CHAPTER 6

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION IN TOURISM

1. Relationship between the environment and tourism
2. Types of environmental impact
 Negative impacts
 Positive impacts
3. Environmental quality
4. Environmental planning approach
5. Environmental policies and impact control measures
 General environmental policies
 Environmental impact control measure
6. Environmental resources management
 Managing natural resources
 Managing manmade resources
7. Environmental impact assessment
 EIA approach
 EIA model
 Environment
 Environment pollution of air/land/water/visual
 Caused by pollutants
Air pollutants – 2 types
Gaseous pollutants Particulate pollutants
H2S, SO2, NO, HCL, NH4, CO2, CO, Photochemical - fluorides, lead, cement kiln, Nacl,
Oxidants & Tobacco smoke Agro chemicals
Greenhouse effect causes "Global Warming"
Ozone gas (O3)
Acid rain
- Land pollution:
 Pollutants: fertilisers, herbicides/ insecticides/ fumigants/ mining complexes are soiled by
cadmium/ zinc/ lead/ copper/ nickel etc/ fly ash is created by industrial furnaces of paper
mills, oil refinery, chemicals & fertiliser plants, iron/ steel plants etc.

 Noise pollution: 0- maximum range

 Radiation pollution ; by x-rays,
 Visual pollution polluting socio cultural pollution.

Concept of Eco development:

Eco development refers to a form of planned growth which is concerned mainly with the
development of locally available resources within the constraints of the local environment so as
to maximise the local capacities of the biosphere to support human life and assimilate wastes.
UNEP has been encouraging the Eco development concept from the angle of villages, so that
development of villages throughout the world takes place on the basic natural resources and
human skills locally available.

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Relationship between the environment and tourism
Environment refers to all the surroundings or milieu of people. Physical environments comprise
of natural & built components. Natural environment is what exists from nature – climate &
weather, water features, topography and soils, geology, flora & fauna etc. The built environment
is comprised of the man-made physical features, e.g.: all types of buildings, other structures and
infrastructure development. In comprehensive environmental impact analysis, socio-cultural &
economic factors of the environment are includes. It is essential that these relationships be
understood in order to properly plan, develop and manage tourism. The Manila declarations of
the WTO adopted in 1980 emphasised the importance of both natural & cultural resources in
developing tourism & conserve these resources for benefit of tourism as well as the residents of
the tourism area.

There are three types of related environmental concerns in developing tourism.

1) Prevention or control of environmental impacts generated by the tourism development.
2) Need for continuous management of the environmental resources for tourism.
3) Maintenance and where necessary, improvement of the overall environmental quality of the
tourism areas for the benefit of both tourism & residents

Types of environmental impact

Tourism can generate both positive/negative/or no appreciable impacts, depending on how its
development is planned & controlled.

 Negative impacts:
1) Water pollution: Lack of proper sewage disposal system has not been installed for hotels,
resorts or other tourist facilities. There may be pollution of ground water from the sewage.
There should be planned out fall of sewage & its treatment so as to minimise the chances of
pollution.
2) Air pollution: tourism is generally considered as a "clean industry" but air pollution from
tourist vehicle & tourism development areas can result into excessive air pollution problem.
If strict emission standards are fixed & vegetated are probably planned & landscaped, then
up to same extent we can curb the problem of air.
3) Noise pollution: by tourist vehicle/aeroplanes/tourist attractions like amusement, parks/car or
motorcycle racetracks may reach irritating levels for nearby residents. Very loud noise can
result in ear damage and psychological stress.
4) Visual pollution: poorly designed hotels/tourist facility/building, non-compatibility with local
architecture/inadequate landscaping/use of large and ugly advertising signs/mesh of overhead
utility lines (electric, telephone & telegraph poles & lines)/poor maintenance of building and
landscaping can result in an unattractive environment for both hosts and tourists.
5) Water disposal problems: improper disposal of litter and solid waste from resorts and hotel
can generate environment & health problems, diseases, pollution and unattractiveness to the
destination.
6) Ecological disruption & environment hazards: several types of ecological problems e.g.:
overuse of fragile environment, killing of animals, deforestation, excessive collection of
corals by boat anchors, disruption of animal habits & activities by photography etc. can

