sources (about
15%). We will look at these different sources in turn.
Figure 23.3: This pie chart shows the different sources of radiation and how
they contribute to the average dose of radiation received each year by an
individual. Only about 15% comes from non-natural sources.

Sources of natural background radiation

The air is radioactive. It contains a radioactive gas called radon, which seeps up
to the Earth’s surface from radioactive uranium rocks underground. Because we
breathe in air all the time, we are exposed to radiation from this substance. This
contributes about half of our annual exposure. (This varies widely from country
to country, and from one part of a country to another, depending on how much
uranium there is in the underlying rocks.)
The ground contains radioactive substances. We use materials from the ground
to build our houses, so we are exposed to radiation from these.
Our food and drink is also slightly radioactive. Living things grow by taking in
materials from the air and the ground. Some of these materials are radioactive so
the plants which feed into our food chains will also be slightly radioactive.
Finally, radiation reaches us from space in the form of cosmic rays. Some of this
radiation comes from the Sun, some from further out in space. Most cosmic rays
are stopped by the Earth’s atmosphere. If you live up a mountain, you will be
exposed to more radiation from this source.
Because natural background radiation is around us all the time, we have to take
account of it in experiments. It may be necessary to measure the background
level and then to subtract it from experimental measurements.

Sources of artificial background radiation

Most radiation from artificial sources comes from medical sources. This includes
the use of X-rays and gamma rays for seeing inside the body, and the use of
radiation for destroying cancer cells. There is always a danger that exposure to
such radiation may trigger cancer. Medical physicists are always working to
reduce the levels of radiation used in medical procedures. Overall, many more
lives are saved than lost through this beneficial use of radiation.
Today, most nuclear weapons testing is done underground. In the past, bombs
were detonated on land or in the air, and this contributed much more to the
radiation dose received by people around the world.
When you fly in an aircraft, you are high in the atmosphere. You are exposed to
more cosmic rays. This is not a serious problem for the occasional flier, but
aircraft crews have to keep a check on their exposure.
Many people, such as medical radiographers and staff in a nuclear power station,
work with radiation. Overall, a power station does not add much to the national
average dose, but for individuals who work there it can increase their dose by up
to 10%.
Finally, small amounts of radioactive substances escape from the nuclear
industry, which processes uranium for use as the fuel in nuclear power stations
and handles the highly radioactive spent fuel after it has been used.

Detecting radiation
Radiation can be measured using a Geiger counter. This consists of a detector
called a Geiger-Müller tube which detects radiation, connected to a counter.
The counter records the rate at which radiation is detected. This is known as the
count rate and it is measured in counts per second (count/s) or counts per
minute (count/min).

Figure 23.4: Using a Geiger counter to monitor radiation levels in crops.

Questions
1 Describe what is meant by the term ‘background radiation’.
2 Name three sources of natural background radiation and three sources of
artificial background radiation.
3 Which type of natural background radiation are airline crews exposed to
more than most people?
23.2 Radioactive decay
Not all nuclei give out radiation. Some nuclei are unstable and give out radiation
in order to become more stable. This process is known as radioactive decay.
If you listen to the clicks or beeps of a Geiger counter, you may notice that it is
impossible to predict when the next sound will come. This is because radioactive
decay is a random process. Radioactive substances contain unstable nuclei
which will decay spontaneously. We cannot predict which nucleus will decay
next or when this will happen. The direction in which the radiation will be
emitted is also random. Radioactive decay is not affected by external factors
such as temperature.

Why are some nuclei unstable?

Radiation is emitted by the nucleus of an atom which is unstable. Many elements
have isotopes which are radioactive because their nuclei are unstable. For some
isotopes this is because the nucleus is too heavy. Other isotopes are unstable
because they have too many neutrons. An unstable nucleus emits radiation in
order to become more stable.
Fortunately, most of the atoms around us have stable nuclei. When the Earth
formed, about 4500 million years ago, there were many more radioactive atoms
around. This means that the level of background radiation used to be much
higher than it is today. However, most radioactive atoms have decayed to
become stable.

Three types of radiation

There are three types of radiation emitted by radioactive substances (Table 23.1).
These are named after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha (α), beta
(β) and gamma (γ). Alpha and beta are particles; gamma is a form of
electromagnetic radiation (see Chapter 15).
Name Symbol Made of Charge
2 protons + 2
alpha α positive
neutrons
beta β an electron negative
electromagnetic
gamma γ radiation neutral

Table 23.1: Three types of radiation produced by naturally occurring radioactive

substances.

• An alpha particle (α-particle) is made up of two protons and two neutrons.

