SECTION 5: LAPLACE

TRANSFORMS
ESE 330 – Modeling & Analysis of Dynamic Systems
2 Introduction – Transforms
This section of notes contains an introduction
to Laplace transforms. This should mostly be a
review of material covered in your differential
equations course.

K. Webb ESE 330

 Transforms
3

 What is a transform?
 A mapping of a mathematical function from one domain to
another
 A change in perspective not a change of the function

 Why use transforms?

 Some mathematical problems are difficult to solve in their
natural domain
 Transform to and solve in a new domain, where the problem is
simplified
 Transform back to the original domain

 Trade off the extra effort of transforming/inverse-

transforming for simplification of the solution procedure
K. Webb ESE 330
 Transform Example – Slide Rules
4

 Slide rules make use of a logarithmic transform

 Multiplication/division of large numbers is difficult

 Transform the numbers to the logarithmic domain
 Add/subtract (easy) in the log domain to multiply/divide
(difficult) in the linear domain
 Apply the inverse transform to get back to the original
domain
 Extra effort is required, but the problem is simplified
K. Webb ESE 330
5 Laplace Transforms

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace Transforms
6

 An integral transform mapping functions from the time

domain to the Laplace domain or s-domain
ℒ
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 ↔ 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
 Time-domain functions are functions of time, 𝑡𝑡
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡
 Laplace-domain functions are functions of 𝒔𝒔
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
 𝑠𝑠 is a complex variable
𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎𝜎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
K. Webb ESE 330
 Laplace Transforms – Motivation
7

 We’ll use Laplace transforms to solve differential

equations
 Differential equations in the time domain
 difficult to solve
 Apply the Laplace transform
 Transform to the s-domain
 Differential equations become algebraic equations
 easy to solve
 Transform the s-domain solution back to the time domain
 Transforming back and forth requires extra effort, but
the solution is greatly simplified
K. Webb ESE 330
 Laplace Transform
8

 Laplace Transform:
∞
ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = ∫0 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1)

 Unilateral or one-sided transform

 Lower limit of integration is 𝑡𝑡 = 0
 Assumed that the time domain function is zero for all
negative time, i.e.
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑡𝑡 < 0

K. Webb ESE 330

9 Laplace Transform Properties
In the following section of notes, we’ll derive a
few important properties of the Laplace
transform.

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace Transform – Linearity
10

 Say we have two time-domain functions:

𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡
 Applying the transform definition, (1)
∞
ℒ 𝛼𝛼𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡 =� 𝛼𝛼𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
∞ ∞
= � 𝛼𝛼𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0
∞ ∞
= 𝛼𝛼 � 𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝛽𝛽 � 𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0

= 𝛼𝛼 � ℒ 𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛽𝛽 � ℒ 𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡

ℒ 𝛼𝛼𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡 = 𝛼𝛼𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝛽𝛽𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 (2)

 The Laplace transform is a linear operation

K. Webb ESE 330
 Laplace Transform of a Derivative
11

 Of particular interest, given that we want to use Laplace

transform to solve differential equations
∞
ℒ 𝑔𝑔̇ 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑔𝑔̇ 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
 Use integration by parts to evaluate
∫ 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − ∫ 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
 Let
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑔𝑔̇ 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
then
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡
K. Webb ESE 330
 Laplace Transform of a Derivative
12

∞ ∞
ℒ 𝑔𝑔̇ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 � − � 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 −𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0
∞
= 0 − 𝑔𝑔 0 + 𝑠𝑠 � 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑔𝑔 0 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡
0

 The Laplace transform of the derivative of a

function is the Laplace transform of that function
multiplied by 𝑠𝑠 minus the initial value of that
function

ℒ 𝑔𝑔̇ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑔𝑔(0) (3)

K. Webb ESE 330

 Higher-Order Derivatives
13

 The Laplace transform of a second derivative is

ℒ 𝑔𝑔̈ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑠 2 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0 − 𝑔𝑔̇ 0 (4)