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 results from uncontrolled tourism. Poor siting and engineering design of tourist facilities can
generate landslides, flooding, and disruption of any natural drainage channels etc may lead to
earthquakes, high winds, and flooding and land slippage.
7) Damage to historic/archaeological sites: over use or misuse of environmentally fragile
archaeological and historic sites can lead to damage of these features through excessive wear,
vibration, vandalism, graffiti writing etc.
8) Land use problems
9) Congestion & overcrowding

 Positive impacts:
Tourism if well planned & controlled can help maintain and improve the environment in various
ways. E.g.:
1. Conservation of natural areas
2. Conservation of archaeological and historical sites
3. Improvement of environment quality
4. Enhancement of environment
5. Improvement of infrastructure
6. Increasing environmental awareness
There may be other or more specific types of positive environment impacts depending on the
particular type of tourism development and the tourism area characteristics involved.

Environment quality:
Maintenance of a high level of overall environmental quality is essential for the success of most
types of tourism areas. Tourists are becoming increasingly sophisticated and demanding in their
requirements for a high level of environmental quality in their touring and destination areas, and
will often pay a premium to experience an attractive/clean & pollution free environment.
Overall, an environmental quality includes not only control of the environmental impacts from
the tourism development in the area but minimisation of all types of environmental problems.

Environmental planning approach:

According best way to avoid negative environmental impacts and reinforce positive impacts is
properly plan tourism, using the environmental planning approach, before development actually
takes place. Environmental planning must take place at all levels – National / Regional /
development area / site-specific for hotels, resorts and tourist attraction features be done in a
comprehensive manner, be integrated with the overall planning of the area, and consider possible
environmental impacts throughout the planning process as well as preparation of an
environmental impact assessment of the final plan.

The environmental planning approach puts more emphasis on considerations of the physical
environment in the survey / analysis and plan formulation, with priority given to application of
environmental planning policies & principles, but still within the framework of achieving
reasonable economic objectives.

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 Environmental policies and impact control measures:
There are various general policies and specific impact control measures which can be applied to
achieve environmentally sensitive & integrated tourism development and maintain or where
needed improve environmental quality of tourism area.

 General environment policies:

Applicable to the planning in tourism includes the following –
Development of tourism in a carefully planned and controlled manner not exceeding carrying
capacities. E.g. Bhutan and the Seychelles have done, at least for certain time period.
Use of tourism as a technique for conservation & enhancement of quality of natural areas &
environmental quality.
Maintenance of moderate growth rate to allow sufficient time to residents to adapt to tourism
& monitoring & control environmental impacts.
Concentration of tourist facilities in certain areas to allow for the efficient provision of
infrastructure thus reducing possibility of pollution, socio-cultural impacts & enhancing
integrated land use planning.
Staging in tourism development so that when one area becomes saturated, a new can be
developed to better distribute tourist use of the country or region.
Use of selective marketing technique to attract environment friendly tourists.
Use of different techniques to reduce seasonal/peak use of facilities & attractions thus evenly
distributing tourist use throughout the year.
In large scale mass tourism is expected to generate environmental problems, give
consideration to other forms of tourism development such as :
1) Quality tourism & selective marketing attracting affluent tourist to bring economic benefits.
2) Special interest e.g. marine diving, natural safaris
3) Village tourism/farm/water based tourism, which doesn't require intensive development of
land facilities.

 Environmental impact control measures:

In addition to the general environmental policies, there are many specific environmental control
measures to mitigate negative environmental quality of the tourism area. They are as follows:
1) Installation of water supply and sewage treatment and disposal systems for hotels and other
tourist facilities meeting (WHO) World Health Organisation standards.
2) Development of proper sanitary disposal of solid waste generated by hotels and other tourist
facilities.
3) Construction of adequate drainage systems to prevent flooding during rainy periods and
standing water which may cause health problems.
4) Careful management of visitor flows and, where necessary application of visitor use controls
at natural & cultural tourist attractions features to avoid congestion and environmental
deterioration of these place.
5) Provision of open space & parks and generous use of suitable landscaping in resorts, at
tourist attraction feature sin urban areas and along shore line/roads & walkways.
6) Application of land use zoning regulations and site planning standards / architectural design
standards in tourism area.
7) Requirement of undergoing of utility lines in tourism areas.