(This is the same as the nucleus of a helium atom.) Because it contains
protons, it is positively charged.
• A beta particle (β-particle) is an electron. It is not one of the electrons that
orbit the nucleus – it comes from inside the nucleus. It is negatively
charged, and its mass is much less than that of an alpha particle.
• A gamma ray (γ-ray) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a very
short wavelength and high frequency. It is similar to an X-ray, but has more
energy.

Figure 23.5a: Alpha emission. b: Beta emission. c: Gamma emission.

An atom of a radioactive substance emits either an α-particle or a β-particle. In
addition, it may emit some energy in the form of a γ-ray. The γ-ray is usually
emitted at the same time as the α-particle or β-particle, but it may be emitted
some time later.
When an atom of a radioactive substance decays by α- or β-decay, it becomes an
atom of another element. This is because the number of protons in the nucleus
changes.
α-particles have a much greater mass than beta particles, so they travel more
slowly. γ-rays, like all electromagnetic waves, travel at the speed of light.

Questions
4 Copy and complete the following sentences.
Radioactive decay happens when a nucleus is ______. This may be because
it is too massive or because it contains too many ______.
An α-particle consists of ______ ______ and ______ ______. A β-particle
is an ______. γ-radiation is a form of high frequency ______ radiation.
5 A β-particle is identical to an electron. How is it different to most
electrons?
6 Which type of radiation travels at the speed of light?

Penetrating power
When physicists were trying to understand the nature of radioactivity, they
noticed that radiation can pass through solid materials. Different types of
radiation can penetrate different thicknesses of materials.
• α-particles are absorbed most easily. They can travel about 5 cm in air
before they are absorbed. They are absorbed by a thin sheet of paper. α-
particles cannot penetrate skin.
• β-particles can travel fairly easily through air or paper. But they are
absorbed by a few millimetres of metal such as aluminium.
• γ-radiation is the most penetrating. It takes several centimetres of a dense
metal like lead, or several metres of concrete, to absorb most of the gamma
radiation.
Figure 23.6 shows the penetrating power of each type of radiation.

Figure 23.6: The penetrating power of γ-radiation is the greatest. α radiation has
the least amount of penetrating power. This is related to their ability to ionise the
materials they are passing through.

Ionisation
When radiation passes through air, it may knock electrons out of atoms. This
means ions are formed. This process is called ionisation.
• α-particles are the most ionising.
• γ-radiation is the least ionising.
As the radiation emitted by the nuclei of radioactive substances causes the
ionisation of the materials that absorb it, it is often known as ionising nuclear
radiation. X-rays also cause ionisation in the materials they pass through, and so
they are also classed as ionising radiation. X-rays are very similar to γ-rays.
However, X-rays usually have less energy (longer wavelength) than γ-rays, and
they are produced by X-ray machines, stars and so on, rather than by radioactive
substances.
When something has been exposed to radiation, it has been irradiated. Although
it absorbs the radiation, it does not itself become radioactive. Things only
become radioactive if they absorb a radioactive substance. So you do not
become radioactive if you absorb cosmic rays (which you do all the time). But
you do become radioactive if you consume a radioactive substance. Coffee, for
example, contains tiny but measurable amounts of radioactive potassium. You
become contaminated by the coffee.
How ionisation happens
To explain the ionising effect of each type of radiation we need to consider their
kinetic energy and their charge.
Name Mass Speed / m/s Charge
α approx. (mass of proton) × 4 ~ 3 × 107 +2
approx. (mass of proton) ÷
β ~ 2.9 × 108 −1
1840
γ 0 3 × 108 0
Table 23.2: Properties of ionising radiation.

Consider an α-particle passing through the air. An α-particle is the slowest

moving of all the three radiations and has the largest charge. As the α-particle
collides with an air molecule, it may knock an electron from the air molecule, so
that it becomes charged. The α-particle loses a little of its energy. It must ionise
thousands of molecules before it loses all of its energy and comes to a halt. α-
radiation is the most strongly ionising radiation.
A β-particle can also ionise air molecules. However, it is less ionising for two
reasons: its charge is much less than that of an α-particle, and it moves faster.
This means that it is more likely to travel straight past an air molecule without
interacting with it. This is why β radiation can travel further through air without
being absorbed.
γ-radiation is uncharged and it moves fastest of all. This means that it is the least
readily absorbed in air, and therefore is the least ionising. Lead is a good
absorber because it is dense (its atoms are packed closely together), and its
nuclei are relatively large, so they present an easy target for the γ-rays.
You should be able to see the pattern linking ionising power and absorption:
• α-radiation is the most strongly ionising, so it is the most easily absorbed
and the least penetrating.
• γ-radiation is the least strongly ionising, so it is the least easily absorbed
and the most penetrating.

