The Welding Of Stainless Steels

A basic guide to the technical considerations,

techniques and standards for the welding of stainless steels

Written and compiled by Robert Lawrence & Rolf Schluep

and published by Sassda
June / July 2016
 Safety Precautions in the Welding Workshop

When fabricating in shop or site 1. Eye protection is essential. Warning

conditions, certain minimum safety signs should be posted in all welding
areas.
precautions must be taken to protect
2. Bare skin must not be exposed to
yourself and others.
any type of arc radiation. Cover up
hands, wrists, neck and face.
3. Working areas must be screened off
so that arc radiation does not affect
other people.
4. Correct filter lenses must be used
in helmets and hand shields; shade
8 for 60 Amps and less, shade 10
up to 160 Amps and shade 12 up
to 250 Amps. When welding with
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) and Metal
Inert Gas (MIG) processes, increase
shade darkness by one step for each
amperage range.
5. Adequate ventilation must be
ensured when working in confined
spaces.
6. Never work alone in potentially
dangerous situations.
7. Fume extraction facilities and masks
should be provided when welding or
cutting.
8. Fume extraction may become
mandatory, especially when using
heavily coated electrodes and flux-
cored processes. In case of doubt,
consult an expert.
9. When cutting or welding in, or on,
any container such as a drum or
tank which has previously contained
any chemicals of flammable liquid,
written clearance to proceed, after
all necessary precautions have been
taken, must first be obtained from

2
Safety Precautions in the Welding Workshop

your safety officer. Before entering a 17. Use the safety clothing and shoes which
vessel of drum (after having established should be provided.
that it is complete safe to do so), attach 18. Lighters and matches must not be
a safety harness and line to yourself and allowed in the working area nor must
have someone stand watch outside with they be carried in clothing.
a fire extinguisher. 19. Synthetic material clothing should not
10. Always work in dry conditions. Wet be worn as these tend to burn easily
floors and shoes are dangerous when and melt onto the skin.
welding. 20. When handling work pieces with sharp
11. Attach yourself to a safety harness and edges, leather working gloves should be
line when working above floor level, worn.
in order to protect yourself from a fall 21. The work place should be neat and tidy
should a shock occur. at all times.
12. Know where the fire extinguishers are 22. Never use drugs or alcohol. People
located and understand which type to using such substances are a danger to
use for each class of fire. themselves and other.
13. Do not weld where the vapours from 23. Use ear muffs or ear plugs where
degreasing solvents are present. The necessary. Excessive noise can cause
heat and rays of the arc may react with permanent hearing loss and may
solvent vapours to form phosgene – a affect other bodily functions and
highly toxic gas. behaviour. Plasma cutting van produce
14. Reflections from walls and polished very high noise levels, and thus may
stainless steel surfaces can be require specific attention to achieve a
dangerous. Walls can be painted green comfortable working environment.
or blue to reduce glare. 24. Pickling acids are extremely dangerous
15. When performing any maintenance and contact with eyes and skin should
operation on welding/cutting torches be avoided at all times. Protective
or power sources, ensure that the clothing is recommended when working
equipment is switched off. Shut down with acids.
and disconnect from the power supply. 25. BE AWARE AT ALL TIMES.
16. Do not abuse high pressure gas
cylinders. Ensure that they are chained
to the work station so that they cannot
fall. Cylinder valves should be hand-tight
only; do not use a hammer to open and
close them. When moving a cylinder,
ensure that the valve is closed and the
valve guard on.

3
 What is a Stainless Steel

The term ‘stainless steel’ is defined as a Ferritic Stainless Steels

steel, i.e. an iron carbon alloy, containing a
minimum of 11% chromium (Cr) and contains Common grades include 441, 430, 409 and
iron (Fe) in amounts ranging from 48% - 3CR12. These steels are essentially plain
85%. chromium steels, containing 12% - 18% Cr.

Stainless steels are used in a wide variety of The material has the following characteristics:
applications where conventional mild steel
cannot perform, e.g. conditions such as wet • Magnetic
and dry abrasion, chemical attack, elevated • Cannot be hardened by heat treatment
or cryogenic service conditions, and wherever
bright, shiny, clean and hygienic surfaces are The Typical applications for this material are
needed, such as the food industry. exhaust systems, kitchen sinks and cutlery.

Because of the range of applications and the Welding is best suited to thin gauges.
many types of stainless steel, it is necessary Welds may be produced on thicker sections
to understand the five groups which make up but grades 441, 430 and 409 have poor
the family of stainless steels. weldability and tend to become brittle. This
limitation has led to the development of a
These groups are: material known as 3CR12. This semi-ferritic
steel is available in plate form, and is readily
• Ferritic weldable even in thick sections. 3CR12, which
• Austenitic was developed in South Africa, has found
• Duplex applications throughout the mining and
• Martensitic construction industries both locally
• Precipitation Hardening and internationally.

4
Austenitic Stainless Steels The carbon content for standard grades is
kept very low, at less than 0,08% carbon (C).
Common grades are: The ‘L’ grades are even lower in carbon at less
than 0,03% C. When welding is required on
• 304, 304L plate material, ‘L’ grades are recommended in
Standard chromium nickel stainless steels order to prevent sensitization or weld decay
• 321, 347 in corrosive conditions. The welding of thin
Stabilised stainless steels gauge sheet materials may not require the
• 316, 316L, 317 use of these ‘L’ grades.
Stainless steel containing molybdenum Characteristics are:
• 309, 310 • Non magnetic.
High temperature alloys • Cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
• May be hardened by ‘cold work’ (i.e.
When nickel (Ni) is added to stainless steel rolling, deep drawing, hammering, etc.).
in sufficient quantity, the structure changes
from ferritic to austenitic. The basic 18/8 Typical uses are in chemical equipment,
composition of austenitic stainless steels process engineering plant, medical
is 18% Cr and 8% Ni. Molybdenum (Mo) equipment, food preparation equipment, and
may be added to give additional corrosion cryogenic plants.
and pitting resistance. Titanium (Ti) can also
be added to stabilise the materials when Grades 309 and 310 are used when the
operating temperatures are in the critical operating temperature is in the range of
range of 450°C – 850°C. 950°C - 1100°C (chromium content is
increased to 24% and nickel varies from
14% - 22%).