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8) Control of littering through public education.
9) Proper maintenance of tourist vehicle.
10) Encouragement of urban & village beautification & greening program
11) Maintenance of environmental health & safety standards for both residents &
tourists/incorporation of energy conservation techniques etc.

Management of natural resources:

The process of planning natural attractions is generally as follows:
1. Determination of the development & conservation objectives.
2. Environmental / ecological surveys of wildlife, flora & ecological systems with identification
of special environmental areas to be preserved such as wildlife habitats.
3. Establishments of visitor carrying capacities.
4. Projection of tourist demands & if necessary, reconciliation made with the carrying capacity
to arrive at optimum visitor use levels.
5. Determination of types of visitors facilities needed & projection of facility requirements.
6. Plan formulation including evaluation of alternative plans based on the plan objectives and
environmental impact.
7. Final environmental impact analysis.
8. Implementation of the final plan & continues management of the resources.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):

The EIA procedure being increasingly applied throughout the world to all types of development
including tourism projects, to ensure that any negative environmental impacts are analysed and
minimised.

 EIA mode:
A basic model for environmental impact is presented here to provide a guideline, but each
country or region should adopt this to their particular requirements. This model does not include
economic or socio-cultural factors, which can be added for a comprehensive assessment.
First, an environmental impact checklist is prepared on the particular characteristics of the
development being proposed & its environment, such as follows:
1) Air pollution
2) Surface water pollution including rivers and streams, lakes and ponds and coastal waters
3) Ground water pollution
4) Pollution of domestic water supply
5) Noise pollution, generally and at peak periods
6) Solid waste disposal problems
7) Water drainage & flooding
8) Damage/or destruction of flora & fauna
9) Ecological disruption and damage including both land and water areas and plant and animal
habitats.
10) Land use & circulation problems within the project area and problems created in nearby
areas by the project
11) Pedestrian and vehicular congestion generally and at peak period

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12) Landscape aesthetic problems ( building design, landscaping, signs)
13) Environmental health problems such as malaria & cholera
14) Damage to historic, archaeological & cultural sites
15) Damage to specific important and attractive environmental features such as large trees,
helicopters and unusual geological formalities
16) Generation of erosion & landslide problems
17) Likelihood of damage from environmental hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
hurricanes etc.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION IN TOURISM

Approach to socio economic considerations

 Perspective on socio economic impacts
 Host & guest relationships

Types of socio cultural and economic impacts

 Positive impacts
 Negative impacts

Socio economic policies and impact control measures

 General socio economic policies
 Socio economic impact control measures
 Socio cultural planning
 Economic enhancement programming

Measuring economic costs and benefits

 Types of economic input measurement
 Feasibility analysis

Management of cultural resources

 Arts and handicrafts
 Other cultural resources

Socio economic impact Assessment

Approach to Socio Economic Considerations
Because of their close interrelationship / socio cultural and economic consideration are examined
together. Tourism economics is specialised subject, which is only broadly outlined to give the
tourism planner a basic understanding of the subjects so that he can work effectively with the
tourism economist.

Perspective on Socio Economic Impacts;- The socio economic impacts of tourism have made
this field a rather controversial one in recent years, especially in areas where tourism
development have been rapid and often uncontrolled with the results that socio economic as well

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as environmental impacts have been detrimental. However, the contemporary approach is that
substantial economic benefits can accrue (or advantage) from tourism and negative socio-cultural
impacts minimised with carefully planned and managed development.