 In general, the Laplace transform of the 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 derivative

of a function is given by

ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑔𝑔 0 − 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑔𝑔̇ 0 − ⋯ − 𝑔𝑔 𝑛𝑛−1 0 (5)

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace Transform of an Integral
14

 The Laplace Transform of a definite integral of a

function is given by
𝑡𝑡 1
ℒ ∫0 𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 (6)
𝑠𝑠

 Differentiation in the time domain corresponds to

multiplication by 𝒔𝒔 in the Laplace domain
 Integration in the time domain corresponds to
division by 𝒔𝒔 in the Laplace domain

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace Transforms of Common
15
Functions
Next, we’ll derive the Laplace transform of
some common mathematical functions

K. Webb ESE 330

 Unit Step Function
16

 A useful and common way of characterizing a linear

system is with its step response
 The system’s response (output) to a unit step input
 The unit step function or Heaviside step function:

0, 𝑡𝑡 < 0
𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = �
1, 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0

K. Webb ESE 330

 Unit Step Function – Laplace Transform
17

 Using the definition of the Laplace transform

∞ ∞
ℒ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0

1 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∞ 1 1
= − 𝑒𝑒 � = 0 − − =
𝑠𝑠 0 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

 The Laplace transform of the unit step

1
ℒ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = (7)
𝑠𝑠

 Note that the unilateral Laplace transform assumes that

the signal being transformed is zero for 𝑡𝑡 < 0
 Equivalent to multiplying any signal by a unit step
K. Webb ESE 330
 Unit Ramp Function
18

 The unit ramp function is a useful input signal for

evaluating how well a system tracks a constantly-
increasing input
 The unit ramp function:

0, 𝑡𝑡 < 0
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = �
𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0

K. Webb ESE 330

 Unit Ramp Function – Laplace Transform
19

 Could easily evaluate the transform integral

 Requires integration by parts
 Alternatively, recognize the relationship between
the unit ramp and the unit step
 Unit ramp is the integral of the unit step
 Apply the integration property, (6)
𝑡𝑡
1 1
ℒ 𝑡𝑡 = ℒ � 𝑢𝑢 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �
0 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
1
ℒ 𝑡𝑡 = (8)
𝑠𝑠 2

K. Webb ESE 330

 Exponential – Laplace Transform
20

𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
 Exponentials are common components of the
responses of dynamic systems
∞ ∞
ℒ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0

𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 ∞ 1
=− � =0− −
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 0 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎

−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 1
ℒ 𝑒𝑒 = (9)
𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎

K. Webb ESE 330

 Sinusoidal functions
21

 Another class of commonly occurring signals, when

dealing with dynamic systems, is sinusoidal signals –
both sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 and cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

 Recall Euler’s formula

𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
 From which it follows that
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 =
2𝑗𝑗
K. Webb ESE 330
 Sinusoidal functions
22

1 ∞ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑡𝑡
ℒ sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = � 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑗𝑗 0
1 ∞ − 𝑠𝑠−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡
= � 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑠+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑗𝑗 0
1 ∞ − 𝑠𝑠−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡
1 ∞
= � 𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑠+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑗𝑗 0 2𝑗𝑗 0
1 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑠−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡 ∞ 1 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑠+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡 ∞
= � − �
2𝑗𝑗 − 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 0 2𝑗𝑗 − 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 0
1 1 1 1 1 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= 0+ − 0+ =
2𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2

𝜔𝜔
ℒ sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = (10)
𝑠𝑠2 +𝜔𝜔2
K. Webb ESE 330
 Sinusoidal functions
23

 It can similarly be shown that

𝑠𝑠
ℒ cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = (11)
𝑠𝑠 2 +𝜔𝜔2

 Note that for neither sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) nor cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 is the

function equal to zero for 𝑡𝑡 < 0 as the Laplace
transform assumes
 Really, what we’ve derived is
ℒ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 � sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 and ℒ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 � cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
K. Webb ESE 330
24 More Properties and Theorems

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 Multiplication by an Exponential, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
25