Using, moving and storing radioactive materials safely

Any element comes in several forms or isotopes (see Section 22.2). Some may
be stable, but others are unstable, that is, they are radioactive. For example,
carbon has two stable isotopes (carbon-12 and carbon-13), but carbon-14 is an
unstable isotope. Unstable (radioactive) isotopes are known as radioisotopes.
Effects of radioisotopes on cells
To use radioisotopes safely, we need to understand how they affect cells. There
are three ways in which radiation can damage living cells.
• An intense dose of radiation causes a lot of ionisation in a cell, which can
kill the cell. This is what happens when someone suffers radiation burns.
The cells affected simply die, as if they had been burned. If the sufferer is
lucky and receives suitable treatment, the tissue may regrow.
• If the DNA in the cell nucleus is damaged, the mechanisms that control the
cell may break down. The cell may divide uncontrollably and a tumour
forms. This is how radiation can cause cancer.
• If the affected cell is a gamete (a sperm or egg cell), the damaged DNA of
its genes may be passed on to future generations. This is how radiation can
produce genetic mutations. Occasionally, a mutation can be beneficial to
the offspring, but more often it is harmful. A fertilised egg cell may not
develop at all, or the baby may have some form of genetic disorder.
We are least likely to be harmed by α radiation coming from a source outside our
bodies. This is because the radiation is entirely absorbed by the layer of dead
skin cells on the outside of our bodies (and by our clothes). However, if an α
source gets inside us, it can be very damaging, because its radiation is highly
ionising. That is why radon and thoron gases are so dangerous. We breathe them
into our lungs, where they irradiate us from the inside. The result may be lung
cancer.
Today, we know much more about radiation and the safe handling of radioactive
substances. Knowing how to reduce the hazards of radiation means that we can
learn to live safely with it and put it to many worthwhile purposes.
Knowing about the radiation produced by radioactive materials helps us know
how to handle them as safely as possible. Anyone working with, or being
exposed to, ionising radiation must take safety precautions, such as shielding, or
limiting their exposure time. Figure 23.7 shows some of these precautions.
Figure 23.7a: Radiation suits are worn in contaminated areas. b: Radiographers
operate equipment from a separate room. c: School laboratory sources are stored
in lead-lined wooden boxes and locked away in a labelled metal cabinet when
not in use. The tweezers allow the teacher to handle the sources at a safe
distance. d: Radioactive material must be clearly marked when it is being
transported.

Safety precautions
Table 23.3 shows common safety precautions when dealing with radioactive
material.
Safety precaution Explanation
workers in The suit will absorb radiation. Different materials can
contaminated areas be used depending on the type of radiation. For γ-rays,
wear protective suits lead-lined suits can be used.
These warn people of the danger so they can stay at a
radioactive hazard
safe distance and reduce the time they are near the
labels
source for.
These monitor the amount of exposure a person has
photographic film
had. Once the safe limit is reached, workers may be
dosimeter badges
transferred to other areas.
Schools are required to record how long radioactive
record keeping sources were used for, and by whom. This allows them
to ensure no-one is exposed for too long.
The operator usually controls the scanner from a
remote operating of separate area. This increases their distance from the
scanners source. They may also be behind a screen which will
absorb some of the radiation.
storage boxes for Radioactive sources must be stored securely, usually
sources surrounded by lead to absorb most of the radiation.
Table 23.3: Safety precautions for dealing with radioactive material.

Radioactive decay equations

Radioactive decay can be described using balanced equations with the nuclear
notation we used in Chapter 22. To write these equations we need to consider the
effect of each emission on the nucleus emitting it:
• α-decay: two protons and two neutrons are emitted. The proton number
decreases by 2 and the nucleon number decreases by 4.
• β-decay: a neutron splits into a proton and an electron; the electron is
emitted. The proton number increases by 1 and the nucleon number remains
the same.
• γ-decay: this is the emission of energy from the nucleus and it does not
change the particles in the nucleus.
These changes all lead to the nucleus becoming more stable.
Here is an example of an equation for alpha decay:
241 Am
94
→ 237 U
92
+ 42 He + energy
This represents the decay of americium-241, the isotope used in smoke
detectors. It emits an α-particle (represented as a helium nucleus) and becomes
an isotope of uranium. An α-particle can be represented as 42 He or 42α.
Notice that the numbers in this equation must balance because we cannot lose
mass or charge. So:
nucleon numbers: 241 → 237 + 4
proton numbers: 94 → 92 + 2

Here is an example of an equation for beta decay:

14 C → 14 N + 0
6 7 − 1e + energy
This is the decay that is used in radiocarbon dating. A carbon-14 nucleus decays
to become a nitrogen-14 nucleus. The β-particle, an electron, is represented by
0 0
−1 e → or −1 β. If we could see inside the nucleus, we would see that a single
neutron has split into a proton and an electron. So:
0 → 11p + 0
−1 n −1 e
For each of these two β-decay equations, you should be able to see that the
nucleon numbers and proton numbers are balanced. We say that, in radioactive
decay, nucleon number and proton number are conserved.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23.1