Host and Guest Relationships

Before examining specific types of impacts, it is important to understand the basis for these
impacts taking place
1. Some types of socio economic impacts are the normal stresses resulting from any economic
development, even when the residents and tourist are of the same cultural backgrounds and
socio economic levels, as if often the case with domestic tourism.
2. Other impacts result from socio economic differences between the residents and tourists of
either the same or different cultural backgrounds. The states of social / economic / political
development of host society, relationship of host society with foreigners are the critical
factors to be considered.
3. Third type of impacts is the results of substantial cultural differences between residents and
tourists. These differences may relate to the basic value system religious belief, customs, life
styles, behavioural patterns, dress code, and sense of time budgeting and other factors.
Differences in language between tourists and residents can create frustrating situations and
sometimes leads to misunderstanding. Even with in a particular society, there are often
considerable differences among regions and especially between urban and village / rural
areas, with urban dwellers, life styles, dress etc. While rural and village people are still very
traditional.
The basic goals of tourism are considered to be the generation of mutual understanding and
respect among different cultures. Therefore, the socio cultural and economic considerations in
tourism are of almost importance.

Types of Socio Economic Impacts

There can be both positive and negative socio economic impacts (socio economic benefits and
costs). They are as follows:
 Direct economic benefits of providing employment, income and foreign exchange which
leads to improving of living standards of the local populations and overall national / regional
economic development.
 Direct economic benefits of increased government revenues (through various types of
taxation on tourism) which can be used to develop community facilities and infrastructure
and general economic development.
 Indirect economic benefit of tourism being a catalyst to the development of other economic
sectors such as agriculture and industry (including cottage industry) through the supplying of
goods and services used in tourism.
 Indirect socio economic benefit of improvements to transportation facilities and services and
other infrastructure necessary for tourism which also serves general community social and
economic needs.
 Stimulus for conservation of important elements of the cultural heritage of an area because
they are partially justified and financed by tourism attractions including;

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  Conservation of archaeological and historic sites and interesting architectural styles.
 Preservation and sometime revitalisation of traditional arts, handicrafts, dance, music,
drama and customs, ceremonies, dress and certain aspects of traditional life styles.
 Financial assistance for the maintenance of museums and other cultural facilities and
activities and for supporting the organisation of special cultural festivals and events.
 Renewal of sense of pride by residents in their culture when they observe tourists
appreciating it.
 Cross cultural exchange of tourists and residents learning more about one another's cultures
resulting in greater mutual understanding and respect.

Negative Impacts
If not well planned and controlled, tourism can generate negative impacts including the
following
 Loss of potential economic benefits to the local area and sometimes resentment by residents.
If tourist facilities are owned and managed by outsiders, although sometimes there is, at least
initially, no alternative to this.
 Reduction of potential foreign exchange earnings when imported goods and services are
utilised in tourism, although there is also sometimes no alternative to this.
 Economic distortions and resentment created if tourism is concentrated in only on or a few
areas of a country without corresponding economic developments in other area.
 Economic distortions created if tourism attracts too many employees from other economic
sectors such as agriculture and fisheries.
 Inflation of local prices of land goods and services because of the demand of tourism
 Resentment and conflicts with in residents and families cultural conflicts between residents
and migrants.
 Overcrowding of amenity features / shopping and community facilities and congestion of
transportation systems by tourists to the extent that residents cannot conveniently use them.
 Over commercialisation and loss of authenticity of traditional arts and crafts, customs and
ceremonies to suit tourist demand, for e.g. important traditional dance and music
performances may be greatly shortened and modified to suit tourists tastes and schedules, and
hand-crafted objects of religious significance may be produced as tourist souvenirs.
 Demonstration effects of residents especially young people imitating tourists / their life style
patterns.
 Deterioration of cultural monuments and loss of cultural artefacts through over use by
tourists.
 Pre-emption (right to do) of beaches and other amenity areas for exclusive tourism use
without provision of access to residents, which leads to local resentment and loss of
amenities.
 Misunderstanding and conflict arising between residents and tourists because of difference in
language, custom, religion, values and behavioural pattern. e.g. Jootho concept in Nepal /
Namaste for greeting.
 Violation of local dress codes by tourists for e.g. women must be properly dressed in Islamic
societies.
 Problems of drugs / alcoholism, crime, prostitution which may be exacerbated (make worse)
by tourism.