5
 What is a Stainless Steel

Duplex Stainless Steels It is essential to achieve a correct austenite-

ferrite phase balance in the weld deposit
Common grades include: and heat affected zone, In order to gain the
• 2225 benefits of resistance to pitting corrosion and
• 2209 LDX. stress corrosion cracking. Too low heat inputs
• Common material – 2205. tend to increase the ferrite phase too much.
Autogenous welding, i.e. welding without the
This grade of stainless steel is becoming a ever addition of filler metal, or high base metal
more popular group of stainless steels. They dilution results in unacceptable high ferrite
have a mixed grain structure of nearly equal content in the weld metal.
amounts of austenite and ferrite. Chromium
content ranges from 21% - 25%, nickel from In order to obtain the correct microstructure
5% - 7%, approximately 3% molybdenum and corrosion resistance, welding consumables
and up to 0.17% nitrogen (N). These typically contain nitrogen and higher amounts
materials have excellent corrosion resistance, of nickel. Care should then be taken to use
particularly to pitting, crevice and stress the correct heat input, correct procedure
corrosion cracking (SCC).They are mostly used testing, including ferrite measurement is
in salt water applications with pressure and recommended. Restrictions on maximum
temperature components. interpass temperatures and heat input are
necessary to avoid second phase precipitates,
Special requirements for the welding of with these interpass temperatures normally
duplex stainless steel being limited to 150°[Link] should be
performed using a digital temperature gun.

6
Martensitic Stainless Steels Special requirements for the welding of
Martensitic Stainless Steels:
Common grades include :
Due to the difficulty in welding this grade of
• 410 stainless steel, it requires precise control of
• 420 pre-heating, interpass temperatures and post-
• 431. weld heat treatment in order to avoid cracking
or enlarged heat affected zones. This material
These were the first stainless steels to be should not be welded without prequalifying
produced and are plain chromium stainless the procedure and strict adherence thereof.
steels with high carbon content (0,15% -
1,2%). Due to these relatively high carbon The Typical applications for this material are:
levels, they can be heat treated to obtain high
strength and hardness whilst maintaining • Knife blades
corrosion resistance. • Shafts
• Nozzles
• Springs and castings.

7
 Welding Processes

8
Welding Processes

Prior to welding, four essential steps Fusion Welding Process Common

Description
Abbreviation
must be taken:
Manual Metal Arc Welding MMA/SMAW
• Identify the material, either by the
markings on the plate, of by material Tungsten Inert Gas Welding TIG/GTAW
certificates.
Metal Active Gas Welding MAG/GMAW
• Select a compatible filler material for the
Pulsed/Synergic MAG
joint to be welded.
Pulsed MAG/
Cold Metal Transfer
• Select a welding process based on the GMAW/CMT
qualified procedure. Flux Cored Arc Welding FCAW

• Material characteristics should be taken Surface Tension Transfer GMAW/STT

into account before selecting the welding
process. Submerged Arc Welding SAW

Selecting a Welding Process Plasma Arc Welding PAW

The following factors should be carefully Micro Plasma Arc Welding -

considered in selecting the welding process:
Electron Beam Welding EBW
• Quality requirements
• Availability of skilled and qualified Laser Welding LBW
personnel
Laser Cutting LBC
• Consumable availability
• Material thickness
Resistance, Spot Welding RSW
• Welding position
• Welding location – workshop or on-site. Resistance, Seam Welding RSEW
• Productivity considerations - deposition
rates Stud Welding SW
• Equipment availability
Friction Stir Welding FRW

Silver Brazing and Soldering -

Plasma-Arc Cutting PAC

9
 The Most Common Arc Welding Processes

10
The Most Common Arc Welding Processes

Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA) or down-hand position, but all positional
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) welding is possible.
• Welding electrodes are available for the full
An electric current, in the form of either range of stainless steels and alloys.
alternating current or direct current from • Once slag is removed, post-weld cleaning
a welding power supply, is used to form an is relatively easy.
electric arc between the electrode and the • This welding process is ideal for site
metals to be joined. Both the workpiece and welding and is ideally suited to confined or
the electrode melts forming the weld pool difficult to reach spaces.
that cools to form a joint. As the weld is • Process skills are relatively easy to acquire.
deposited, the flux coating of the electrode • Quality of the as welded deposit can be of
melts, giving off vapors that serve as a the highest standard.
shielding gas and providing a layer of slag,
both of which protect the weld area from SMAW/MMA Process Disadvantages
atmospheric contamination.

Equipment Required • Can be prone to spatter and accidental are

strikes.
DC rectifiers or inverter technology with • Slow welding speeds – low deposition
electrode the electrode connected to positive rates.
(DCEP) give best results with low spatter • Not suitable for thin sheet metal.
and low heat input. This is most important • A range of electrode diameters my need to
in respect of material discoloration and be kept in stock.
chemical changes in the material. (For further • Baking and drying of electrodes may be
details refer to “Precautions”.) necessary to ensure good quality welds,
and this must be done in accordance with
Inverter-type machines are available in the manufacturer’s recommendations.
380 V and 220 V supply. These give great • Positional, e.g. vertical, horizontal and
advantages in size and weight, with far better overhead, welding is more difficult.
welding characteristics. • Electrodes tend to overheat, which reduces
the effectiveness of the flux coating.
SMAW/MMA Process Advantages • Slag entrapment from flux coated
electrodes may create problems.
• The equipment is simple and easy to • Interpass cleaning is essential to avoid slag
adjust. entrapment during multi runs.
• Electrodes are available from 2,0mm
diameter upwards.
• Best results are obtained in the flat or

