Biology Practical 2024

BOTANY
MAJOR
EXPERIMENTS

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Experiment No.1
Object:Description of flowers in semi botanical language.
Floral characters:
Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, Actinomorphic, bisexual, cyclic, tetramerous, hypogynous and yellow.
Calyx:
4 sepal, arrange in two whorls 2+2, polysepalous, imbricate, hypogynous, cadacous and some petalloid.
Corolla:
Petals 4, Poly petalous, Cruciform, each petal differentiate into claw and limb, valvate, hypogynous &
yellow.
Androecium%
6 stamen, arrenge in two whorl 2+4, polyandrous, tetradynamous, bilocular, hypogynous.
Gynoecium:
Bicarpellary syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, but later bilocular due to the formation of replum,
parietal placentation ovules found in two rows.

Fruit: Siliqua, Silicula

Seed% Many non endospermic and oily.


Floral formula: Ebr, , O,K 2 2 , C 4 x , A 2 4 , G(2)

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Experiment No.2
Object: Description of flowers in semi botanical language.
Floral characters:
Bractete, pedicillate, complete,Regular, Actinomorphic, bisexual, cyclic, Pentamerous, hypogynous.
Epicalyx:
Whorls of 5-7 Bractets which arrange outside of calyx, Separated, valvate Hypogynous, green
Calyx: 5 sepal, Gamosepalous, hypogynous, Bell shaped, Green and perisitant
Corolla: Petal 5, Poly petallous, twisted, Regular, Attached with staminal tube, Red.
Androceium%
Infinite stamen, Monoadlephous, Upper part is free Epipetalous Anther lobe is unilobed kidney shaped,
filament form staminal tube
Gynoceium:
Pentacarpelary syncarpous, ovary superior, Pentalocular, Axile placentation, Style long and situated in
staminal tube

Fruit % Capsule

 
Br, ,O,Epi57 ,K(5) ,C5 A() ,G(5)
Floral formula% 

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Experiment No.3
Object: Description of flowers in semi botanical language.
Floral characters:
Recemose inflorescence, Solitary axile flower, bractet, pedicellate, complete, Zygomorphic, bisexual,
cyclic, hypogynous and White, Papillionacious
Calyx: 5 sepal, gamosepalous, imbricate aestivation, bell shaped, hypogynous, hairy and perisitant
Corolla:
5 Petals, Polypetalous, descending imbricate, irregular, Papillionacious, outer is vexillum, lateral two
are wings and anterior are keel they are boat shaped, hypogynous,
Androceium% 10 stamen,didelphous 1+(9), bilocular, Dorsifixed,introse, hypogynous.
Gynoceium:
unilocular , monocarpellary,overy superior, style small curved, stigma hairy

Fruit: Pod
Seed% Many non endospermic


Br,%,O,K (5) ,C12(2) A1(9) ,G1
Floral formula: 

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Experiment No.4
Object:
To prepare temporary acetocarmine stained mount of onion root tip to study various stages of
mitosis.
Requirements:
Onion bulbs, conical flasks/glass bottles, corked vital/tube, petridishes, scissors, forceps, needles,
methyl alcohol, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, acetocarmine, distilled water, spirit lamp, micro-
scope, slides, coverslips, blotting paper etc.
Procedure:
1. Take a medium sized bulb of onion and trim off the old roots from its base by means of a sharp
blade.
2. Place the onion on a conical flask/glass bottle full of water, with its base touching the water.
Keep it for a week to grow the roots.
3. Cut 5 mm off the tips of roots and put them into a vital containing a mixture of 1:3 acetic acid and
methanol. Keep for one hour. This process is called fixation. (cutting of root tips should be done in
the morning between 1 hour during the summer and between 2 hours during the winter).
4. Remove 2 or 3 root tips and hydrolyse them by warming to 60°C in 1 N hydrochloric acid for 15
minutes.
5. Remove the root tips and wash them thoroughly in water.
6. Place a drop of acetocarmine on a slide. Put one hydrolysed root tip in a drop and place a coverslip
on the root.
7. Gently squash the root by tapping the coverslip with the blunt end of a pencil or needle until the
cells separate and spread out into a very thin layer.
8. Gently warm the slide over a flame for a few seconds.
9. Observe first under the low power of the microscope to locate the dividing cells. Examine the
different stages of mitosis under the high power of the microscope.
Observations:
Under low power of the microscope, rectangular cells with pink nucleus are seen scattered.
Under high power of the microscope following stages distinct:
1. Interphase:
i. It is a non- dividing phase of the cell cycle between two successive cell divisions.
ii. Chromatin fibres appear in the form of a network within the nucleus.
iii. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct.
2. Prophase:
i. Chromatin material shortens and condenses into thread like structures called chromosomes.
ii. Each chromosome consists of two chromatids, jointed at a point called centromere.
iii. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus astart disintegration and disappear at the end of prophase.
3. Metaphase:
i. A bipolar spindle develops in the cell. Chromosomes become thick and two chromatids of each
chromosome become clear.

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ii. Chromosomes become arranged at the equator of the spindle.

iii. Each chromosome get attached to the spindle fibres at its centromere.
4. Anaphase:
i. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate from the centromere and move to-
wards the opposite poles.
ii. The daughter chromosomes (separated chromatids) appear V, J, L and I shapes, depending upon
the position of centromere.
5. Telophase:
i. The spindle disappears and the daughter chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin fibres at the
two poles.
ii. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears and two daughter nuclei appear at opposite poles.
iii. Cytokinesis occurs by cell plate formation between the two daughter nuclei.