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Socio Economic Policies and Impact Control Measures
To lessen the negative impacts and reinforcing the positive one

General Socio Economic Policies

1. Develop tourism in a gradual manner, so that local residents have sufficient time to adapt to
and understand it, and the government can properly plan, organise and monitor tourism
development as it proceeds.
2. Maintain a form and scale of appropriate tourism development for the local environment and
society. Where possible develop other sector also for balanced economic development.
3. Involve residents and their spokesmen in the decision making process of planning and
developing tourism so that residents can get guidance on how they can get benefit from it.
4. Base tourism at least in part on the cultural resources of the area and there by use tourism to
help justify and financially support the preservation and maintenance of archaeological and
historic sites, conservation and revitalisation of traditional dance /music / drama / arts and
handicrafts unique to the area, development of museums and cultural centres and
organisation of cultural events.
5. Integrate tourism by; developing strong links with other economic sectors

Maximise local employment

Encourage private ownership
6. Plan, develop and organise tourism apply regional distribution policies, so that no area
becomes too congested with tourists and residents can easily use community facility and,
services, and the income from tourism is more evenly distributed.

Socio Economic Impacts Control Measures

Some more specific measures, which can be applied to lessen negative impacts, include the
followings:
 Maintain the authenticity of dance / music / drama performances and of arts and handicrafts
through establishing quality standards and conducting training programs.
 Make certain that residents have easy access to tourist attraction / facilities / services.
 If most residents of country can't afford to use the existing commercial tourist facilities,
provide special inexpensive / subsidised accommodation / and recreation facility for
development of domestic tourism.
 Provide incentives for local ownership, management and operation of hotels and other tourist
facilities. Therefore, those residents can receive direct economic benefits.
 Through techniques of selective marketing and controlling the types of tourist attraction and
facilities provided, encourage the kinds of tourist who will appreciate and respect the local
cultural traditions.
 Educate residents about the concepts / benefits / problems of tourism and the customs,
behavioural patterns and values system of tourists / do's and don'ts for tourists to avoid
misunderstandings with local employees.
 Design hotels and other tourist facilities to reflect local architectural styles so that these
facilities give unique sense of place to tourists.
 Train local people to work effectively in all levels of tourism including managerial and
technical positions. Foreign language training for better understanding of tourists.

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Socio Cultural Programming
The national / regional tourism offices must take the lead role in identifying socio-economic
impacts and applying policies and measures to minimise the costs and maximise the benefits.
With the help of programme and policies continuous monitoring of socio-economic impacts must
be maintained so that problems can be identified and necessary actions can be taken.

Model Socio Cultural Programme Organisational Structure

Support Involved Education Cultural

Factors Entities Training in &

Conservation
Technical Community Community organization of dance &
education about music performances
capability organizations
Tourism

Training in &
Facility & Government
Tourist organization of arts/
equipment agencies
handicrafts/ production
Coordination by & marketing
Tourism Agency

Organization of special
cultural events

Economic Enhancement Programming

There are various approaches which can be applied to optimise the economic benefits of tourism
to the country / region & local community.
Some approaches are:
1. Strengthening economic cross – sectoral linkages: - between tourism / agriculture / fisheries /
production of food items / poultry products in restaurants.
2. Ownership of tourist facilities & services: - to maximise retention of profits for the capital
investment made.
3. Maximisation of local employment: - so that workers’ wages & salaries remain in the
society.
4. Local management of tourist facilities & services: - e.g. management of international chain
hotels / resorts
5. Local Tour & Travel services
6. Shopping for handicrafts / souvenirs, speciality items and duty free and general consumer
goods provide maximum earnings.
7. Expansion of tourist activities: - to increase length of stay / numbers of tourist
arrivals/earnings.

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Measuring Economic Cost & Benefits
Types of Economic Impact Measurements
 Contribution to gross national ( or regional ) product ( GNP / GRP )
 Contribution to foreign exchange earnings
 Employment generation
 Multiplier effect
 Contribution to government revenues

Management of Cultural Resources

1. By doing management of arts & handicrafts
2. Other cultural resources
 performing arts
 cultural events
 traditional life styles
 museums
 cuisine
 antiques & cultural artefacts

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