1
 We’ve seen that ℒ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎

 What if another function is multiplied by the

decaying exponential term?
∞ ∞
ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0

 This is just the Laplace transform of 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 with 𝑠𝑠

replaced by 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎

ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 (12)

K. Webb ESE 330

 Decaying Sinusoids
26

 The Laplace transform of a sinusoid is

𝜔𝜔
ℒ sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔 2
 And, multiplication by an decaying exponential,
𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , results in a substitution of 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 for 𝑠𝑠, so
−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝜔𝜔
ℒ 𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 =
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
and
−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎
ℒ 𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 =
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
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 Time Shifting
27

 Consider a time-domain
function, 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡

 To Laplace transform 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡
we’ve assumed 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = 0 for
𝑡𝑡 < 0, or equivalently
multiplied by 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)

 To shift 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 by an amount,
𝑎𝑎, in time, we must also
multiply by a shifted step
function, 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎

K. Webb ESE 330

 Time Shifting – Laplace Transform
28

 The transform of the shifted function is given by

∞
ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎

 Performing a change of variables, let

𝜏𝜏 = 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 The transform becomes
∞ ∞ ∞
ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 � 𝑢𝑢 𝜏𝜏 = � 𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝜏+𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 = � 𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � 𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0 0

 A shift by 𝑎𝑎 in the time domain corresponds to multiplication by 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 in the

Laplace domain

ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 (13)

K. Webb ESE 330

 Multiplication by time, 𝑡𝑡
29

 The Laplace transform of a function multiplied by time:

𝑑𝑑
ℒ 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = − 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) (14)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 Consider a unit ramp function:

𝑑𝑑 1 1
ℒ 𝑡𝑡 = ℒ 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 =− = 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
 Or a parabola:
𝑑𝑑 1 2
ℒ 𝑡𝑡 2 = ℒ 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 = − =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑠𝑠 3
 In general
𝑚𝑚!
ℒ 𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚 =
𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚+1
K. Webb ESE 330
 Initial and Final Value Theorems
30

 Initial Value Theorem

 Can determine the initial value of a time-domain signal or
function from its Laplace transform

𝑔𝑔 0 = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 (15)

𝑠𝑠→∞

 Final Value Theorem

 Can determine the steady-state value of a time-domain
signal or function from its Laplace transform

𝑔𝑔 ∞ = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 (16)

𝑠𝑠→0

K. Webb ESE 330

 Convolution
31

 Convolution of two functions or signals is given by

𝑡𝑡
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 ∗ 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0

 Result is a function of time

 𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝜏 is flipped in time and shifted by 𝑡𝑡
 Multiply the flipped/shifted signal and the other signal
 Integrate the result from 𝜏𝜏 = 0 … 𝑡𝑡
 May seem like an odd, arbitrary function now, but we’ll later
see why it is very important
 Convolution in the time domain corresponds to multiplication
in the Laplace domain

ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 ∗ 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 (17)

K. Webb ESE 330

 Impulse Function
32

 Another common way to describe a dynamic system

is with its impulse response
 System output in response to an impulse function input
 Impulse function defined by
𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑡𝑡 ≠ 0
∞
� 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1
−∞

 An infinitely tall, infinitely

narrow pulse

K. Webb ESE 330

 Impulse Function – Laplace Transform
33

 To derive ℒ 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 , consider the following function

1
, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑡0
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = �𝑡𝑡0
0, 𝑡𝑡 < 0 or 𝑡𝑡 > 𝑡𝑡0

 Can think of 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 as the sum of two step functions:

1 1
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡0
𝑡𝑡0 𝑡𝑡0

 The transform of the first term is

1 1
ℒ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 =
𝑡𝑡0 𝑡𝑡0 𝑠𝑠

 Using the time-shifting property, the second term transforms to

1 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡0𝑠𝑠
ℒ − 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡0 =−
𝑡𝑡0 𝑡𝑡0 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 330

 Impulse Function – Laplace Transform
34

 In the limit, as 𝑡𝑡0 → 0, 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 → 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 , so

ℒ 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 = lim ℒ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡
𝑡𝑡0 →0