Precautions:
1. The base of the onion bulb should be in contact of water while growing the roots.
2. Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 10 A.M.
3. The slide should be warmed gently much above the flame of the spirit lamp.

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Experiment No. 5
Object:
To study plant population density by quadrate method.
Requirements:
hammer, nails thread,

Principal:
Density =Total number of individuals of the species in all the sampling unit (S) / Total number
of sampling units studied (Q)
D=(S/Q)

Procedure:
1. In the selected site of study, hammer the nails firmly without damaging the vegetation.
2. Fix four nails to make a square.
3. Tie each end of the nails using a thread, to make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat.
4. Similarly make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study.
5. Count the number of individuals of a species "A" present in the first quadrat.
6. Record the data in the table.
7. Similarly count the number of individuals of the species "A" in other quadrats respectively and
record the data in the table.
8. Count the number of individuals of a species "B" present in the all quadrat.
9. Record the data in the table.
10. Repeat the same procedure for species C and record the data in the table.
11. We can calculate the density of plant population by this equation:

Observations:

Total Number Total Num ber of

Plant Number of individuals in Each Density
of Individuals Quadrats Studied
Species quadrats D=(S/ Q)
(S) (Q)
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
A 2 0 5 7 10 0 0 0 0 3 27 10 2.7
B 1 0 4 0 8 0 3 0 0 2 20 10 2.0
C 4 0 0 3 0 6 0 0 1 2 19 10 1.9

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Experiment No. 6
Object:
To study plant population frequency by quadrate method.
Requirements:
hammer, nails thread,

Principal:
Percentage Frequency=(Number of sampling units in which the species occurs)/(Total number
of sampling units employed for the study)*100
F=N/Q×100
Procedure:
· In the selected site of study, hammer the nails firmly in the soil without damaging the vegetation.
· Fix four nails to make a square.

· Tie each end of the nails using a thread, to make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat.

· Similarly, make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study.

· Select the plant species for study of the population frequency.

· Observe the presence of species “A” in the first quadrat and mark it in the table.

· Similarly, check for the presence of species “A” in other quadrats respectively and record the data in
the table.

· Observe the presence of species “B” in all quadrats and mark it in the table.

· Repeat the same procedure for species C and record the data in the table.

Observations:

Plant Quadrats em ployed in the Number of quadrats in which Percentage Frequency

Species study the species is present (N) F=N/ Q* 100
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
A P P P P P 5 50%
B P 1 10%
C P P P P 4 40%

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ZOOLOGY
MAJOR
EXPERIMENTS

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Experiment No.5
Object:
To study the composition of different types of soils.
Requirements:
Digger, polythene bags, hand lens, meshes of different pore sizes, measuring cylinders, water etc.
Procedure:
Collect soil sample from different types of localities, like crop field, roadside park etc. in polythene bags
and bring them to the laboratory. All three types of soil take in different measuring cylinders and 25–25
mL water add in each measuring cylinder. It observe after 15 min.

Observation:
Heavy particles settle down first and lighter ones afterwards. Humus floats on the water surface. Ob-
serve these layers carefully and record your observations in tabular from as under.

Thickness of x layer
% of soil can measure by following formula % of x layer = ×100
Total thickness of soil

Precautions:
1. Soil samples should be separately packed and brought to the laboratory.
2. The thickness of layers formed by different particles in the cylinder should be carefully mea-
sured and their relative percentage should be accurately calculated.

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Experiment No.6
Object:
To study pH of different types of soil.
Requirements:
Soil samples (from two different sites such as garden soil, roadside soil, pond, bank soil), test tubes,
funnel, filter paper, pH papers of different range distilled water, beaker.

Observation:
Record the pH of different soil samples in the observation table.

S.N o. Soil sample s pH

1 C rop fie ld soil
2 Road side soil
3 Pond bank soil
Precautions:
1. Wash the glassware throughly and get it oven dried before the experiment.
2. Use standard reagents.

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Experiment No.7
Object:
To study the water holding capacity of different types of soil.
Requirements:
Garden soil, roadside soil, filter paper, small tin boxes with perforated bottom, filter paper, balance,
peteridishes, oven, water etc.
Procedure:
At first we take 4 measuring cylinders and label A, B, C then set a funnel on their mouth. A thin cloth
placed in funnel and soil sample fill in funnel and with each soil sample 100 mL water is added. After 3
min we take observation.

Observations:
Record the observations and results in the table as follows:
Amount of w ater in measuring cylinder after each 3 min.
S.N. SOIL SAM P L E
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
1 Garden soil
2 Road side soil
3 Crop field soil

Result:
1. Maximum water holding capacity and rate of percolation is in loam so it is most useful for plants.
2. Water holding capacity of silt is high but percolation rate is low. Soil is unuseful for plants.
3. Clay hold a rich amount of water but air is absent in this soil so it is also unuseful for plants.
Precautions:
1. Weighing should be done accurately.
2. Weighing of tins after taking out of the petridishes should be done only when dripping of water
has stopped.