11
 The Most Common Arc Welding Processes

Consumables for SMAW/MMA Welding work where radiography may be stipulated,

high impact properties or repairs on
Proper care of electrodes is essential. castings.
Electrodes must not be left lying around • EXXXL-16 – a rutile coated electrode which
exposed to the environment as the flux can can be used on AC or DC.
get damaged or damp, producing a defective • EXXXL-17 AC/DC – used for fillet welds
joint. Correct storage in a dry, warm cabinet with flat to concave bead shape.
or holding oven is recommended. When • EXXXL-25 – basic synthetic for down-hand
issued out-of-stores, they should go directly welding using DC positive.
to the welder’s hot-box to avoid exposure • EXXXL-26 – a rutile basic synthetic for
to moisture in the atmosphere particularly down-hand welding using AC or DC.
in areas of high humidity. Bad habits, such
as bending the electrodes and excessive To calculate the heat input, the following
amperage will damage the flux coating, again formula may be used:
affecting the quality of the weld.

Welding electrodes can be manufactured in

three different ways:
Care must be taken to ensure the heat input
• The core wire generally matches the base used during welding will produce a joint
material. having the required mechanical properties. If
• The core wire is a type 304L and the other in doubt, consult an expert. However, values
elements, such as Ni, Dr and Mo are added of 0,6 – 1,5kJ/mm are common.
to the flux.
Schematic Representation of Metal
For this reason one must never strip the Arc Welding
flux off an electrode and use it as a TIG
Schematic Representation of Metal Arc Welding
rod or as a part for a machine, thinking
that one has a matching stainless steel
electrode.

The American Welding Society (AWS) has

five categories of usability designation for
stainless steel electrodes. They are:

• EXXXL-15 (e.g. E308L-15) – a basic lime- A - Core Wire E - Weld Metal

B - Flux Covering F - Weld Pool
coated electrode for use with DC positive C - Shield Gas G - Metal Droplets
only. These are preferred for higher quality D - Solidified Slag covered in molten slag
H - Parent Metal

12
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding or Gas systems are electrode contamination and
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) ‘scratch marking’ of the base material. The
gas flow is regulated either from a valve
In the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) process, an arc on the torch body or from the regulator
is struck between a non-consumable tungsten on the gas cylinder. Pre- and post-gas flow
electrode and the workpiece. The addition of is essential to protect the weld and the
Filler material is done by hand and is added to tungsten electrode from oxidization before
the molten pool created by the arc. Inert gas is and after the welding operation.
supplied to protect the weld pool and tungsten
electrode from oxidization by the atmosphere. Other facilities, such as high frequency
The inert gases used are argon and helium, or start, gas solenoid pre- and post-gas flow
mixtures of these, as well as the possibility of are standard features in GTAW AC/DC
small additions of hydrogen (austenitic steel designed power sources. Remote foot or
only). It should be noted that pure helium hand amperage control is generally offered as
as a shielding gas creates difficulties in arc optional equipment.
initiation. For this reason mixtures of argon
with the addition of helium are recommended More sophisticated machines have a pulsed
in the ranges of 20-40% helium with the facility to give high and low background
balance of argon. Ideal gas flow rates range pulses of power to allow fine weld pool
between 8-10 LPM. control on thin materials, pipe work and
critical applications.
Power is usually supplied from a DC welding
machine, with the torch connected to the TIG Process Advantages
negative polarity. This means that one-third
of the energy is in the tungsten electrode and • This process is suitable for material
two-thirds in the material. This prevents the gauges from 0,8mm – 5mm, giving welds
electrode from burning away and provides of high quality.
the base material with enough heat to form • In certain cases autogenous welding, i.e.
the weld pool. Recent developments in the without filler wire added, can be used
inverter technology have now superseded the to your advantage on thin material for
original welding equipment. corners, edges and lap welds. Autogenous
welding should not be used on duplex
A TIG welding system can be as simple as materials as this material requires re
a power pack and torch assembly with a alloying of the weld weldment with the
suitable shielding gas supply. If the welding appropriate filler wire.
machine has no high frequency facility, the • TIG welding is used extensively for root
welder would need to ‘scratch start’ the arc. runs on pipe joints, giving excellent
The risks involved with the ‘scratch start’ control in all positions. This process may

13
 The Most Common Arc Welding Processes

also be used for tacking parts and plates TIG filler rods are produced to be compatible
prior to welding with other processes. with the parent material. Do not use off-
• No flux removal is necessary. cuts from sheets. Always ensure that the
• Suitable for automatic and manual methods. rods are clean and kept in a container. Rods
are available in sizes from 1mm – 3,2mm
diameter and should be segregated in their
TIG Process Disadvantages respective boxes.

• The TIG process requires a high level of Thoriated tungsten electrodes are available
welder skill. in sizes from 1,0mm – 6.4mm, to optimize
• High heat input levels can produce current carrying capacity.
unacceptable distortion. Copper backing
bars and/or greater numbers of tack welds Care should be taken in the tip preparation
at close spacing may be required. as this can influence the width and depth of
• The arc must be protected from draughts penetration. It is recommended that dedicated
as the shielding gas can be disturbed. tungsten sharpening tool is used or if not
This makes the TIG process less suited to available, that a dedicated grinding wheel be
outdoor use. isolated for tungsten sharpening only. The
• Slower and therefore less economical electrode should be sharpened from the point
than other processes. to the shaft and not in a rotational manner.
• Needs backing or purging gas to protect
the root particularly on pipe welding. Shielding gas is usually argon, which is
• High quality joint fit up is required available in gas or liquid form. Gas purity
should be 99,995%, although 99,999% is
preferred to avoid welding defects due to
Consumables for TIG Welding impurities. Other gases mixed with argon (for
special applications) are helium (up to 40%)
Two consumables are used. These are the and hydrogen (up to 5%). Backing or purging
filler rod and shielding gas. In addition, other gas, is also required for thin sheet, pipe and
items may need periodic replacement, e.g. platework where welding is done from one
tungsten electrodes, collets, ceramics, etc. side only. For purging applications, inert gases
Ceramic nozzles are available in diameters such as argon and nitrogen (austenitic and
ranging from 6mm to 15mm. The ceramic duplex steels) or a mixture thereof are used.
will restrict the area of gas shielding and the In some cases, small additions of hydrogen
weld bead width should therefore, always be may also be used. Hydrogen should not be
smaller than the ceramic diameter. Gas lenses present when welding the ferritic, martensitic,
are the preferred method of distributing the duplex or 3CR12 grades of stainless steel.
shielding gas through the ceramic nozzle Care must be taken when using nitrogen rich