A radioisotope of thorium ( 229

90
Th) decays by emitting an α-particle. The
resulting nucleus is also unstable and emits a beta particle. Write equations for
the two emissions.
Step 1: In α-emission (42α) the proton number decreases by 2 (in this case,
from 88 to 89). From the Periodic Table, we can see that Radium
(Ra) has the proton number 88. The nucleon number decreases by
4 (in this case, from 229 to 225).
Step 2: In β-emission (−01 β) the proton number increases by 1 (in this case
from 88 to 89). From the Periodic Table, we can see that Actinium
(Ac) has the proton number 89. The nucleon number remains the
same.
Answer
α-emission : 229 Th → 225 Ra + 4α
90 88 2
β-emission : 225Ra → 225Ac + 0 β
88 89 −1

Deflecting radiation
How can we tell the difference between these three types of radiation? One
method is to see how they behave in electric and magnetic fields.
Because they have opposite charges, α and β-particles are deflected in opposite
directions when they pass through an electric field (Figure 23.8a). Positively
charged α-particles are attracted towards a negatively charged plate, while
negatively charged β-particles are attracted towards a positively charged plate. β-
particles are deflected more than α-particles as the are lighter.' γ-rays are not
deflected because they are uncharged.
α- and β-particles are charged, so, when they move, they constitute an electric
current. Because of their opposite signs, the forces on them in a magnetic field
are in opposite directions (Figure 23.8b). This is an example of the motor effect
(Chapter 20). The direction in which the particles are deflected can be predicted
using Fleming’s left-hand rule. As in an electric field, γ-rays are not deflected
because they are uncharged.
Figure 23.8: α- and β-radiations are deflected in opposite directions. a: In an
electric field. b: In a magnetic field.

Questions
7 Explain why emission of α- or β-particles changes the nucleus to one of a
different element.
8 The equation represents the decay of a polonium nucleus to form a lead
nucleus. An α-particle is emitted.
210 Po → Pb + + energy
84
a Copy and complete the equation.
b Show that the proton numbers are equal on each side of the equation.
c Show that the nucleon numbers are equal on each side of the equation.
9 Write a balanced nuclear equation to show what happens to the polonium
isotope 218
84
Po when it emits a β-particle.
10 γ-rays and X-rays are both forms of ionising radiation.
a State one way in which they are similar.
b State one way in which they are different.
11 Two beams of ionising radiation are passed between charged metal plates.
They are deflected, as shown in Figure 23.9.

Figure 23.9
 a Name the type of radiation for each beam.
b State the polarity of each of the plates.
c Name the type of radiation which would not be deflected by the plates.
12 Figure 23.10 shows a radiation detection badge.

Figure 23.10: A radiation detection badge.

a Explain what you would see if the film inside the badge was developed
if the wearer had been exposed to:
i β-radiation
ii γ-radiation.
b Suggest a reason why the badge is not suitable for detecting exposure
to alpha radiation.
23.3 Activity and half-life
The activity of a radioactive source is the rate at which its nuclei decay. This can
be monitored using a Geiger counter which measures the count rate, the number
of emissions detected each second (or minute). The Geiger counter will not
detect every emission, so activity and count rate are not equal, but count rate is
used to monitor activity.
The activity of a source decreases with time. As nuclei decay and become stable,
there are fewer unstable nuclei, so there are fewer decays each second. The
count rate and activity both decrease following the same pattern as the number
of undecayed atoms.
All radioactive substances decay with the same pattern, as shown in Figure
23.11a. The graph shows that the amount of a radioactive substance decreases
rapidly at first, and then more and more slowly. In fact, because the graph tails
off more and more slowly, we cannot say when the last atoms will decay.
Different radioactive substances decay at different rates, some much faster than
others, as shown in Figure 23.11b.
We cannot say when the substance will have entirely decayed. We have to think
of another way of describing the rate of decay. As shown on the graph in Figure
23.11a, we identify the half-life of the substance.

Figure 23.11a: A decay graph for a radioactive substance. A curve of this shape
is known as an exponential decay graph. b: A steeper graph shows that a
substance has a shorter half-life.

The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the average time taken for half of the
atoms in a sample to decay, or the time for its activity or count rate to halve.
Half-lives can vary from a fraction of a second to thousands of years. Uranium
decays slowly because it has a very long half-life. The radioactive samples used
in schools usually have half-lives of a few years, so that they have to be replaced
when their activity has dropped significantly. Some radioactive substances have
half-lives that are less than a microsecond. No sooner are they formed than they
decay into something else.