1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡0𝑠𝑠
ℒ 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 = lim
𝑡𝑡0 →0 𝑡𝑡0 𝑠𝑠
 Apply l’Hôpital’s rule
𝑑𝑑
1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡0𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡0𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡0
ℒ 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 = lim = lim =
𝑡𝑡0 →0 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡0 →0 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑡0 𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡0
 The Laplace transform of an impulse function is one

ℒ 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 =1 (18)

K. Webb ESE 330

 Common Laplace Transforms
35

𝒈𝒈 𝒕𝒕 𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔 𝒈𝒈 𝒕𝒕 𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔
𝜔𝜔
𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 1 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎
𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
1
𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡)
̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑔𝑔(0)
𝑠𝑠 2
𝑚𝑚!
𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔̈ 𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠 2 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0 − 𝑔𝑔̇ 0
𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚+1
1 𝑡𝑡
−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 1
𝑒𝑒 � 𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 0 𝑠𝑠
1
𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 2
𝜔𝜔
sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑
cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 − 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
K. Webb ESE 330
 Example – Piecewise Function Laplace Transform
36

 Determine the Laplace transform of a piecewise function:

 A summation of functions with known transforms:

 Ramp
 Pulse – sum of positive and negative steps
 Transform is the sum of the individual, known transforms
K. Webb ESE 330
 Example – Piecewise Function Laplace Transform
37

 Treat the piecewise function as a sum of individual

functions
𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡

 𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡
 Time-shifted, gated ramp

 𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡
 Time-shifted pulse
 Sum of staggered positive
and negative steps

K. Webb ESE 330

 Example – Piecewise Function Laplace Transform
38

 𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 : time-shifted, gated ramp

 Ramp w/ slope of 2:
𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡
 Time-shifted ramp:
𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡 = 2 ⋅ (𝑡𝑡 − 1)
 Gating function
 Unity-amplitude pulse:
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2
 Gate the shifted ramp:
𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡
𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 − 1 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2

K. Webb ESE 330

 Example – Piecewise Function Laplace Transform
39

 𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡 : time-shifted pulse

 Sum of staggered positive and
negative steps
 Positive step delayed by 2 sec:
𝑠𝑠2 𝑡𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡 − 2)
 Negative step delayed by 3 sec:
𝑠𝑠3 𝑡𝑡 = −2 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡 − 3)
 Time-shifted pulse
𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑠2 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑠𝑠3 𝑡𝑡
𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡 − 3)
K. Webb ESE 330
 Example – Piecewise Function Laplace Transform
40

 Sum the two individual time-domain functions

𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡
𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 − 1 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡 − 3)
𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝑡𝑡 − 1 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 1
−2 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2
+4 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2
−2 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 3

 Transform the individual terms in 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡

𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = ℒ 2 𝑡𝑡 − 1 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 1
+ℒ −2 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2
+ℒ +4 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2
+ℒ −2 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 3

K. Webb ESE 330

 Example – Piecewise Function Laplace Transform
41

 First term is a time-shifted ramp function

2𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠
ℒ 2 𝑡𝑡 − 1 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 1 = 2
𝑠𝑠
 The next term is a time-shifted step function
multiplied by time
𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠
ℒ −2 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2 =2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠

𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 2𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠

= −2 2
+
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 330

 Example – Piecewise Function Laplace Transform
42

 The last two terms are time-shifted step functions

4𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 2𝑒𝑒 −3𝑠𝑠
ℒ 4 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 3 = −
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
 The piecewise function in the Laplace domain:
2𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 2𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 4𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 2𝑒𝑒 −3𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = 2 − 2 2
+ + −
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

2𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠 2𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 2𝑒𝑒 −3𝑠𝑠

𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = 2 − 2 −
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 330

43 Inverse Laplace Transform
We’ve just seen how time-domain functions can be
transformed to the Laplace domain. Next, we’ll look at
how we can solve differential equations in the Laplace
domain and transform back to the time domain.