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Experiment No.8

Study of Moisture content:

Requirements:
Digger, Polythene bages, Hand lengs, Meshes of different pore sizes, Measuring cylinders, Water
etc.
Procedure:%
Take small amount of soil from a sample in a dry crucible and weight it. Record the weight. Heat
the crucible on a burner to dry the soil and then cool it. Weight the crucible again to record the
weight of dry soil. Repeat the process for each soil sample.
Observation:

M ois tu re
In itia l w e ig ht in (x ) Fina l W e ig ht c onte nt (y-x )
S .N o. S oil s a m ple s
gm (y) g m gm
1 C r op fie l d s oil

2 R oa d s ide s oi l

3 R i ve r ba n k soil

Result:
Crop field soil have large moisture content.
Precautions:
1. Soil samples should be separately packed and brought to the laboratry.
2. The thickness of layers formed by different particles in the cylinder should be carefully mea-
sured and their relative percentage should be accurately calculated.

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Experiment No.9
Object:Collect water from different water bodies and study them for pH.
Requirements:
Water samples from different sites such as pond water, tap water, tube well water, river/canal water
etc., test tubes, pH papers.
Procedure:
1 Collect water from tube well , Pond, tapwater and label their jar A,B,C and D
2 Took water in test tube 3/4 height
3 In Each test tube with help of PH paper observe pH

Observations:
Record the pH of different water samples in the observation table.

S.No. Water samples pH

1 Tube well water
2 River Water
.
3 Pond water
4 Tape water

Result: pH value of water is 7.8

Precautions:
1. Take clean and dried test tubes.
2. Dry the pH papers before comparing the colour with the colour scale.
3. Match the colour carefully and determine pH accurately.

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Experiment No.10
Object:
Collect water from different water bodies and study them for clarity and presence of particulate matter
(suspended pollutants) in different samples of water.
Requirements:
Cardboard box, electric bulb or torch, beaker, different samples of water.
Procedure:
Take a cardboard box and prepare a Tyndal set-up from it to test turbidity. Tyndal set-up can be prepared
by making a pencil size hole in the cardboard box and fixing a light source (electric bulb/torch) on the
other side of the box.
Place the beaker containing the samples of water one by one. Make laboratory dark and light the bulb/
torch. Observe the sample of water through the hole. Compare the turbidity of different water samples.

Observations:
Suspended particulate pollutants (such as clay particles, organic matter, bacteria, unicellular organ-
isms etc.) may be observed.

S.N Sample of water Turbidity Remark

A Pond Medium Transpirancy of water is less then river water

B River Light Transpirancy is high

C Industrial water Dark Transpirancy is very low

Precautions:
1. The hole in the cardboard box should not be large.
2. The light source should be of sufficient intensity.

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Experiment No.11
Object:
To study different water samples for the presence of living organism.
Requirements:
Water samples (such as pond water, river water, canal water etc.) microscope, glass slides, dropper,
methylene blue, spirit lamp, etc.
Procedure:
Take a clean slide and put a few drop of water separately from different water samples. Spread
the drops to make a thin film of water on the slide. Allow it to dry. Pass the lower side of the slide
through the flame of spirit lamp two or three times to fix the living organisms present in water
on to the slide. Add a few drop of a methylene blue on the slide. Leave the slide for two minutes.
Wash the slide and observe the slide under the microscope.

Observation:
A number of types of microorganisms (such as bacteria, protozoa, diatoms, some algae, cyanobacteria)
are observed. Different types of organisms present in water samples are given in figure.
Result:
Presence of large number of microorganisms indicates the presence of organic pollutants in water.
Precautions:
1. Shake the water well before putting the drops of water on the slide from it.
2. Pass the slide through the flame only to get it dry.

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BOTANY
MINOR
EXPERIMENTS

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Experiment No.12
Object:
To study the pollen germination on slide.
Requirements:
Fresh seasonal flowers, slide, coverslip, microscope, sucrose, boric acid, magnesium sulphate, potas-
sium nitrate, beakers etc.
Procedure:
1. Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10 g sucrose, 10 g boric acid, 30 mg magnesium sul-
phate and 20 mg potassium nitrate in 100 mL of water.
2. Take a few drops of this solution on a clean slide and dust a few pollen grains from the stamen of
a mature flower on it.
3. Observe the slide in the microscope after 5 minutes and then observe it regularly for about half
an hour.
Observation:
In nutrient medium, the pollen grain germinate. The tube cell enlarges and comes out of the pollen
grain through one of the germ pores to form a pollen tube. The tube nucleus descends to the tip of the
pollen tube. The generative cell also passes into it. It soon divides into two male gametes. Each male
gamete is lenticular to spherical in outline.

Precautions:
1. Flowers should be freshly plucked.
2. Use clean slide to observe the pollen grains.
3. Pollen grains are fully embedded into solution.

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Experiment No.13
Object:
To study the the homologous organs in plants.
Comments
Homology in Plants
Plants too have homologous structures like those seen in animals. In some plants like the pitcher,
venus fly trap, poinsettia and cactus, the leaves show different functions and shapes from the 'normal'
leaves we think about. Each of these leaves is a homologous structure, derived from a common ances-
tral form.
The pitcher plant and the venus flytrap uses leaves to trap and digest insects. The bright red leaves of
the poinsettia though leaves, look like flower petals. The cactus leaves are modified into small spines
that help reduce water loss and protect the cactus from plant-eaters.

