Chapter 5

Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

Definitions
Tissue: When a group of cells collectively perform essential physiological functions, they are
called tissues but in more specific terms a group of cells that are developed from the same
origin having similar or dissimilar size or shape and act together as a group are called tissues.
Meristematic Cell: The cells with the ability to divide are called meristematic cells.
Meristematic Tissue: The plant tissues with the ability to grow throughout its life are called
meristematic tissue.
Permanent Tissue: When the meristematic tissue of a plant is completely formed and stays
permanently in a certain place of the plant and does not divide again, it is called permanent
tissue.
Simple Tissue: The permanent tissue is which all the cells have the same size, structure and
shape is called simple tissue. In broader terms a group of cells that are developed from the same
origin and they are similar is shape, structure and size are known as simple tissues,
Complex Tissue: The permanent tissue that are composed of more than one type of and cells
that work together as a group and perform similar functions are called permanent tissues. In
broader terms, A group of cells that are developed from the same origin but are dissimilar in
shape and size are known as complex tissues.
Secretory Tissue: The permanent tissue which secrete special type of fluids is known as
secretory tissue.
Xylem: Xylem is a vascular tissue in plants responsible for the transport of water and minerals
from the roots to other parts of the plant and also provides mechanical support due to its thick-
walled cells.
Phloem: Phloem is a vascular tissue in plants that transports food, mainly sugars, produced in
the leaves to other parts of the plant for growth, storage, and metabolism.
Parenchyma: Parenchyma is a living plant tissue with thin cell walls, found in all parts of the
plant, responsible for food storage, photosynthesis, and transport of nutrients.
Collenchyma: Collenchyma is a living plant tissue with thickened, flexible cell walls that
provides mechanical support and elasticity to growing parts of the plant like stems and leaves.
Sclerenchyma: Sclerenchyma is a dead plant tissue with thick, lignified cell walls that provides
rigidity and mechanical strength to mature plant parts such as stems and bark.
Cambium: A tissue between xylem and phloem that forms new xylem and phloem tissue as a
meristematic tissue and helps in the growth of plant’s stems is called cambium.
Vascular Plants: Plants that have transport tissues to transport different substances in order to
carry out their biological functions are called vascular plants.
Node: The part of a plant from which leaves are formed is called Node.
Internode: The section between two nodes is called internode.
Bark: The Thick outer layer of a plant’s stem is called bark.

Root: The part of the plant that is connected to the soil, stores food and absorbs water mineral
nutrients form the soil is called root.
Root hair: The tiny hair-like structures on roots are called root hair.
Cuticle: The wax-like coating on the outer layer of a leaf which prevents the loss of excessive
water from leaves during winter or dry weather is called the cuticle.
Epidermis: The next layer after the cuticle is called epidermis.
Flower: A special type of modified stem or section of a stem responsible for a plant’s
reproduction is called flower.
Complete Flower: A flower that contains all 5 part, namely, receptacle, sepals, corolla, stamens
and carpels is called a complete flower.
Incomplete Flower: If a flower has any of the 5 mains parts missing, namely; receptacle,
sepals, corolla, stamens and carpel, it is called an incomplete flower.
Bisexual Flower: A flower that has both stamen and carpel present at the same time, it is called
a bisexual Flower. Example: Hibiscus or Datura
Unisexual Flower: If either Stamen or carpel are absent in a flower it is called a unisexual
flower. Example: Gourd or Pumpkin Flower
Neuter Flower: When both stamens and carpels are absent in a flower, it is called a neuter
flower.
True Fruit: When only the ovary of a flower develops into fruits, they are called true fruits.
False Fruit: When the other parts of the flower including the ovary develop into fruits, they are
called false fruits.
Embryo: The small under developed plant inside each seed is called an embryo.
Diffusion: When a substance spreads evenly from a more concentrated area to a less
concentrated area at the same temperature and atmospheric pressure it is called diffusion
Diffusion Pressure: The Force that draws a solvent to move from a higher concentrated
solution to a lower concentrated solution is called diffusion pressure.
Osmosis: the movement of a liquid with lower concentration to a liquid with higher
concentration through a semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis
Transpiration: The physiological process through which the extra water evaporates from
different organs of the plant is called transpiration.
Transport System: The system through which water, food and minerals transfer from one
place to another is called transport system.
Cell Sap: The water and minerals dissolved inside the cell together is called cell sap.
Sieve tube: A thin walled tube-shaped living cell without a nucleus is called sieve tube.
Tissue Culture: The process of growing required nutrients to create plant tissue through
artificial methods in laboratory where the tissue is isolated from a divisible organ of a plant
such as; terminal bud, auxiliary bud, young leaf or petals under sterile condition along with the
necessary nutrients is called tissue culture.
 Classification
Plant tissues are mainly divided into 2 categories, meristematic tissues and permanent
tissues.
Permanent Tissue is divided into 3 categories; Secretory Tissue, Simple Tissue, Complex
Tissue
Simple Tissue is classified into 3 categories; Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma
Complex tissue is classified into 2 categories; Xylem and Phloem