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace Transforms – Differential Equations
44

 Consider the simple

spring/mass/damper system from
the previous section of notes
 State equations are:
𝑏𝑏
𝑝𝑝̇ = − 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 (1)
𝑚𝑚
1
𝑥𝑥̇ = 𝑝𝑝 (2)
𝑚𝑚

 Taking the displacement of the mass as the output

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 (3)

 Using (2) and (3) in (1) we get a single second-order differential

equation
𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 1
𝑦𝑦̈ + 𝑦𝑦̇ + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡 (4)
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
K. Webb ESE 330
 Laplace Transforms – Differential Equations
45

 We’ll now use Laplace transforms to determine

the step response of the system
 1N step force input
0𝑁𝑁, 𝑡𝑡 < 0
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 1𝑁𝑁 � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = � (5)
1𝑁𝑁, 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0

 For the step response, we assume zero initial conditions

𝑦𝑦 0 = 0 and 𝑦𝑦̇ 0 = 0 (6)

 Using the derivative property of the Laplace transform, (4)

becomes
2
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 1
𝑠𝑠 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0 − 𝑦𝑦̇ 0 + 𝑠𝑠𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑦𝑦(0) + 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 1
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 (7)
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace Transforms – Differential Equations
46

 The input is a step, so (7) becomes

𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 1 1
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 1𝑁𝑁 (8)
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠

 Solving (8) for 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠

𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 11
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑠 + =
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠
1/𝑚𝑚
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 (9)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 +𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠+𝑚𝑚

 Equation (9) is the solution to the differential equation of (4),

given the step input and I.C.’s
 The system step response in the Laplace domain
 Next, we need to transform back to the time domain

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace Transforms – Differential Equations
47

1/𝑚𝑚
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 (9)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 +𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠+𝑚𝑚

 The form of (9) is typical of Laplace

transforms when dealing with linear
systems
 A rational polynomial in 𝑠𝑠
 Here, the numerator is 0th-order
𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠
 Roots of the numerator polynomial, 𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠 , are called the zeros of
the function
 Roots of the denominator polynomial, 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠 , are called the poles
of the function
K. Webb ESE 330
 Inverse Laplace Transforms
48

1/𝑚𝑚
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 (9)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 +𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠+𝑚𝑚

 To get (9) back into the time domain, we

need to perform an inverse Laplace
transform
 An integral inverse transform exists, but we don’t use it
 Instead, we use partial fraction expansion

 Partial fraction expansion

 Idea is to express the Laplace transform solution, (9), as a sum of
Laplace transform terms that appear in the table
 Procedure depends on the type of roots of the denominator polynomial
 Real and distinct
 Repeated
 Complex
K. Webb ESE 330
 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 1
49

 Consider the following system parameters

𝑚𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
16𝑁𝑁
𝑘𝑘 =
𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁 � 𝑠𝑠
𝑏𝑏 = 10
𝑚𝑚
 Laplace transform of the step response becomes
1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = (10)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 +10𝑠𝑠+16

 Factoring the denominator

1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = (11)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠+8

 In this case, the denominator polynomial has three real, distinct roots
𝑠𝑠1 = 0, 𝑠𝑠2 = −2, 𝑠𝑠3 = −8
K. Webb ESE 330
 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 1
50

 Partial fraction expansion of (11) has the form

1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = = + + 3 (12)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠+8 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠+8

 The numerator coefficients, 𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 , and 𝑟𝑟3 , are

called residues

 Can already see the form of the time-domain function

 Sum of a constant and two decaying exponentials

 To determine the residues, multiply both sides of (12) by the denominator of

the left-hand side
1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 8 + 𝑟𝑟2 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 8 + 𝑟𝑟3 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 2
1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑠𝑠 2 + 10𝑟𝑟1 𝑠𝑠 + 16𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 𝑠𝑠 2 + 8𝑟𝑟2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑟𝑟3 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑟𝑟3 𝑠𝑠
 Collecting terms, we have
1 = 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟3 + 𝑠𝑠 10𝑟𝑟1 + 8𝑟𝑟2 + 2𝑟𝑟3 + 16𝑟𝑟1 (13)
K. Webb ESE 330
 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 1
51