14
purging gases to avoid its dissociation in the Standard MAG welding allows for a number
welding arc which can result in other harmful of modes of metal transfer, which is
weld metal effects. Flow rates of 5-8LPM are dependent on volts, amps and shielding gas.
commonly used for purging applications. Flux The most common modes of transfers are:
cored TIG wires are available, as well backing
tapes, which can negate the need for purging Dip Transfer or short circuiting arc, i.e. low
gas, but the use of such materials must be voltage, low amperage, is very suitable for
proven for the application. 2mm – 3mm sheet. A danger of lack of fusion
always exists with this particular mode due to
Schematic Representation of TIG Welding lower parameters.
Schematic Representation of TIG Welding
Spray transfer – high voltage & amperage
are used and is only suitable for material from
4 mm upwards.

The Pulsed MAG process fills the gap

between dip and spray modes of metal
transfer. This is done by pulsing a base
current (low amp/voltage) many a times a
A - Gas Cup E - Weld Metal
B - Collet Body F - Weld Pool second allowing more accurate control of the
C - Non-consumable G - Filler Wire
Tungsten Electrode H - Metal Droplet droplet. This will give advantages such as:
D - Shielding Gas I - Parent Metal

• Reduced heat input.

Metal Active Gas (MAG) Welding or • Minimal spatter.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) • Thinner gauge material can be welded.
• Improved control of weld dimensions and
During the MAG/GMAW welding process, an profiles.
arc is struck between the parent metal and • Positional welding capability.
a electrode. In this process, the electrode • Reduces the potential for defects such as
is consumed and forms a molten pool into porosity and lack of fusion.
which the electrode melted and deposited.
The entire weld area is protected from the A shielding gas is necessary, and in this case
atmosphere by a shielding gas consisting argon with 2% CO2 is preferred for spray
of high amount of argon (98%) and low transfer. Special gas mixtures which can
amounts of C02 (2%). This process is suitable include helium, are available for thicker
for welding material from 1,5mm thickness gauge materials which can reduce the need
and upwards in all positions. to preheat. The use of this gas can increase
penetration and welding speeds or produce

15
 The Most Common Arc Welding Processes

a cleaner finish with less spatter levels. Consumables for MAG Welding
As shielding gas technology is a specialist • Welding wire supplied in spool form.
subject, it is always better to consult the gas • Shielding gas.
supplier in these cases. Normal gas flow rates • Contact tips, gas nozzle
are around 18 LPM. • Wire feeding liners.

MAG Welding Advantages 15kg spools or 250kg drums of wire are

• Continuous wire is feed from a spool as available in diameters from 0,8mm – 1,6mm.
this is a semi-automatic process. Manual Care must be taken to ensure that the wire
MAG welding will thus have fewer stop/ is not contaminated with dust, dirt, oil or
starts when compared with the MMA and moisture. Normal workshop consumable
TIG processes. store rules apply.
• Welding speeds are faster than MMA or
TIG and no flux removal is required. Schematic Representation of MAG Welding
• A single diameter wire can cover a wide
range of base material thicknesses.
Common wire diameters are 0,8mm,
0,9mm, 1,0mm and 1,2mm.
• The process can be mechanized for
longitudinal seam and circumferential
welds.
• Very low consumable wastage with 97%
recovery.
• Suitable for automatic and manual
methods. A - Gas Cup E - Finished weld
B - Contact Tip F - Weld pool
C - Consumable Electrode G - Arc
Filler Wire H - Parent metal
MAG Welding Disadvantages D - Shield gas I - Metal droplet
• Cannot be used in drafty of windy
conditions without special equipment.
• Positional work requires a greater degree
of skill.
• Using the dip transfer mode can produce
lack of fusion type defects.
• Precautions need to be taken when
depositing root beads, using the spray
transfer mode.

16
Flux Cored Arc Welding • Choice between autogenous welding or
addition of cold filler wire.
Stainless steel gas assisted flux cored wires • Very suitable for mechanised welding.
are available from 0,9mm diameter upwards. • Excellent quality welds, which can stand
These provide excellent current density up to most rigorous inspection.
at relative low currents with better fusion • Finishing operations are reduced and in
and deeper penetration when compared many cases eliminated.
with MAG welding. The thin layer of slag
enables positional welding at high deposit Plasma Welding Equipment
rates, whilst also controlling the solidifying
bead shape. Argon with 15 – 25% CO2 or A plasma welding installation consists of the
100% CO2 gas mixtures are commonly following main components:
recommended by the wire manufacturer.
Prior to any welding taking place, the wire • Plasma power source 25 A – 500 A or
manufacture recommendations on shielding similar and pulse current.
gases should be strictly followed. • Plasma control unit with PLC and display.
• Wire feed unit.
Plasma-Arc Welding (PAW) • Arc height adjustment.
Use of the Plasma Welding Process on Stainless Steel • Plasma welding torch.
• Water cooling device.
The plasma welding process is used mainly for
automated welding applications in the petro- A very important part of the installation is
chemical and pharmaceutical industries. the arc height control, which automatically
regulates the distance between the weld and
Other applications include the fabrication of torch nozzle through the arc (arc voltage).
storage tanks, railroad tank cars, tanker trucks A constant distance between weld metal
and seagoing tank containers; production and torch is of the utmost importance in
of thermal and nuclear power station plant; achieving a high quality weld.
manufacture of tubing from plate; off site
manufacture of pipe-work systems, etc. Plasma-TIG Welding

All these applications benefit from the range The ‘plasma-TIG’ welding process has been
of qualities offered by the plasma process: developed to improve on the performance
of each of the two individual processes,
• Reliability and performance. especially in the following applications:
• Very suitable for welds with access from
one side only. • Longitudinal welding of pipes.
• Little distortion. • Butt joining of flat plate in a supporting jig.