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Experiment No.14
Object:
To study the the analogous organs in plants.
Comments
Analogy in plants
The leaves of opuntia and peepal are analogous organs in plants. In opuntia the stem is modified into a
broad succulent leaf like structure that performs photosynthesis like leaves. Peepal leaf is a normal leaf
that performs photosynthesis. So both the opuntia and peepal leaves perform common function through
photosynthesis, so they are analogous.
Many of the cacti and African euphorbias are similar in appearance, being succulent, spiny, water-
storing, and adapted to desert conditions generally. But these two plants belong to different families
though they share traits according to the similar environmental conditions they are placed in.
Potato and sweet potato also show similar characteristics, but have different origins. Potato is a modified
stem meant for storage of food. Sweet potato is a modified root also meant for the storage of food, so they
are analogous.

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Experiment No.15
Object:
To study meiosis in onion bud cells through permanent slide.

Requirements:
Permanent slide of different stages of meiosis in bud cells, microscope.

Procedure:
1. Fix the permanent slide under the microscope.
2. First observe the slide under the low power and then under high power of the microscope.

Observations:
Under the high power of microscope, following stages of meiosis are distinctly observed:

A. Meiosis-I
1. Prophase I. It is of long duration and has five sub stages:
a. Leptotene:
i. Chromatin fibres condense and form thick thread like structures called chromosomes.
ii. Nuclear envelop and nucleolus are distinct.

b. Zygotene:
i. Homologous chromosomes form pairs called bivalent. This paring is called synapsis.
ii. The individual of a pair are similar in length and in position of their centromers.

c. Pachytene:
i. The two chromatids of each chromosome become visible, so that a bivalent becomes a
tetrad.
ii. Crossing over (exchange of chromatid segements between homologous chromosomes)
takes place between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.

d. Diplotene:
i. The two chromosomes of each bivalent move away and homologues are held together at
one or more points called chaismata.

e. Diakinesis:
i. Homologous chromosomes appear thick and ring shaped.
ii. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear and spindle begins to be formed.

2. Metaphase- I
i. The bivalent (homologous chromosomes) arrange themselves at the equator of the spindle.
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ii. The spindle get attached to the centromere of the chromosome.

3. Anaphase- I
i. The two chromosomes of each bivalent move to the opposite pole.
ii. Each pole has half the number of chromosomes with two chromatids each.

4. Telophase- I
i. The chromosome at each pole uncoil, and nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappear.
ii. Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid daughter cells.

Interkinesis:
A very short interphase may intervene between meiosis I and meiosis II.

B. Meiosis-II
It includes following four states:
1. Prophase- II
i. The chromosomes of daughter cell begin to condense and become thick.
ii. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus begin to disappear.

2. Metaphase- II
i. The chromosomes are arranged on the equator of the spindle.
ii. Each chromosome is held by the spindle at the centromere to both the poles.

3. Anaphase -II
i. The sister chromatids (daughter chromosomes) of each chromosomes separate and mi-
grate towards the opposite poles.
ii. Each pole, thus receives haploid number of chromosomes.

4. Telophase- II
i. The chromosomes begin to uncoil and become thin.
ii. The nuclear envelope and nucleolus are reconstituted.
Cytokinesis occurs and four daughter cells are formed, each with haploid number of chro-
mosomes.

Precautions:
1. Floral buds should be fixed between 8 to 10 A.M.
2. Slide should be warmed gently to avoid over heating.

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ZOOLOGY
MINOR
EXPERIMENTS

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Experiment No.16

Objective:
Study of Widow Peak Genetic Trait with the help of Genealogy Chart.
Material Required:
Widow Peak Genealogy Chart.

Explanation:
1. In the first generation, the female has the recessive trait and the male is heterozygous for the
widow peak trait.
2. In the second generation, both the parents have the widow peak trait.
3. This trait is present in all the progeny of the third generation. That is, their parents will be
homozygous.
4. In the third generation, all children born to parents without a widow peak are without a widow
peak.
5. In the second generation, both the symptoms are seen in the children of mother without widow
peak and in the children of father with widow.

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Figure:
Explanation of the inheritance of traits in the offspring of a hairy father with widow's peak and a
mother with straight hair.
Conclusion:
1. In the first generation, the widow peak zygote will be the genotype Q of the father and the ho-
mozygous phenotype P without the widow peak in these.
The number of children born with widow peak and children without widow pick will be equal.
2. All children with widow peak in the second generation are heterozygous. Because the second
generation Widow Peak and Widow Peak women are born.
All children of the third generation will be Widow Peak.