Explaining half-life
After one half-life, half of the atoms in a radioactive sample have decayed.
However, this does not mean that all of the atoms will have decayed after two
half-lives. From the graph of Figure 23.11a, you can see that one-quarter will
still remain after two half-lives. Why is this?
Figure 23.12 shows one way of thinking about what is going on. Imagine that we
start with a sample of 100 undecayed atoms of a radioactive substance (white
circles in Figure 23.12a). They decay randomly (black circles in Figure 23.12b–
d) – each undecayed atom has a 50% chance of decaying in the course of one
half-life. So, looking at the panels in Figure 23.12, we can describe the decay
like this:

Figure 23.12: The pattern of radioactive decay comes about because the decay
of individual atoms is random. Half of the atoms decay during each half-life, but
we have no way of predicting which individual atoms will decay.

• At the start, in Figure 23.12a, there are 100 undecayed atoms.

• After one half-life, in Figure 23.12b, a random selection of 50 atoms has
decayed.
• During the next half-life, in Figure 23.12c, a random selection of half of the
remaining 50 atoms decays, leaving 25 undecayed.
• During the third half-life, in Figure 23.12d, half of the remaining atoms
 decay, leaving 12 or 13. (Of course, you cannot have half an atom.)
So the number of undecayed atoms goes 100, 50, 25, 12, … and so on. It is
because radioactive atoms decay in a random fashion that we get this pattern of
decay. Notice that, just because one atom has not decayed in the first half-life
does not mean that it is more likely to decay in the next half-life. It has no way
of remembering its past.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23.2

The count rate from a radioactive source is recorded for ten days. Figure
23.13a shows the results.
Use the graph to find the half-life of the source.

Figure 23.13a:

Step 1: Calculate the count rate after one half-life. The initial count rate is
80 count/s, so after one half-life it will have dropped to 40 count/s.
Step 2: Use the graph to find the time taken for the count rate to drop to 40
count/s. The half-life is two days.
Figure 23.13b:

Step 3: Check this by finding the time taken for the count rate to halve
again, from 40 count/s to 20 counts/s.
The count rate drops from 40 count/s to 20 count/s in two days,
confirming that the half-life is two days.
Figure 23.13c:

Answer
The half-life is two days.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23.3

Strontium-90 has a half-life of 28 years. The count rate of a sample is 480

count/s. How long will it take for the count rate to drop to 30 count/s?
Step 1: Draw a table like Table 23.4 to work out the number of half-lives
for the count rate to drop to 30 cps.

Number of half-lives Count rate / count/s)

0 480
1 240
2 120
3 60
4 30
 Table 23.4

So, the count rate has fallen to 30 count/s after four half-lives.
Step 2: Calculate how long this is in years.
One half-life is 28 years, so four half-lives: 4 × 28 = 112 years.
Answer
112 years

ACTIVITY 23.1
Modelling half-life
Radioactive decay is a random process. In this activity you will model
radioactive decay using another random process – throwing dice or small
cubes.
You will need a large number of dice – at least 100 – or small cubes with
one side marked (as in Figure 23.14).
 Figure 23.14: Using small cubes to model radioactive decay.

Place all the dice in a container, shake the container and throw the dice.
Any spinner showing 6, or cube with the marked side facing upwards, have
‘decayed’. Count how many have decayed.
Create a table like Table 23.5 and record your results.
Number decaying
Throw number (time) Number remaining (N)
(activity)

Table 23.5

Repeat until all the dice have decayed.

Draw two graphs:
• activity against time
• number of ‘nuclei’ remaining against time.
Questions
1 What do you notice about the two graphs?
2 Calculate the half-life from each graph. What do you notice?

Corrected count rate

The count rate recorded by a Geiger counter will include background
radioactivity as well as the count rate from the radioactive source. Often the
background count is negligible in comparison to the activity of the source. If the
background count is being taken into account, it should be subtracted from the
Geiger counter measurements.
corrected count rate =
measured count rate – background count rate

WORKED EXAMPLE 23.4

A scientist monitored a radioactive source every ten minutes using a Geiger
counter. She recorded the following readings.
Time / min 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Count rate /
330 230 165 120 92 70 56
count/min
After the experiment she recorded a background count of 30 count/min.
Plot a graph of corrected count rate against time and use it to find the half-life
of the source.
Step 1: Calculate the corrected count rates.

Time / min 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Count rate /
330 230 165 120 92 70 56
count/min
Corrected count
300 200 135 90 62 40 26
rate / count/min

Step 2: Plot these results on a graph.