17
 The Most Common Arc Welding Processes

• Fabrication of tanks, vessels and can be used on its own to weld plate up to
containers. 2,5mm thick.

A plasma –TIG welding installation comprises The arc voltage is regulated to maintain
two welding torches: a constant distance between the welding
torches and the weld joint, guaranteeing high
• A plasma welding torch. quality and consistent results. Arc voltage
• A TIG welding torch. regulation is essential for welding on a boom
and where the weld length is 3m or more,
Each is connected to a power source. A wire even in an installation where the edges to be
feed unit may be added to complete the welded are clamped.
system.
Schematic Representation of Plasma TIG
The combined process finds most Welding
applications in welding thicknesses between 3
mm and 8 mm, edge to edge without bevels.
Compared to the plasma welding process it Shielding Gas Nozzle

offers the following advantages: Tungsten Electrode

Contact Tube
• Improved weld appearance. Consumable
• Greater flexibility in preparation for
welding. Shielding Gas

• Approximately 25% faster welding speed. Arc

• Improved metallurgical quality of the

welds.

In most applications, the penetration is

achieved by the plasma torch (‘keyhole’
welding); the TIG torch and associated cold
wire feed unit then produce a smooth, convex
weld bead. Stainless steels thicker than 8
mm can be welded provided that they are
prepared with a bevel having a 5 mm edge.
One or more supplementary TIG filling passes
may then be necessary.

Each of the plasma and TIG torches may be

use independently. For example, the TIG torch

18
Common Cutting Processes

19
 Common Cutting Processes

Plasma-Arc Cutting (PAC)

A plasma arc (a mixture of neutral atoms, In some instances cut qualities of above
free electrons and positive ions) is produced 10mm thick material are claimed to be
by ionizing a suitable gas or mixture of approaching that of laser cutting, but at a
gases. The plasma torch and the workpiece fraction of the cost.
are changed to opposite polarities, causing a
plasma arc to be formed between them. The Laser Cutting
constricted arc reaches temperatures of up
to 25 000°C and the plasma ejects molten Although laser energy has been used for quite
metal as a high velocity narrow stream. some time, recent improvements in beam
quality has extended the capability of lasers,
Smooth sided cuts can be produced in to that of fast high quality precision cutting
stainless steel up to 125mm thick. The heat up to 12mm thick stainless steel. In South
of the plasma arc however results in the Africa numerous high speed laser cutting
formation of a heat affected zone (HAZ) and facilities are now operational. These high
some distortion of the cut material. Due to speeds are attained via high powered (8Kw)
possible carbide precipitation on the HAZ laser systems which generate temperatures
that may lead to corrosion problems, the beam temperatures in excess of 35 000°C.
cut edges can be machined to remove the
affected region. Plasma arc cuts (kerf width) A laser beam is a high energy heat source
can be very wide (e.g. 8mm) and the cut that can be focused to a very small spot, thus
edges, on thick material, tend to be slightly achieving extremely high power densities.
sloping.
4 Laser cutting has the advantages of very
high speeds, narrow kerf widths, high quality
cut edges, low heat inputs and minimal
1 1 Process Gas workpiece distortion. The process can cut any
2 Cutting Nozzle
Cutting Offset material and can easily deal with stainless
4 Cutting Speed
2
5 Molten Material steels. It can only be automated and thus
3 6 Dross
7 Cut Roughness integrated into a programme controlled
8 Heat Affected Zone system for optimal use.
9 Kerf Width

The disadvantages of laser cutting versus

89 7 6 5 plasma cutting lie in the thickness limitation
however with the development of higher
Cut qualities have however been improved due powered Laser systems these limitations will
to more advanced technology and equipment. soon be overcome.

20
Metal Precautions

21
 Metal Precautions

If the base material selected for the service contamination from these sources which
conditions and the selected welding process can initiate a site for corrosion.
are feasible, then the following should also be • The grinding of carbon steels in the vicinity
considered: of stainless steels must be avoided at all
costs.
Contamination • Damage to the protective chromium oxide
layer, such as by scraping and scratching
The importance of avoiding contamination when removing from plate racks, must be
in welding cannot be over stressed. prevented.
Hydrocarbons( Oil, dirt, grease) and workshop • Mild steel lugs and cleats cannot be welded
dust in or near the weld zone can become directly to stainless steel. Either clad the
sources of carbon. Stainless steels have very required area by welding, or attach pads of
low carbon levels and increasing the amount stainless steel and then fix attachments.
of carbon, by way of such contamination, • Grinding discs which have been used on
in the molten weld pool can cause weld mild steel must not be used on stainless
sensitisation. steel. Specific grinding discs recommended
for use of stainless steels are available from
Contamination from paint, wax, marking most suppliers.
pens, rubber tread marks from shoes and
tyres, oil from overhead cranes, dirty gloves To ensure proper cleanliness of the weld
and exhaust fumes must be avoided at all zone it should be wipe down with a clean
cost. In order to avoid pitfalls a systematic rag, dampened with acetone and finally
approach to good workshop practices must brushed with a clean stainless steel wire
be taken as per the SASSDA Good Workshop brush.
Practice DVD.