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Experiment No.17

Objective:
To study the inheritance of color blindness with the help of prepared genealogical chart.
Material Required:
Genealogy chart

Explanation:
1. In the first generation, all the progeny of a color blind male and a normal female are normal.
2. The fourth child is a carrier female.“3. A color blind son is born in the third generation by the
marriage of the carrier daughter of the second generation and the common man.
4. The sixth child in the third generation is a daughter. After marrying a normal man, she has
normal children.
5. The third child of the third generation is also a daughter. The one who is the carrier gets
married with a color blind man. son and daughter born to them“He is color blind and one
daughter is the carrier.
6. A color blind daughter is born only when either the mother and the father are color blind or
the mother carrier and the father are color blind.
7. All the sons of the fourth generation are half color blind and half normal.
Conclusion:
1. All the children of first generation color blind male and normal female are normal.
2. In the progeny of third generation color blind male and carrier female, 50% sons are color
blind and 50% normal. as well as 50 percent women are color blind and 50 percent daughters
are carriers.
3. In the fourth generation, in the progeny produced by the carrier female and normal male,
50% of the sons are color blind and 50% male is normal.“50% are carriers of color blind genes
and 50% are normal.d

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Experiment No.18

Fate of progeny of carrier colourblind woman and normal man. Genotypic and phenotypic ratio
obtained:

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Experiment No.19
Object:
To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slide.
Requirements:
Permanent slide of blastula, microscope.
Procedure:
Fix the slide of T.S. of blastula under microscope. First observe the slide under low power and
then under high power of the microscope.

Observations:
1. It is a spherical mass of about sixty four cells.
2. It is composed of an outer envelope of cells, the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and inner cells
mass (= embryoblast).
3. Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel.
4. The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called the embryonic or
animal pole, while the opposite side is the embryonic pole.
5. The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.
Precautions:
1. First focus the slide under low power and then under the high power of the microscope.
2. Use fine adjustment while focusing the slide under high power of the microscope.

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Experiment No.20
Object:
Homologous organs of different animals as evidence of evolution.
Comments:
1. Organs which have same intral structure and origin but different functions are called homolo-
gous organs.
2. Flipper of whale, hand of human, forelimb of horse, wing of bat etc.
3. These have same structure ie- they have humerus, radius ulna, carpals, metacarpals etc.
4. They perform different functions like swimming running, flying etc.

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Experiment No.21
Object:
Analogous organs of different animals as evidence of evolution.
Comments:
Organs which perform similar function but have different internal structure and origin are called analo-
gous organs.
Wing of insect, wing of birds and bat all have similar function but different basic structure and origin,
because wing of insects are made of chitin, wing of birds are modified forelimbs and wing of bat are due
to modification of skin between four fingers of forelimb and body.

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SPOT
BOTANY
EXPERIMENTS

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Experiment No.22
Opunita dillenii (Nagphani)
Object:
Study of plant found in xerophytic conditions and comment upon their adaptations/morphologi-
cal features.
Comment:
1. It is a succulent or drought resisting xerophyte, which grows wild in arid areas.
2. The leaves are caducous. They fall down soon after their formation to reduce transpiration.
3. The stem is jointed, flattened and green called phylloclades. It is green and takes over the func-
tion of photosynthesis.
4. The stem becomes fleshy due to storage of water. The stored water is used throughout the
unfavourable periods.
5. The stem possesses aundant mucilage, which helps in retaining water.
6. Phylloclades bear several nodes or areoles. The areoles have one or more spines which repre-
sent the leaves of axillary branches.
7. Besides there are a number of bristles to reduce transpiration and prevent grazing.

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Experiment No.23
Acacia arabica (Babool)
Object:
Study of plant found in xerophytic conditions and comment upon their adaptations/morphologi-
cal features.
Comments:
1. It is a drought enduring xerophyte.
2. The older part of the stem are covered over by thick brown corky bark.
3. The leaves are bipinnate to reduce transpiration.
4. The stipules are modified into spines to reduce transpiration and prevent grazing.

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Experiment No.24
Capparis decidua (Kair)
Object:
Study of plant found in xerophytic conditions and comment upon their adaptations/morphologi-
cal features.
Comments:
1. It is a drought enduring non-succulent xerophyte.
2. The leaves do not open completely and remain on the plant for very short period to reduce tran-
spiration.
3. The stipules are modified into slightly corved spines to reduce transpiration and check grazing.
4. The function of photosynthesis is mainly carried out by green stem.

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Experiment No.25
Zizyphus nummularia (Beri)
Object:
Study of plant found in xerophytic conditions and comment upon their adaptations/morphologi-
cal features.
Comments:
1. It is a drought enduring spiny wild shrub that grows in arid areas and waste lands.
2. The leaves are small and leathery. The lower surface of leaves is covered by hair.
3. The stipules are modified into spines.
4. Stem is woody and brownish.
5. Root system is tap root which is deeper.

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Experiment No.26
Calotropis procera (Ak)
Object:
Study of plant found in xerophytic conditions and comment upon their adaptations/morphologi-
cal features.
Comments:
1. It is a drought enduring wild shrub of arid, desert and waste lands.
2. The plant has a light grey colour which makes it possible for the plant to absorb less sunlight.
3. The leaves and young branches are covered by a mealy coating along with hair. The meanly
coating acts as insulating covering.
4. The leaves are thick and partially leathery. They do not wilt easily.
5. The plant possesses latex, which help in retaining water.

nt N

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Experiment No.27

Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth or Jalkumbhi)

Object:
Study of plant found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Comments:
1. It is a free floating hydrophyte that grows in ponds, lakes and water bodies containing fresh
water.
2. When the level of water is low, the plant gets rooted in the soil.
3. The stem is offset that grows prostrate below the surface of water. It is spongy and stores air.
4. The leaves arise at the node in clusters. The petioles of the leaves are inflated that keep the
leaves out of water.
5. The nodes also bear clusters of brown adventitious roots in water. They act as balancers.
6. The emerged leaves have waterproof, waxy and cuticular coating to prevent wetting.

