The structure of the Roman army evolved significantly over the centuries,
adapting to the challenges Rome faced as it expanded from a city-state
into a vast empire. By the late Roman Republic and into the Roman
Empire, the Roman army became a highly organized and efficient fighting
force. Below is an overview of the key elements of the Roman army’s
structure.
1. Legion
The backbone of the Roman army was the legion. A legion was a large
military unit, typically consisting of around 4,500 to 6,000 soldiers, though
the size could vary. It was made up primarily of Roman citizens and was
divided into smaller units to enhance flexibility and maneuverability.
Key Components of the Legion:
Legionaries: These were the heavy infantry, Roman citizens who
formed the core of the legion. They were well-trained and well-
equipped, typically armed with a short sword (gladius), a javelin
(pilum), and a large shield (scutum). They wore armor, helmets, and
carried daggers.
Auxiliaries: Non-citizen troops, the auxiliaries supplemented the
legionary forces. They often served in specialized roles such as
cavalry, archers, or light infantry. Auxiliaries could gain Roman
citizenship after serving in the army for 25 years.
Cohorts: Each legion was divided into 10 cohorts, which were the
basic tactical units. The first cohort was larger and contained the
most experienced soldiers, while the remaining nine were standard
in size. Each cohort consisted of about 480 soldiers.
Centuries: Each cohort was further divided into 6 centuries,
commanded by a centurion. A century initially comprised 100 men
(hence the name), but in the Imperial period, it typically contained
about 80 men. The centurions were the backbone of the Roman
military hierarchy, responsible for discipline and training within their
units.
Contubernium: The smallest unit of the Roman army was the
contubernium, made up of 8 soldiers who shared a tent and fought
as a close-knit team within the century.
2. Officers and Commanders
The Roman army had a clearly defined chain of command, with ranks that
reflected both military authority and political power.
Legatus: The commander of a legion was called a legatus. He was
typically a senator appointed by the Roman Senate or the emperor,
often someone with political ambitions. A legatus oversaw all
aspects of a legion's operations, both in battle and in camp.
Tribunes: There were six military tribunes per legion, usually
young men from noble families who were gaining military
experience. Their roles varied, but they often assisted in
commanding and administrative tasks.
Centurion: As mentioned, centurions commanded centuries and
were critical for maintaining discipline. They were experienced
soldiers, and the most senior centurion of a legion was called the
Primus Pilus, commanding the first cohort.
Optio: The optio was the second-in-command to the centurion,
acting as his deputy. They were responsible for maintaining order in
the century and assisting with training.
Tesserarius: This officer was responsible for security and
maintaining order in the camp. He also handled password
distribution (tessera).
Signifer: A signifer carried the century’s standard or flag and was
also responsible for the soldiers' financial matters, such as wages
and savings.
3. Specialized Units
Cavalry (Equites): Roman legions were supported by auxiliary
cavalry units, often recruited from non-Roman provinces. They
played crucial roles in scouting, flanking maneuvers, and chasing
down fleeing enemies.
Artillery: Roman legions also used artillery such as ballistae (large
crossbows) and onagers (catapults) for siege warfare and to attack
enemies from a distance.
4. Training and Discipline
The Roman army was renowned for its strict discipline and rigorous
training. Soldiers underwent extensive physical training, learning to march
long distances with heavy equipment, construct fortified camps, and
master complex battlefield maneuvers. Discipline was harsh, with
punishments like flogging or decimation (killing one in ten soldiers) used
to maintain order.
5. Fortifications and Camps
Roman soldiers were also skilled engineers. When on campaign, the
Roman army constructed a fortified camp (castrum) at the end of each
day’s march. These camps were laid out in a standard grid pattern,
making them efficient and defensible. Permanent forts and border
defenses, like Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, were also built to secure the
frontiers of the empire.
6. Hierarchy of Command
While the legion was the largest unit, the overall control of the army often
rested with a consul, proconsul, or later an imperator (emperor),
especially during the Imperial period. The emperor was considered the
supreme commander of the army.
Summary
The Roman army’s structure was hierarchical and highly organized, which
contributed to its efficiency and success in warfare. The legion, composed
of disciplined and well-trained soldiers, formed the backbone of the army,
supported by auxiliaries, cavalry, and specialized units. The army’s
sophisticated chain of command and engineering skills, combined with its
rigorous training, allowed Rome to build and maintain a vast empire that
lasted for centuries.