Correct handling and storage of stainless

steel is most important.

• Contamination with carbon steels must be

prevented.
• Plate racks, grabs and rollers, work
benches, forklifts, and bending devices
must be cleaned and protected before Stainless Steel Brush
use i.e. brown paper, clean wood etc. If and Acetone
mechanical guillotines are used to cut
the plates the blades must be wiped
down with acetone. This is to prevent iron

22
Metal Precautions

Distortion

Austenitic grades can create distortion issues.

This is due to the heat input created during the
welding process which is not easily dissipated
and remains close to the heat affect zone (HAZ).
This heated area has a high expansion rate, which use balance welding techniques, i.e. welding
results in distortion. The following points are one or two runs then turning the plate over for
recommended to help reduce the problem: the next runs. This is repeated until the joint is
• Use the minimum heat input (KJL/mm) completed.
for the section thickness (weld sizes and Keep to specified gaps and edge preparation
dimensions are important).
• When butt welding plate from 4mm to
20mm using manual methods, use two-
thirds to one-third joint preparation ratio’s.
Welding on the deeper side first to ensure
the penetration is past the midway point
will minimize distortion.

Controlling Distortion

Distortion is a natural tendency in all weldments angles. An increase form 60°to 80° can result
which is caused by the non-uniformed shrinkage in approximately 20% extra weld deposit and
forces created by the welding process. additional heat input.
Here are several practical ways of controlling The interpass temperature should be around
the shrinkage forces for minimum distortion: 100°C before starting the next pass.
On thick plate >10mm, it may be necessary to On thin plate or sheet it may be recommended
to use copper chill bars with argon purging
wherever possible.
Whenever possible, design the weld along the
neutral axis of the component.

23
 When welding circumferentially on vessels, Pre-stressing can employed as a technique to
it may be necessary to use internal restraint accommodate distortion.
to reduce shrinkage and distortion. The use
of purging equipment is essential to ensure Sensitisation
correct weld bead formation and eliminate the
possibility of under bead contamination.
Solid-liquid boundary
Solid
Weld Grain growth zone
Maximum
Thicker gauges which are to be welded may Temperature Metal Re-crystilised zone
Partially transfomed zone
require tacking at increments of around 20 to Tempered zone

30 times the metal thickness. Peening of these Unaffected base metal

tacks will reduce stress and distortion.

Also known as excessive chromium carbide

A precipitation, this condition primarily
affects the heat affected zone (HAZ) and is
dependent upon the level of carbon present
Excessive weld metal in the material. The length of time that the
increases distortion
material stays within the critical temperature
range of 450°C – 850°C will also have
aggravate the precipitation.

The carbon in the steel combines with

chromium to form chromium carbides. These
carbides form along the grain boundaries
and result in the areas immediately adjacent
to the precipitates being low in chromium,
i.e. these areas are no longer ‘stainless’.
Preferential corrosion occurs along these
boundaries, resulting in inter-granular
corrosion or weld decay.

Prevention

Whenever possible, apply the minimum • Low carbon grades (designated by the letter
size fillets with the least amount of excess “L” i.e. 304L) of stainless steel and filler
reinforcement to reduce distortion. material of less than 0,03% carbon should
be used.

24
Metal Precautions

• Weld zones should be free of contaminants. corrosion. Filler materials for welding these
• Heat input should be kept low by using grades are stabilized with Niobium as Titanium
low amperage and stringer beads, i.e. is burnt off in the arc.
no weaving. For this reason a qualified
welding procedure (W.P.S) and Procedure Hot Cracking
qualification record (P.Q.R) must be onhand
for easy reference. When the weld pool starts to cool down
• The interpass temperature should be less and compounds which have a low melting
than 100°C before starting the next run point such as sulphur and phosphorous are
measured by electronic methods present, these solidify last and form a thin,
• Stabilised grades of stainless steel which weak layer between the grain boundaries.
are readily available today can alleviate Cracking can occur if adequate tensile
the problem, i.e. 316 Ti, 321 and 347, if stresses are present during solidification. To
the product application is operating in the prevent this type of cracking, both the base
temperatures ranging from 450°C – 850°. metals and filler materials should have low
levels of impurity.
In these steels the addition of Titanium (Ti) Fully austenitic weld deposits tend to
and Niobium (Nb) combine with the carbon be prone to centerline cracking. Welds
in the grain boundries thus minimizing the containing sufficient amounts of ferrite
possibility of sensitisation or intergranular overcome this problem and it is common
for an austenitic weld deposit to contain
between 4% and 12% ferrite.
Fully austenitic weld metal such as type 310
stainless steel is welded with a joint design
and welding parameters that will ensure
an upwards direction of solidification, i.e. a
very convex weld bead geometry must be
obtained to prevent cracking.
Large groove angle joint designs promote
shallow and wide bead geometries thus
should be avoided. Generally, low welding
current combined with slow travel speeds
promote convexity of the weld bead.
Weld end craters are traditionally concave
and are therefore most susceptible to hot
cracking if not filled up. This type of cracking
is easily corrected by increasing the dwell
time at the end of the weld.

25
 Galvanic Corrosion Thermal Oxides

When two different metals are in contact in What makes stainless steel special is the
an electrolyte (usually a liquid), an electric chromium oxide layer formed on the surface.
circuit is set up and current will flow. As a This is called the passive layer and gives
result, one metal will become the anode, the the steel its ‘stainless’ properties. With the
other the cathode. The anode will gradually heat of welding, this passive layer is burned,
corrode away, particle by particle. The rate which accounts for the many different
of corrosion will depend on the surface area colours seen in the weld zone.
of the two parts; the bigger the cathode
area in relation to the anode, the faster this Thermal, or burned, oxides prevent oxygen
will happen. When joining two dissimilar reaching the chromium to form a new oxide
materials, it is important to keep this in mind layer, so it is most important to remove the
as the weld metal itself could be affected. burnt oxides caused by welding. If this is not

Other examples are arc strikes and

spatter which tend to form a very
small anode surrounded by a huge
cathode. Rapid corrosion can start,
which can cause failure in a piece
of equipment in a very short time.