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Experiment No.28

Hydrilla
Object:
Study of plant found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Comments:
1. It is a submerged hydrophyte found attached to the substratum by adventitious roots in freshwa-
ter ponds.
2. The stem is soft and slender and bears thin and membranous leaves in whorls of 3–8. It limps
when taken out of water showing the absence of any mechanical tissue.
3. The leaves are arranged in such a way to provide least resistance to the flow of water. They lack
cuticle and stomata.
4. The whole plant is covered over by mucilage. It prevents epiphytic growth and protects the plant
against the rotting effet of water.

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Experiment No.29

Vallisneria
Object:
Study of plant found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Comments:
1. It is a submerged stoloniferous flowering plant that grows in freshwater ponds.
2. The stem is reduced and the roots are mostly concerned with the function of anchorage.
3. The leaves are large and ribbon shaped. They lack cuticle and stomata.
4. The leaves do not provide any resistance to the flow of water.
5. The whole plant is covered with mucilage.

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Experiment No.30
Utricularia (Bladder wort)
Object:
Study of plant found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Comments:
1. It is a floating hydrophyte that grows abundantly in tanks and lakes.
2. The stem is horizontal, soft and spongy. The roots are absent.
3. The leaves are highly segmented. They do not provide much resistance to water currents.
4. The plant bears small sub-sessile bladders on its segmented leaves. They catch and digest small
aquatic animals.
5. The whole plant is covered with mucilage to prevent decaying by water.

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Experiment No.31
Trapa
Object:
Study of plant found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Comments:
1. It is a floating hydrophyte.
2. It occurs in fresh water like as pond and lake.
3. Its petiole are long swollen and contain large air space.
4. Stomata occurs on only upper surface of leaf.
5. Stem and leaf are covered by a waxy substance.
6. Vascular tissues are less developed.
7. In root, root hair are less in number.

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SPOT
ZOOLOGY
EXPERIMENTS

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Experiment No.32
Typha (cat tail)
Object:
Study of plant found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Comments:
1. It is a an amphibious anchored hydrophyte that grows in shallow waters and marshy places.
2. The plant has a rhizomatous stem, adventitious roots and emerged leaves.
3. The leaves are large linear, soft thick and sub-cylinderical. They have spongy texture.
4. The large leaves are able to stand erect because of the presence of mechanical tissue.
5. The leaves possess cuticle and stomata on the emergent portion.

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Experiment No.33

Common disease causing organisms

Entamoeba
Identification, Entamoeba histolytica.
Disease caused:
Amoebiasis or Amoebic dysentry
Comments
1. It is a human parasite that resides in the upper part of the large intestine.
2. It causes the disease called amoebic dysentry or amoebiasis.
3. The symptoms of the diseases include abdominal pain, repeated motions with blood and mucus.
4. The parasite is unicellular and has one pseudopodium.
5. There is a single nucleus and a number of food vacuoles.
6. It feeds on red blood corpuscles by damaging the wall of large intestine and reaching the blood
capillaries.
7. It produces ulcers and can also reach other body organs.

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Experiment No.35
Identification:
T.S. of Testis
Characters:
1. The testis of a mammal is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called tunica albuginea.
2. The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissue.
3. Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following se-
quence.
Spermatogonia  Spermatocytes Spermatids Spermatozoa Sperms
4. Between the germinal cells, pyramid shaped cells called sertoli cells are present.
5. A large number of spermatozoa with their heads embedded in sertoli cells are present in the
lumen of seminiferous tubule.
6. The interstitial tissue also contain leydigs cells, which produce male sex hormone testosterone.

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Experiment No.36
Identification:
V.S. of Ovary
Characters:
1. A mammals ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium followed by a thick layer of
fibrous tissue, the tunica albuginia.
2. The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.
3. The medulla contains many rounded or oval bodies called ovarian or Graffian follicles at various
stages of development.
4. The medulla also contains blood vessels, nerves fibres and some smooth muscles.
5. Each follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many layers of follicle cells.
6. The cortex contains young and mature follicles.
7. The cortex may also contain a large mass of yellow cells termed corpus luteum, formed in an
empty Grarfian follicle after the release of its ovum.

Precautions:
1. First observe the slide under low power and then under the high power of the microscope.
2. Use fine adjustment of the microscope for focusing the slide under high power.

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Experiment No.37

Common disease causing organisms

Ascaris
Identification:
Ascaris lumbricoides (The gaint intestinal roundworm)
Disease caused:
Ascariasis
Comments
1. It is an endoparasite of the small intestine of human beings and is more common in children.
2. The animal shows sexual dimorphism. The female is longer than the male.
3. The posterior end of the male is curved ventrally.
4. In female, the genital aperture is present on the mid-ventral line at about one third of the length
from the anterior end.
5. In male from the cloaca two equal chitinous spicules or pineal setae project which help in copu-
lation.

Symptoms:
1. Generally a large number of adult Ascaris worm infest a single host, and obstruct the intestinal
passage and thereby cause abdominal discomforts like colic pains.
2. The patient may also suffer from impaired digestion, diarrhoea and vomiting.
3. In children mental efficiency is affected and body growth is retarded.

