Grade IX Chapter: Structure of Molecules Chemistry

S.L.O. 4.3.7 differentiate ionic and covalent compounds with examples

Ionic compounds Covalent compounds
Ionic compounds are formed by complete transfer of Covalent compounds have bonds where electrons are
electrons between atoms and from strong electrostatic shared between atoms
interactions between ions
An ionic compound is formed between a metal and a A covalent bond is formed between two non-metals
non-metal Example: NaCl Example: Cl2, O2, H2O
The atoms have the electronegativity difference greater The atoms have similar electronegativities or have a
than seven difference less than 1.7
Eg: Na= 0.93 Cl= 3.2 3.2-0.93=2.27 Eg: Cl2 =3.2-3.2=0 H(2.2)Cl(3.2)= 3.2-2.2=1
At room temperature they are mostly crystalline solids At room temperature they are mostly liquids and gases
Eg: NaCl Eg: water (liquid) and oxygen (gas)
They have high melting and boiling points They have usually low melting and boiling points
0 0
Eg: M.P of NaCl is 800 C and B.P is 1413 C Eg: boiling point of water is 100 0C
In solid state they have negligible electrical They are usually bad conductors of electricity
conductance but they are good conductors in solution
and in the molten form
They dissolve easily in polar solvents like water They are usually insoluble in water but are soluble in
non- aqueous solvents like alcohol and acetone
Examples: Examples:
Sodium chloride (NaCl), Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4 ) Methane (CH4), Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

S.L.O. 4.4.3 Differentiate between Covalent and Co-ordinate Covalent Bond

Covalent Bond Co-ordinate Covalent Bond
1. Mutual sharing occurs One sided sharing occurs
2. It is a type of intramolecular attraction It is a type of intermolecular attraction
3. The covalent bond may form between homo atoms It is formed between hetero atoms; one must having
( Cl2) and hetero atoms (HCl) one un bonded electron pair available for sharing.
4. It forms polar and non-polar compounds It forms polar compounds
5. The bond is represented by short lines. eg: single Dative bond is shown by a short arrow. ( )
( ), double ( ) and triple( )
Similarities
 Both are made by sharing of electrons.
 Both are polar in nature
 Both are forms of covalent bond.
Differentiate between polar and non-polar covalent compounds.
Polar Compounds Non-polar Compounds
There is appearance of partial charge due to unequal There is no charge even not any partial charge due to
sharing of bonded electrons equal sharing of bonded electrons
Electronegativity difference of bonded atoms is less Electronegativity difference of bonded atoms is 0
than 1.7
They are heteroatomic molecules They are heteroatomic molecules
They are dissolve in water They usually do not dissolve in water
Aqueous They do not conduct electricity
Examples: H2O, HCl Examples: H2, Cl2, O2
Similarity: Both are formed by the sharing of electrons.
S.L.O.4.5.1 & S.L.O.4.5.2
Describe the physical properties of metals based on the structure of metals and mobility of electrons
Physical Properties: Malleability, Ductility, Melting and Boiling Points, Luster, Tensile Strength, Electrical
and Thermal Conductivity
Metallic Bond:
In metals, the hold of nucleus over the outermost electrons is weak because of large sized atoms and greater
number of shells in between nucleus and valence electrons. i.e.high shielding effect and they have tendency to lose
their outermost electrons easily because of low ionization potential. These loose or free electrons of all metal
atoms move freely in the space between atoms of a metal. Nuclei of metal atoms appear submerged or embedded
in the sea of mobile electrons. These mobile electrons are responsible for holding the atoms of metals together
forming a metallic bond.
Properties:
1. All most all metals are solids except mercury Metallic solids are made up entirely of metal atoms arranged
in crystal lattices. They are joined together by metallic bonds. The atoms in the crystal become positive
ions surrounded by a sea of electrons, and the interaction between these ions and the valence electrons
binds the entire crystal together
2. They have high melting and boiling points (except alkali metals). The strength of a metal is due to
electrostatic attraction between the positive ions and the “sea” of valence electrons in which they are
immersed. The larger the nuclear charge (atomic number) of the atomic nucleus, and the smaller the atom’s
size, the greater this attraction and melting and boiling points increases along a period. Eg: Fe 1539°C
3. They possesses metallic luster and can be polished because of the free electrons they have. The free
electrons can move freely in the metal causing any light incident on them to get reflected back. This
reflection is specular reflection rather than diffused and thus the metal surface appears shiny or lustrous.
4. Their atoms can slide past each other without breaking their metallic bonds because they are surrounded by
a sea of electrons due to this property They are malleable (can be hammered into sheets and easily
shaped)and ductile (easily stretched into wires)
5. They are sonorous (give off a tone when hit)
6. They are good conductors of heat and electricity because of the one or more valence electrons which is
relatively free to move between metal atoms
7. Metals are denser than nonmetals. This is due to the tightly packed crystal lattice of the metallic structure
8. They are hard (except sodium and potassium) and have high tensile strength, because considerable force is
required to break the metallic bond

S.L.O. 4.6.1 Intermolecular Forces (Dipole-Dipole, Hydrogen bonding and Dispersion Forces):
Types of Attractive Intermolecular Forces
1. Dipole-dipole forces: Electrostatic interactions of permanent dipoles in molecules; includes hydrogen
bonding.
2. Dipole-induced dipole forces or London dispersion forces: Forces caused by correlated movements of the
electrons in interacting molecules, which are the weakest of intermolecular forces and are categorized as
van der Waals forces.
Dispersion Force
Dispersion forces are weak intermolecular forces caused by temporary dipoles. Dispersion forces are present
between any two molecules (polar/non-polar molecules) when they are almost touching.
Temporary Dipoles
Temporary dipoles are created when electrons (which are in constant movement around the nucleus)
spontaneously come closer (gather at a place in an atom). This uneven distribution of electrons can make one side
of the atom more negatively charged than the other, thus creating a temporary dipole, even on a non-polar
molecule. The more electrons there are in an atom, the further away the shells are from the nucleus; thus, the
electrons can become lopsided more easily, and these forces are stronger and more frequent. These intermolecular
forces are also sometimes called “induced dipole-induced dipole” or “momentary dipole” forces.
Because of the constant motion of the electrons, an atom or molecule can develop a temporary (instantaneous)
dipole when its electrons are distributed unsymmetrically about the nucleus.

A second atom or molecule, as a result, can be distorted by the appearance of the dipole in the first atom or
molecule (because electrons repel one another) which leads to an electrostatic attraction between the two atoms or
molecules.
Significance:
 These attractive forces help nonpolar substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into solids when the
temperature is lowered sufficiently.

Dipole-Dipole Force
Dipole-dipole interactions are intermolecular attractions that result from two permanent dipoles interacting.
Significance:
 This type of interaction between molecules accounts for many physically and biologically significant
phenomena such as the elevated boiling point of water.
 Erythrocytes, commonly known as red blood cells, are comprised of four protein subunits and a heme
molecule. For an erythrocyte to form properly, multiple steps must occur, all of which involve dipole
interactions.

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonds are a type of dipole-dipole interactions. This bond is formed by the attraction between a partially
positively charged hydrogen atom attached to a highly electronegative atom (such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine)
and another nearby electronegative atom.
Significance:
 Hydrogen bonds are incredibly important in biology, because hydrogen bonds keep the DNA bases paired
together, helping DNA maintain its unique structure.
 Hydrogen bonding in water contributes to its unique properties, including its high boiling point (100 °C)
and surface tension.