Surfaces damaged by handling,

fabrication, cutting and welding
must be pickled and passivated.

done, the hydrogenous oxide

layer, which is responsible
for making a stainless steel
corrosion resistant, will not
be able to form and the
affected area will corrode.
This unwanted thermal
oxide layer can be removed
in two ways:

26
Metal Precautions

• Mechanically, by polishing or by using Double continuous

stainless steel wire brushes. Entrapment site fillet weld

• Chemically, by removing the unwanted

oxide layer (pickling). The corrosion
resistance in the pickled region may then
be restored by passivation which brings
it back to its original condition. Pickling Possible concentration Drainage hole
and passivation will provide a uniformed cell attack
protective layer which is aesthetically
appealing.
Bad Better

Chemicals for this process may be

bought already prepared as pastes or
solutions, and are made specifically for
each grade of stainless steel. Follow Difficult access
the instructions very carefully and use
in a well ventilated place. Plenty of Bad Better
water must be used both to neutralise
the acids and to thoroughly rinse the
workspace after treatment. Contractors
who specialise in this area are available,
and may treat large components on site.
Select joining methods carefully
The welding of pipes present a problem
when no access is possible to the interior
surfaces. It is essential therefore, to Poor Better Best
purge the inside of the pipe with argon,
nitrogen or mixtures with hydrogen 10MM PLUS 10MM PLUS

to prevent the production of thermal

100 OD
oxides. Care must be taken when Straight
100 OD
Bevelled
joint
-2R
joint 60º
selecting purging gas mixtures to ensure 1 run 2 runs

no other harmful effects will result.

POOR BETTER
Efficient purging is also dependent upon
purge flow rates and pre-welding purge
times. In such cases, contact the gas
supplier for expert advice.
BAD BETTER

27
 Crevice Corrosion

Poorly formed butt joints which include

a backing strips should be avoided at all
costs. If these cannot be helped, then it is
necessary to seal all around the attachment
or fitting, using a continuous weld, to
prevent crevices which will cut off oxygen to
the passive layer and start corrosion of the
material. Spatter will also produce a crevice
situation and it must be removed and the
area repaired by polishing, buffing and if
necessary, pickling and passivating.

28
Good Welding Practice

29
 Good Welding Practice

Good welding depends on good welding Tack Welds Should be Sequenced

practice. Some important points to note are: as Shown

• Ensure proper cleanliness of the weld

zone.
• Weld preparation surface must be smooth
and free from tears, cracks and nicks.
• Work must be positioned for flat
downhand welding whenever possible.
• Arc strikes outside the weld joint are not
acceptable. Use striker pads.
• Crater cracks at the end of a weld run
must be avoided. Use a small circular
movement or back-stepping over the
crater. The figures on the diagram below show the
• Avoid weaving. A stringer bead technique correct sequence of tack welding. Those on
is preferred. the bottom show tack welding from one
• Gas purging is one of the easiest end only. The result is that the plate edges
methods for preventing oxidation on the close up.
penetration side of single sided welds.
• When depositing multi-pass runs the
interpass temperature should not exceed 1 6 4 7 3 8 5 9 2

100°C.
• Select the correct type of filler material.
• Before tack welding, ensure that the joint 1 2 3 4 5

geometry is correct, e.g. fit up, root gap &

face preparation.
• Interpass cleaning must be undertaken
with a stainless steel wire brush only.

30
Typical Joint Designs For TIG Welding
1 6
<0.1T

T
Butt

2 7
T Max

T Outside Corner
Butt

3 60º
8

Butt 1.6mm Tee

4 9
T 60º
T

Approx Inside Corner T

T
10mm 60º 3.2mm

5 10
1.6mm

Lap
50º
Outside Corner

Weld Guide Tables - GMAW / MIG

Gas Metal Arc Welding (Semi-automatic)
General welding condition for spray arc transfer
AISI 300 series stainless steels. 60º 60º
(3.2mm)
Gas - Argon + oxygen.
Gas flow 17l/min T
(6.4mm)
(9.5 - 12mm) (1.6mm)

Plate thickness (mm) 3.2 6.4 9.5 - 12

Electrode size (mm) 1.2 1.2 1.6

Passes 1 2 2

Current DCEP 225 275 300

Wire feed speed (m/min) 7 10 6.0

Arc speed (m/min) 0.48 - 0.53 0.38 0.15

Electrode required (kg/100m) 7 26 80

31
 Weld Repair of Castings

32
Weld Repair of Castings

It is essential to know the chemical analysis Prior to commencing the weld repair, it may
of the casting to be welded. Ferritic and be necessary to check that the defect has
martensitic materials require great care if been completely removed by examination of
welded with a matching type filler material. the excavated area, using appropriate NDT
However, an alternative choice would be to methods ie dye penetrating spray.
use an austenitic filler material.

Once a defect is located,

either by visual or other NDT
methods, complete removal is
necessary by grinding or arc-
air gouging. If gouging is used,
back-grinding of the affected
area to sound, clean material
and to an additional depth of
2mm -3mm, is necessary.

Do not remove more material

than necessary and ensure
proper access to the bottom
of the groove to allow for
good fusion. Weld preparation
should have an acceptable
angle when multi-pass runs are
required. All welding precautions must be taken and
strictly adhered to for the particular type of
stainless steel casting being repaired.

Dependant on the thickness of the material,

pre and post weld heat treatment may be
required. When determining the preheat
requirements, the schaffer diagram can
provide suitable guidelines.

The repaired area must be finally checked,

using a suitable NDT method, thus ensuring
that the repair has been successful.