Step 3: The initial count rate is 300 count/min. Draw a line from half of
this (300 ÷ 2 = 150 count/min) to find the half-life.
 Answer
half-life = 18 minutes

Questions
13 A sample of radioactive iodine contains 6400 undecayed atoms.
a How many will remain undecayed after three half-lives?
b The half-life of this isotope of iodine is eight days. How many atoms
remain undecayed after 40 days?
14 The half-life of thorium-227 is 19 days. How long will it take for the
activity of the source to decrease by 75%?
15 Figure 23.15 shows the count rate for a radioactive source at different
times. What is the half-life of this source?
Figure 23.15

16 Carbon has two isotopes, carbon-12 and carbon-14. Carbon-14 is

radioactive. The proportion of the two isotopes in living things remains
constant while they are alive, but when they die, the proportion of carbon-
14 drops as the isotope decays. Archaeologists studying a bone find it emits
20 count/s, whereas a similar modern bone emits 80 count/s.
The half-life of carbon-14 is 5700 years. Use this to estimate the age of the
bone that the archaeologists found.
23.4 Using radioisotopes
Radioisotopes at work
Now we will look at some of the many uses of radioisotopes. We will look at
these uses in four separate groups, related to:
• their different penetrating powers
• the damage their radiation causes to living cells
• the fact that we can detect tiny quantities of radioactive substances
• radioactive decay and half-life.

Uses related to penetrating power

Smoke detectors
These are often found in domestic kitchens, and in public buildings such as
offices and hotels. If you open a smoke detector to replace the battery, you may
see a yellow and black radiation hazard warning sign (Figure 23.16a). The
radioactive material used is americium-241, a source of α-radiation. Figure
23.16b shows how the smoke detector works.
Figure 23.16a: The inside of a smoke detector. The source of radiation is a
small amount of americium-241. b: Block diagram of a smoke detector. The
alarm sounds when smoke absorbs the α radiation.

The Americium source used in smoke detectors has a long half-life – about 430
years. This means that the count rate from the source will not drop significantly
over the time the detector is in use.
• Radiation from the source falls on a detector. Since α-radiation is charged, a
small current flows in the detector. The output from the processing circuit is
off, so the alarm is silent.
• When smoke enters the gap between the source and the detector, it absorbs
the α-radiation. Now no current flows in the detector, and the processing
circuit switches on, sounding the alarm.
In this application, a source of α-radiation is chosen because α-radiation is easily
absorbed by the smoke particles.
Thickness measurements
In industry, β-radiation is often used in to measure thickness. Manufacturers of
paper need to be sure that their product is of a uniform thickness. To do this, β-
radiation is directed through the paper as it comes off the production line. A
detector measures the amount of radiation getting through.
If the paper is too thick, the radiation level will be low and an automatic control
system adjusts the thickness. The same technique is used in the manufacture of
plastic sheeting and aluminium foil. β-radiation is used in this application
because α-radiation would be absorbed entirely by the paper, plastic or
aluminium.

Figure 23.17: If the material gets too thick, less radiation will be detected. This
will cause the rollers to be moved closer together, making the sheet thinner.

γ-radiation would hardly be affected, because it is the most penetrating.

Sheet steel factories use a similar system but with a γ source.
Fault detection
Sometimes γ-rays are used to detect faults in manufactured goods. Figure 23.18
shows an example, where engineers are looking for any faults in some pipework.
If there is a fault, radiation will escape through the fault. A photographic film is
strapped to the outside of the pipe and the radioactive source is placed on the
inside. When the film is developed, it looks like an X-ray picture, and shows any
faults in the welding.

Figure 23.18: Checking for faults in a metal pipe. The γ-ray source is stored in
the black box in the foreground, but can be pushed through the pipe to reach the
part that needs checking.

Uses related to cell damage – radiation therapy

Cancer treatment
The patient shown in Figure 23.19 is receiving radiation as part of a treatment
for cancer. A source of γ-rays (or X-rays) is directed at the tumour that needs to
be destroyed. The source moves around the patient, always aiming at the tumour.
In this way, other tissues receive only a small dose of radiation. Radiation
therapy is often combined with chemotherapy (using drugs to target and kill the
cancerous cells).

Figure 23.19: Radiation can cause cancer, but it can also be used in its cure.
This patient is being exposed to γ-rays from a radioactive source.

Food irradiation
This is a way of preserving food. Food often decays because of the action of
microbes. These can be killed using intense γ-rays. Because these organisms are
single-celled, any cell damage kills the entire organism. Different countries
permit different foods to be irradiated. The result is sterile food, which has been
used on space missions (where long-life is important) and for some hospital
patients whose resistance to infection by microbes may be low. Figure 23.20
shows a display from the Nehru Science Centre in Mumbai which demonstrates
the advantages of irradiating food.
Figure 23.20: The microbes which would cause decay have been killed by
radiation in the top sample.

Sterilisation
Sterilisation of medical products works in the same way as food irradiation.
Syringes, scalpels and other instruments are sealed in plastic bags and then
exposed to gamma radiation. Any microbes present are killed, so that, when the
packaging is opened, the item is guaranteed to be sterile. γ-radiation is used as it
can penetrate the plastic and can pass through the equipment, making sure all
parts are sterilised.
Figure 23.21: The sealed package ensures the syringe remains sterile once γ-
rays have killed all pathogens.