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Experiment No.38

Camel
Comments:
1. It is a desert animal adapted to the desert conditions.
2. It is able to tolerate wide range of temperature fluctuations and is able to maintain blood mois-
ture even during hot period.
3. It excretes concentrated urine and can withstand dehydration upto 25% of its body weight.
4. It accumulate its fat in the hump rather than all over the body. This speeds heat flow away from
the body and its thick coat prevents the flow of heat inwards to the body.
5. Its feet has two toes each with fleshy pad below which spread the load on sand enable it to move
on hot and slippery sand.
6. Its slender snout bears a cleft upper lip, long eye lashes and muscular nostrils which can be
closed for protection from wind blown sand.

no

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Experiment No.39

Gila Monster:
1. It is big poisonous Lizard found in desert.
2. Body is dry and covered with Scales.
3. They excrete uric acid consisting negligible amount of water.
4. These are nocturnal and they can change colour in day time according to their habitat.

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Experiment No.40

Object:
Study of animal found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Dog Fish:
1. It occurs in marine water.
2. It have fins for swimming.
3. Its tail is heterocercal type.
4. Respiration occurs through gills. They not covered by operculum.
5. Male sex organ is clasper.
6. Body covered by placoid type of scale.

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Experiment No.41

A freshwater Fish (Carp or Rohu)

Object:
Study of animal found in aquatic conditions and comment upon their adapations/morphological
features.
Comments:
1. Its body is compressed laterally to reduce friction and to allow swift passage in water while swim-
ming.
2. It possesses fins that help in swimming.
3. It has air bladder or swim bladder which maintains buoyancy.
4. It possesses gills as organs of respiration for the exchange of gases in water.
5. The body is covered with water impermeable scales to prevent osmotic entry of water in the body.

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Investigatory Project – 1
STUDY OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF HOUSEFLY / COCKROACH
Introduction—
More than one million species of animals are found on earth out of them 7.5 lakhs are insect
species. Insects are most successful nor-chordates on earth which found in every habitat. In-
sects are closely related to human species. Insects are found in nature to a maximum number
and are highly diversified. On the other hand human is the highest organism. They interact
each other in many ways.
At present time the life of every human being is affected by insects one way or the other. There is no
human being whose life, living standard, food remain uneffected from insects. Quite a
number of insect varieties are closely connected with some of our diseases like malaria, cholera
and plague etc. Insects also affect agriculture and industries.
Housefly and cockroach are two such insects which are concerned directly with our every day life.
House fly—
House fly musca domestica is a cosmopoliton flying insect. They neither bite nor stingus yet we hope
them for thein insanitory habit. Houseflies infect food and other substances. Houseflies
intimately associated with human life. Hence they are found in all places of human dwelling.
Housefly is diurnal. During night it rests on wa'ls, ropes wire and clothes. It is a teasing insect. We do
not like its buzzing sound. Usually day time it remains active on garbage, feces, dung, decaying
organic mat er, carrion etc. and searches its food.
Houseflies also sit in food materials, furniture, clothes and useful articles. They carry germs with the
help of probosis, legs and wings to our articles of food. As a result our food articles get contami-
nated. Use of such contaminated food infects healthy person.
Housefly carries germs of cholera, dysentry, diarrhoea typhoid and tuberculosis from faces and
sputum of infected persons and serves as a medium for their transmission.
Cockroach—
Cockroach—Pariplanato-It is also a cosmopoliton insect. They are found in such places of humna dwell-
ings where darkness warmth, dampness and plenty of organic debris are available. Thus one can
easily find these hidden in our kitchens, store house, sewers, godowns, railway compartments,
ship etc.
During the night they come out of their hiding places in search of food. Cockroaches harm us by chew-
ing our clothes, books and leather wares when normal food is scarty.
Keeping in views the importance of house fly/cockroache the study of their developmental stages has
been taken for the present project.
Material Required—
Preserved specimens of different developmental stages of house fly/cockroach, note book, handlens,
pen-pencil etc.
Experimental Producre—
Get the preserved speciemens of different developmental stages of housefly/cockroach and observe the
stages carefully. Note down your observations in the notebook and draw labelled digrams.

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Observation—
(A) Various developmental stages of housefly—
1. Adult housefly—House fly has body of about 5-7 mm long. Body appears dark grey dor
sally and light yellow ventrally. The body is divided into head thorax and abdomen
respectively.
Head — Head of house fly is ovoid and broad which can be vented infiontly. It is hypoganthus
type. It has following structures—
(i) Compound eyes—Head has two large lateral compound eyes. Each eye is almsot ovoid
and dark red in colour.
Each eye consists of about 4000 ommatidia. At the dorsal surface of apex of head three
ocelli are present on ocellar plate. They distinguish between light and dark only.
(ii) Antennae — TVvo small, flexible and sensory antennae are present at the anterior
end of head. They are attached with frontal leunal plate, Each antenna consists of
three segments.
(iii) Mouth Parts— Mouth parts of house fly are spongy type. They are adopted to suck
liquid or semifluid food like spongs. Among them labium is most developed and
specified. It forms contractile fleshy proboscis. The proboscis is made up three
parts-basal part rostrum, middle proboscis or rostrum and distil part of proboscis
labellum,
2. Thorax —It is the middle part of body which consists of three parts-prothorare, mesothorax and
metathorax. Three pairs of jointed legs arise from the three segments of thorax. The meso tho-
rax contains a pair of wings on prothorax lenticels are present near the legs.