33
 Weld Quality, Standards and Codes

34
Weld Quality, Standards and Codes

In the ISO9000 series of quality standards, When an application code/standard does

welding is regarded as a special process and not specify quality acceptance, ISO5817
inspection alone cannot verify that quality (EN25817) is recommended. It offers a
requirements have been met. ISO3834 choice of 3 levels of acceptance criteria.
(EN729) is a comprehensive process
management system which addresses The requirement for qualification (approval)
quality in welding by controlling all aspects of welding procedures is determined by
of the operation. When ISO3834 is not the relevant application standard. EN288
applied, the requirement of EN1011 parts 1 Part 3 and ASME IX require qualification
and 3 should at least be adhered to. tests for high quality work such as pressure
vessels, pressure piping and any applications
Various application codes/standards exist where consequences of failure require
for design purposes and they cover specific high integrity welded joints. In situations
applications such as pressure vessels, where the weld integrity is less demanding,
pipework and structural fabrication. An procedures may be qualified by previous
application code/ standard also specifies welding experience (EN 288 part 6), a
the welding standard/code to be used for standard welding procedure (EN 288 part
welding procedure specifications (WPS), 7) or pre-qualification (AWS D1.6) where no
qualification of procedures and welders, specific weld tests are required. Some non-
aswell as quality acceptance criteria: critical applications will not require any WPS
qualification and a preliminary WPS (EN 288
part 2) will be sufficient.

Application Application Code/ Welding Standard

Standard
WPS and Qualification Welder Qualification
Pressure vessels PD 5500 EN 288 EN 287
ASME VIII ASME IX ASME IX
Process pipework BS 4677 EN 288 EN 287
ASME B31.1 ASME IX ASME IX
ASME B31.3 ASME IX ASME IX
Structural/General EN 101 EN 288 EN 287
Fabrication AWS D1.6 AWS D1.6 AWS D1.6

35
 Pickling and Passivation

36
Pickling and Passivation

The corrosion resistance of stainless steel drying out. Intermittent scrubbing with a
is produced by an extremely thin but stainless steel wire or fibre bristle brush can
continuous and stable chromium oxide film assist in removal of the discoloration. The
on the surface of the material. This is known temperature of the pickling formulation
as the passive film. should not exceed 30°C.

Damage to this film by means of scraping, The manufacturer’s directions concerning

gouging fly-off from grinding, carbon steel application procedure must be strictly
contamination, arc strikes, spatter and adhered to.
welding can result in local corrosion taking
place and a reduction in the life of the Thorough washing with copious quantities of
components or fabrication. clean cold water is required after pickling to
remove all traces of the acids used.
In particular, weld spatter creates a tiny weld
where the molten slug of metal touches and Passivation of Stainless Steels
adheres to the surface. The protective film
is penetrated and tiny crevices are created Nitric acid passivation should be carried
where the film is damaged. Heat tint, as out on all mechanically produced surfaces
several investigations have shown, also (e.g. machined, ground, blasted, polished),
weakens the protective film beneath it. particularly if the component is to be used in
aggressive environments.
The method used to repair this damage to
the passive film and restore it to its original
condition is cleaning, pickling and passivating.

Pickling of stainless steels should be

carried out using formulations based on
nitric (HNO3) and hydrofluoric (HF) acid.
Formulations based on hydrochloric (HCI)
acid are not recommended. The formulation
must be generously applied to weld areas
by brush, cloth, spray or dipping. The The acid treatment has the secondary
formulation should not be allowed to dry, beneficial effect of dissolving any free iron or
as significant staining of the stainless steel steel contamination which may have been
can result. The use of thixotropic pastes is picked up during handling or fabrication,
recommended to ensure that the pickling e.g. from plate clamps, plate rolls, guillotine
formulation remains in contact with the clamps, flyover from grinding operations on
steel surface for the required period without carbon steel.

37
 Pickling and Passivation

The quickest and best passivation occurs if

used at 65°C for the austenitic (300 series)
stainless steels and 50°C for the ferritic and
martensitic (400 series) plain chromium
stainless steels. Contact time is generally of
the order of 30 minutes.

NOTE: Pickling and passivating is carried out

with acid mixtures which can be extremely
harmful if swallowed of allowed to come
into contact with the skin. Suitable safety
precautions must be taken to prevent this,
e.g. protective face masks, rubber gloves,
etc., along with approved, and available, first
aid procedures.

38
Electrolytic Methods Testing for Cleanliness

As a result of the inherent dangers Several methods of evaluating cleanliness

associated with the chemical methods after fabrication are described as ASTM
of restoring the passive layer, alternative A380-13. Careful consideration of this
techniques have been developed. A number standard is strongly recommended.
of proprietary methods are available.
The ‘water-break’ test is used to determine
One such method is electrolytic etching. whether organic contamination, such as oil,
The basic principles of this technique require has been removed from the surface. Water is
the application of an electric current across also useful in detecting iron contamination
the affected area by means of a suitable – rust streaks and spots will form on wetted
electrical circuit, electrode and electrolytic surfaces over a period of several hours if
fluid. The apparatus sets up an electrical contamination is present.
discharge between the electrode and the
affected area which etches the surface The copper sulphate and ferroxyl tests are
leaving a new passive layer underneath. much more sensitive than the water test,
These methods have been tried and are and are specified when the surface must be
quite successful. Electrolytic fluids are not entirely free of iron. Special considerations
toxic or harmful and their use increases the apply when testing equipment intended for
safety factor. use with food, beverages or other products
for human consumption. The ferroxyl is
effective and easy to use, although the
solution does not have a long shelf life.

DC Power
Electropolish Supply

39
Contact

For assistance or advice on any aspect of this guide, contact:

Sassda (South Africa Stainless Steel Development Association)

Call: 011 883-0119
Email: info@[Link]
Website: [Link]

Acknowledgments:
Air Liquide

Revised 2016 by
Robert Lawrence & Rolf Schluep