Uses related to detectability – radioactive tracing

Every time you hear a Geiger counter click, it has detected the radioactive decay
of a single atom. This means that we can use radiation to detect tiny quantities of
substances, far smaller than can be detected by chemical means. Such techniques
are often known as radioactive tracing. This has uses in medicine and
engineering.
Medicine
The diagnosis of some diseases may be carried out using a source of γ-radiation.
The patient is injected with a radioactive chemical and a scanner is used to trace
the path of the chemical. Figure 23.22 shows a scan of a patient with a kidney
blockage. The tracer technetium-99 is injected into the patient’s blood. The scan
shows that the tracer is not passing through the kidney shown on the right as
well as it is through the other kidney. This indicates that there is a blockage. The
technetium isotope used has a relatively short half-life – about six hours. This is
long enough for it to be used to trace the blockage, but it does not remain
radioactive very long inside the patient's body.
Figure 23.22: The tracer can be detected in both kidneys and the bladder. More
γ − rays are detected from the kidney seen on the right, suggesting a problem
there.

Engineering
Engineers may want to trace underground water flow, for example. They may be
constructing a new waste dump, and they need to be sure that poisonous water
from the dump will not flow into the local water supply. Under high pressure,
they inject water containing a radioactive chemical into a hole in the ground
(Figure 23.23). Then they monitor how it moves through underground cracks
using γ-detectors at ground level.
Figure 23.23: Detecting the movement of underground water. Engineers are
investigating how water moves underground. This can also affect the stability of
buildings on the site. Water containing a source of γ-radiation is pumped
underground and its passage through cracks is monitored at ground level.

Uses related to radioactive decay – half-life and

radiocarbon dating
Because radioactive substances decay at a rate that we can determine, we can use
them to discover how old objects and materials are. The best-known example of
this is radiocarbon dating.
All living things contain carbon. Plants get this from atmospheric carbon
dioxide, which they use in photosynthesis. Plant-eating animals get it from the
plants they eat to build their bodies. Meat-eating animals get it from their prey.
Most carbon is carbon-12, which is not radioactive. A tiny amount is radioactive
(carbon-14), which has a half-life of 5700 years. It emits β-radiation.
When a living organism dies, the carbon-14 in its body decays. As time passes,
the amount remaining decreases. We can measure the amount remaining, and
then work out when the organism was alive.
There are two ways to measure the amount of carbon-14 present in an object:
• by measuring the activity of the sample using a detector such as a Geiger
counter
• by counting the number of carbon-14 atoms using a mass spectrometer (a
large machine that uses magnetic fields to separate atoms according to their
mass and charge).
The Turin Shroud was famously dated in 1988 using a mass spectrometer. The
shroud was dated to 1325 ± 33 CE, which matches the dates of the earliest
historical records of its existence.
Problems can arise with radiocarbon dating. It may be that the amount of carbon-
14 present in the atmosphere was different in the past. Nuclear weapons testing
added extra carbon-14 to the atmosphere during the 1950s and 1960s. This
means that living objects that died then have an excess of carbon-14, making
them appear younger than they really are.
Other radioactive dating techniques
Geologists use a radioactive dating technique to find the age of some rocks.
Many rocks contain a radioactive isotope, potassium-40, which decays by β
emission to a stable isotope of argon. Argon is a gas, and it is trapped in the rock
as the potassium decays.
The rocks of interest form from molten material, for example, in a volcano.
There is no argon in the molten rock because it can bubble out. After the rock
solidifies, the amount of trapped argon gradually increases as the potassium
decays. Geologists take a sample and measure the relative amounts of argon and
potassium. The greater the proportion of argon, the older the rock must be.

Questions
17 A smoke detector uses an α-source. Explain why:
a a β- or γ-source would not work
b it is safe to have this type of smoke detector in your home
c the source used must have a half-life of years rather than days.
18 Describe what would happen if the sheet shown in Figure 23.17 became too
thin.
19 When medical equipment is to be sterilised, it is first sealed in a plastic
 wrapper. Why does this not absorb the radiation used?

PROJECT
Demystifying radioactivity
We have known about radioactivity for just over a century. In that time it
has attracted a lot of sensational attention as an amazing cure-all, an
invisible killer or for its fictional ability to mutate humans or animals into
monsters.

Figure 23.24: This is the international warning sign for ionising radiation.