Wings— First pair of wings are large, broad and transparent and second pair of wings are small
and vestigial. They are called halters.
Legs— Three pairs of legs are jointed from each segment of thorax. Each has five joints-coxa,
trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus one pair nails and a pad shaped pulvilli are present
on tarsus.
3. Abdomen — Abdomen made up of ten segments, Fine hair are present all over the abdomen. Fire
pairs of spiracles are present on the lateral side of second to sixth segment. Female has five
elear segments. These five segments together constitute genital chamber. Female
genital chamber contains ovipositor. In male these Segments from hypopygium which contains
one pair of claspers. In both male and female one pair of analcerci is found.
2. Eggs:—Female pays egg on dung decaying matter and dirty places in some depth from surface.

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Eggs are while and cylindrical and some what thick at one end. Female lays about 100 to 150
eggs is a time. Each egg is about 1 mm long. They hatch out between 8 to 24 hours after oviposi-
tion. Larval stage comes out after hatching.

3. Larva — Larva of housefly is called maggot. It is long and does not has head and legs. The length of
larva is about 2mm. Body is covered with cuticle. I>arva is anteriorly thin and posteriorily thick.
Body consists of 13 segments. First segment is called head segment.
Remaining segments are three thoracia segments and nine abdominal segments. The head
consists of maxilla, mandibles and a labium, the first and last segments have spiracles.
Larva moults twice with in 6-8 days to groce is size. The full grown larva is about 12 mm long but it
remains feetless. Loaometory spiniferous pads are present on second to last segment at
ventral side.
4. Pupa— Metamorphosia occurs in completely developed larva. In this process, the anterior seg-
ments of larva become sunken in the body and produce ovoid structure. This stage is called pupa.
In this stage mouth and anus is absent. Body wall becomes hard and produce airtight covering. It
is called puparium. Pupa is about 6 mm long. In it spiracles are found on anterior and pooterior
end for respiration.
The like span of pupa is 4-5 days. Inside puparium the larva undergoes several changes and
develope into a imago. The image brears the puparium and energes out. It is a weak small fly. It
becomes active within feue hourse. The imago breaks the puparium and energy out. It is a weak
small fly. It becomes active with in few hours.
The imago starts lying eggs wiht in two weeks.
Summary and Comments—
Female housefly lays about 100 to 150 eggs at a time at dirty places. Each egg produces larva which is
called moggot. Maggot develops into pupa with in 6 to 8 days. In this stage larva becomes small
and gets enclosed in a covering. Here metamorphosis takes place as a result of this larva devel-
ops into an adult imago. The imago breaks puparium and emerges out and
becomes active house fly.

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Investigatory Project – 2
STUDY OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF HOUSEFLY / COCKROACH
1. Adult Cockroach—
Cockroach is about 3-4½ cm long and 1½ to 2 cm broad Body is dorsiven-
trally flot and segmented. Male and female are separated. Male is relatively small and more flat.
The colour of both animals is bright brown. Dorsal surface is covered with dark brown wings. Body
is devided into head, thorax and abdomen. A small, soft and flexible neck connects head to tho-
rax.
(i) Head—
It is ovoid and somewhat flat and in hypoganthus state. A pair of large compound eyes are present
on both lateral sides of head. A pair of long sensitive antenna is present infront of two lateral
compound eyes. The mouth parts include labrum, mondibles, mxilias and
hypopharynx. These help the cockroach in eating varied type of things.
(ii) Thorax—
It is divided into prothorax, Mesothorax and metathorax. Each tharacie segment bears a pair of
jointed legs. Each leg consists of coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and the tarsus. Meso and met-
athorax bear a pair of wings each.
(iii) Abdomen—
It contains ten segments gradually narrowing down. Lateral appendages are absent on abdominat
segments but at the posterior end genital pores and related structures are found. These are
diff erent in male and female. Along with these in male and female a pair of
multi-segmented anal looms is present attached to posterior end on 10th tergite. In male a pair
of smal and pointed spiny anal cerci is present attached to stemite of 9th segment. These are not
segmented. Each abdominal segment contain a pair of spiracles.

2. Ootheca (Egg Case) —

It is purse shaped structure containing sexteen fertilised eggs. It is formed
by the secretion of the colleteral gands over the fertilized eggs containing soluble milky protein
and hytroxyphenol, Both these together constitute scleroprection. Initially it is soft but becomes

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harder after sometime. It is about 8 mm long. The female deposits the eggs in some warm, dark
and sheltered place.
3. Nymph —
Inside the ootheca the eggs develop into young ones called nymphs, the ootheca
wall is broken in about 7-6 days and young nymphs emerge out of it. A nymph is small, light
brown creature like the adult cockroach and wingless and has immature gonads. The body is
covered by chitin which gradually hardens and prevents growth of nymph. Each nymph under-
goes 6 to 7 moulting to develop into a adult cockroach.
4. Summar—
Cockroach is a nocturnal and oomnivore anaiml. Male and female animals are seprated.
Its reproductive period lies between march to September. Female lays 16 eggs in pouch or purse
like structure oothocas. The ootheca wall is broken in about 7-8 days and young nymkhs emerge
out of it. Each nymph undergoes 6 to 7 moulting to develop into an adult cockroach.

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