 Equating coefficients of powers of 𝑠𝑠 on both

sides of (13) gives a system of three equations
in three unknowns
𝑠𝑠 2 : 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟3 = 0
𝑠𝑠1 : 10𝑟𝑟1 + 8𝑟𝑟2 + 2𝑟𝑟3 = 0
𝑠𝑠 0 : 16𝑟𝑟1 = 1
 Solving for the residues gives
𝑟𝑟1 = 0.0625
𝑟𝑟2 = −0.0833
𝑟𝑟3 = 0.0208
 The Laplace transform of the step response is
0.0625 0.0833 0.0208
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = − + (14)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠+8

 Equation (14) can now be transformed back to the time domain using the
Laplace transform table
K. Webb ESE 330
 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 1
52

 The time-domain step response of the system is the sum of a constant

term and two decaying exponentials:

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 0.0625 − 0.0833𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 + 0.0208𝑒𝑒 −8𝑡𝑡 (15)

 Step response plotted in MATLAB

 Characteristic of a signal having
only real poles
 No overshoot/ringing
 Steady-state displacement agrees
with intuition
 1𝑁𝑁 force applied to a 16𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚
spring

K. Webb ESE 330

 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 1
53

 Go back to (10) and apply the initial value

theorem
1
𝑦𝑦 0 = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = lim = 0𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑠𝑠→∞ 𝑠𝑠→∞ 𝑠𝑠 2 + 10𝑠𝑠 + 16
 Which is, in fact our assumed initial
condition

 Next, apply the final value theorem to the Laplace transform step
response, (10)
1
𝑦𝑦 ∞ = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = lim
𝑠𝑠→0 𝑠𝑠→0 𝑠𝑠 2 + 10𝑠𝑠 + 16
1
𝑦𝑦 ∞ = = 0.0625𝑚𝑚 = 6.25𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
16

 This final value agrees with both intuition and our numerical analysis
K. Webb ESE 330
 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 2
54

 Reduce the damping and re-calculate the step

response
𝑚𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
16𝑁𝑁
𝑘𝑘 =
𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁 � 𝑠𝑠
𝑏𝑏 = 8
𝑚𝑚

 Laplace transform of the step response becomes

1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 +8𝑠𝑠+16
(16)

 Factoring the denominator

1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+4 2
(17)

 In this case, the denominator polynomial has three real roots, two of which
are identical
𝑠𝑠1 = 0, 𝑠𝑠2 = −4, 𝑠𝑠3 = −4

K. Webb ESE 330

 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 2
55

 Partial fraction expansion of (17) has the

form
1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟3
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = = + + (18)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+4 2 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+4 𝑠𝑠+4 2

 Again, find residues by multiplying both sides of (18) by the left-

hand side denominator
2
1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑠𝑠 + 4 + 𝑟𝑟2 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 4 + 𝑟𝑟3 𝑠𝑠
1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑠𝑠 2 + 8𝑟𝑟1 𝑠𝑠 + 16𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 𝑠𝑠 2 + 4𝑟𝑟2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑟𝑟3 𝑠𝑠

 Collecting terms, we have

1 = 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑠𝑠 8𝑟𝑟1 + 4𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟3 + 16𝑟𝑟1 (19)

K. Webb ESE 330

 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 2
56

 Equating coefficients of powers of 𝑠𝑠 on both

sides of (19) gives a system of three equations
in three unknowns
𝑠𝑠 2 : 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 = 0
𝑠𝑠1 : 8𝑟𝑟1 + 4𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟3 = 0
𝑠𝑠 0 : 16𝑟𝑟1 = 1
 Solving for the residues gives
𝑟𝑟1 = 0.0625
𝑟𝑟2 = −0.0625
𝑟𝑟3 = −0.2500

 The Laplace transform of the step response is

0.0625 0.0625 0.25
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = − − 𝑠𝑠+4 2 (20)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+4