Over the last century we have learnt that, although dangerous, ionising
radiation can be very useful, and if handled correctly, it can be safe.
Your task is to prepare a television segment or magazine article about
radioactivity aimed at teenagers to explain the science of radioactivity and
its uses and dangers.
You should:
• describe and illustrate the three types of radioactive emission
• explain how we can use knowledge about their penetrating power to
use and store sources safely
• explain what is meant by half-life and why some radioactive waste
 must be stored securely for many years
• include as many practical examples of the uses of radioisotopes as you
can.
You should present your work as a video or a group presentation to the
class, or in a written article.
Much of the fear which surrounds radioactive materials is made worse by
the language surrounding it. Words such as ‘mutation’ and ‘half-life’ are
not in everyday use and can add to the feeling that radiation is a weird
scientific threat. To counter this, your presentation should include and
explain the following key terms:
• radioactive
• α-particle
• β-particle
• γ-ray
• ionisation
• mutation
• radioactive isotope
• nuclear decay
• half-life
• background radiation.
SUMMARY

We are surrounded by ionising background radiation from natural and

man-made sources.
Unstable isotopes decay randomly.
Radioactive decay leads to three types of emissions – α-particles, β-
particles and γ-rays.
α and β emissions change the nucleus to that of a different element.
α and β emissions can be described using balanced nuclear equations.
The half-life of a radioactive source is the time taken for half its
radioactive nuclei to decay.
α, β and γ-radiation can all ionise cells, leading to mutations and tumours.
Safety precautions must be taken when using radioactive materials.
When used safely, radioactive materials have many uses, particularly in
medicine and engineering.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

1 Which of the following is a natural source of background

radiation?
[1]
A medical X-rays
B nuclear power stations
C cosmic rays
D nuclear weapons testing

2 Nuclear radiation can cause ionisation by knocking electrons

out of atoms. Which type of radiation is least ionising? [1]
A α-particles
B β-particles
C γ-rays
D they all have the same ionising power

3 A source contains 240 g of a radioactive isotope. The half-life

of the source is three hours. How much of the isotope will be
left after 12 hours?
[1]
A none
B 30 g
C 15 g
D 20 g
4 a Each of the statements below describe a type of radiation.
Type 1: Absorbed by a thin sheet of paper
Type 2: Absorbed by a thin sheet of metal
Which types of radiation are described in the statements?

Type 1 Type 2
 A β-radiation α-radiation
B γ-radiation β-radiation
C α-radiation β-radiation
D β-radiation γ-radiation

b Which statement is correct?

A γ-radiation is an electron emitted from the nucleus

B α-radiation has a negative charge
C γ-radiation has a positive charge
D β-radiation is an electron emitted from the nucleus [3]
[Total: 10]

5 A radioisotope of radium has a half-life of 1600 years.

a Define what is meant by the term ‘half-life’. [1]
b The paint in a luminous watch face contains 20 mg of the
radioisotope of radium. Calculate the mass that remains
undecayed after 3200 years. [1]
c Radium emits ionising radiation. State how this can affect
living cells. [1]
d Describe the safety precautions which must be taken
when radioactive radium is used in a school laboratory. [2]
[Total: 5]

6 Gold has different isotopes. Gold-198 is radioactive and

decays by β-emission.
a Name a particle which is identical to a β-particle. [1]
b Name a material which could be used to stop β-particles,
but which would not stop γ-rays. [1]
c The graph shows how the count rate from a sample of
gold-198 changes with time.
 Use the graph to find the half-life of gold-198.
[1]
[Total: 3]

7 α-particles are a type of ionizing nuclear radiation.

a Describe the structure of an α-particle. [1]

b Complete the following nuclear equation to show how

emitting an α-particle changes a uranium isotope.

[3]

c Scientists test a rock with a Geiger counter and find that it is

emitting radiation.
 They suspect it is -radiation. How could they test to
confirm this? [2]
[Total: 6]
8 The graph shows the readings obtained when a radioactive isotope was
monitored.
a Name the measuring instrument used to obtain these
results. [1]
b A student wrongly calculates the half-life as 2 hours.
Explain what the student has done wrong. [2]
c From the graph, deduce the correct half-life. Draw a
sketch graph to show your method. [3]
[Total: 6]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the
different topics. This will help you to see any gaps in your knowledge and
help you to learn more effectively.
Needs Confident
See Almost
I can more to move
Topic... there
work on
Recall the main sources of background
23.1
radiation.
State the units of count rate. 23.1
Explain what it means to say
23.2
radioactive emission is random.
Describe the nature, ionising effect
23.2
and penetration of α, β and γ.
Describe how ionising radiation can
23.2
be detected.
Describe how α, β and γ are affected
23.2
by electric and magnetic fields.
State why some isotopes are
radioactive and decay to become 23.2
different elements.
Describe how α- and β-emission
change nuclei, using nuclear 23.2
equations.
Define the half-life of a radioactive
23.3
source and use it in calculations.
Describe the effects of ionising
radiation on living cells, and the safety
23.3
precautions which should be taken
when using radioactive materials.
Describe and explain practical uses of 23.4
radioactive materials.