 Equation (20) can now be transformed back to the time domain using the
Laplace transform table
K. Webb ESE 330
 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 2
57

 The time-domain step response of the system is the sum of a constant, a

decaying exponential, and a decaying exponential scaled by time:

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 0.0625 − 0.0625𝑒𝑒 −4𝑡𝑡 − 0. 25𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 −4𝑡𝑡 (21)

 Step response plotted in MATLAB

 Again, characteristic of a signal
having only real poles
 Similar to the last case
 A bit faster – slow pole at 𝑠𝑠 = −2
was eliminated

K. Webb ESE 330

 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 3
58

 Reduce the damping even further and go

through the process once again
𝑚𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
16𝑁𝑁
𝑘𝑘 =
𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁 � 𝑠𝑠
𝑏𝑏 = 4
𝑚𝑚

 Laplace transform of the step response becomes

1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 +4𝑠𝑠+16
(22)

 The second-order term in the denominator now has complex roots, so we

won’t factor any further
 The denominator polynomial still has a root at zero and now has two roots
which are a complex-conjugate pair
𝑠𝑠1 = 0, 𝑠𝑠2 = −2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.464, 𝑠𝑠3 = −2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗.464

K. Webb ESE 330

 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 3
59

 Want to cast the partial fraction terms into

forms that appear in the Laplace transform
table
 Second-order terms should be of the form
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠+𝜎𝜎)+𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖+1 𝜔𝜔
(23)
𝑠𝑠+𝜎𝜎 2 +𝜔𝜔2

 This will transform into the sum of damped sine and cosine terms
𝑠𝑠 + 𝜎𝜎 𝜔𝜔
ℒ −1 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 2
+ 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖+1 2 2
= 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 −𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖+1 𝑒𝑒 −𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑠𝑠 + 𝜎𝜎 + 𝜔𝜔 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜎𝜎 + 𝜔𝜔

 To get the second-order term in the denominator of (22) into the form of
(23), complete the square, to give the following partial fraction expansion
1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑠𝑠+2 +𝑟𝑟3 3.464
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = = + (24)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 +4𝑠𝑠+16 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+2 2 + 3.464 2

K. Webb ESE 330

 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 3
60

 Note that the 𝜎𝜎 and 𝜔𝜔 terms in (23) and

(24) are the real and imaginary parts of
the complex-conjugate denominator roots
𝑠𝑠2,3 = −𝜎𝜎 ± 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = −2 ± 𝑗𝑗𝑗.464

 Multiplying both sides of (24) by the left-hand-side denominator,

equate coefficients and solve for residues as before:
𝑟𝑟1 = 0.0625
𝑟𝑟2 = −0.0625
𝑟𝑟3 = −0.0361

 Laplace transform of the step response is

0.0625 0.0625 𝑠𝑠+2 0.0361 3.464
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = − − (25)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+2 2 + 3.464 2 𝑠𝑠+2 2 + 3.464 2

K. Webb ESE 330

 Inverse Laplace Transforms – Example 3
61

 The time-domain step response of the system is the sum of a constant and
two decaying sinusoids:

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 0.0625 − 0.0625𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 cos 3.464𝑡𝑡 − 0.0361𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 sin(3.464𝑡𝑡) (26)

 Step response and

individual components
plotted in MATLAB
 Characteristic of a signal
having complex poles
 Sinusoidal terms result in
overshoot and (possibly)
ringing

K. Webb ESE 330

 Laplace-Domain Signals with Complex Poles
62

 The Laplace transform of the step response in the last example had
complex poles
 A complex-conjugate pair: 𝑠𝑠 = −𝜎𝜎 ± 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

 Results in sine and cosine terms in

the time domain
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

 Imaginary part of the roots, 𝜔𝜔

 Frequency of oscillation of sinusoidal
components of the signal
 Real part of the roots, 𝜎𝜎,
 Rate of decay of the sinusoidal
components
 Much more on this later
K. Webb ESE 330