Characteristics
Meristematic Tissue:

1. The cells are alive and relatively small.

2. The cells of the meristematic tissue are usually rectangular, oval, pentagonal or hexagonal.
3. The cells in the meristematic tissue have thin cell walls made of cellulose.
4. The nucleus of the cell is relatively big, and the cytoplasm is dense.
5. The cells of the meristematic tissue usually do not have vacuoles.
6. As the cells are densely packed, there are no intercellular spaces between them.
7. Cells do not have stored food, secretions or waste products.

Permanent Tissue

1. The walls of the cell are chubby and quite thick.

2. The vacuoles are relatively big.
3. The nucleus is smaller than usual and positioned to one side of the cell.
4. The cell wall displays different patterns or designs.

Parenchyma Tissue:

1. Present in all parts of the plant.

2. Cells are alive and have thin walls.
3. Filled with protoplasm.
4. Cells have intercellular spaces.
5. Cell walls are made of cellulose.
6. Main functions: Provide structure, prepare and store food, and transport food.
Collenchyma Tissue:

1. Composed of a special type of parenchyma cells.

2. Cells are alive, filled with protoplasm, and elongated in shape.
3. Cell walls are thick due to the presence of cellulose and pectin.
4. Provides strength and elasticity, allowing stems to bend without breaking.

Sclerenchyma Tissue:

1. Cells are tough, long, and have thick walls.

2. Do not contain protoplasm; cells become dead as protoplasm decays.
3. Cell walls contain lignin.
4. Provides rigidity and mechanical strength to the plant.

Xylem:
1. It gives Rigidity to the plant.
2. It supplies water and other mineral salts from root through the plant’s stem to then upper
leaves. Basically it helps in water transportation.
3. The direction of flow is upwards.
4. Xylem tissue produces food.
5. Xylem cells generally have thicker cell walls compared to phloem.
Phloem:
1. Phloem transports food.
2. The direction of phloem is both downwards and upwards.
3. Phloem produces fiber.
4. Phloem cells generally have thin cell walls compared to the thick walls of xylem cells.
 Functions of Different Types of Tissues
1. Meristematic Tissue:

 Responsible for plant growth in both length and width.

 Fills wounds by dividing and forming new tissue.
 Forms permanent tissue once the division stops.
 Ensures the continuous production of new cells.
 Helps the plant adapt to changes or damage through cell regeneration.

2. Permanent Tissue:

 Participates in conduction of water and nutrients throughout the plant.

 Assists in convection, facilitating the movement of substances.
 Provides structural support once cells are fully developed.
 Cells are specialized for specific tasks such as storage, support, or transport.
 Helps in maintaining the plant's overall structure after growth.

3. Parenchyma Tissue:

 Provides structural support to the plant body.

 Stores food and nutrients in different parts of the plant.
 Prepares food through processes like photosynthesis.
 Helps in transporting nutrients and food.
 Contains intercellular spaces to allow exchange of gases.

4. Collenchyma Tissue:

 Provides mechanical strength to young stems and leaves.

 Gives flexibility to plant stems, allowing them to bend without breaking.
 Contributes to the elasticity of plant parts, enabling them to withstand wind or pressure.
 Supports growing regions of the plant without hindering growth.
 Cells are rich in pectin and cellulose, providing additional strength.

5. Sclerenchyma Tissue:

 Provides rigidity and mechanical strength to mature parts of the plant.

 Cells are thick-walled and lignified, giving structural support.
 Protects plant parts from damage due to external forces.
 Supports the plant's vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
 Offers mechanical protection to seeds and nuts with hard outer coverings.
6. Xylem Tissue:

 Transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves.

 Provides mechanical strength and rigidity to the plant due to its thick walls.
 Facilitates upward movement of water through the plant.
 Forms a part of the vascular bundle, contributing to overall plant structure.
 Supports photosynthesis by delivering necessary water to the leaves.

7. Phloem Tissue:

 Transports food (mainly sugars) produced by photosynthesis from leaves to other parts of
the plant.
 Allows bidirectional movement of nutrients to support growth in all parts.
 Forms part of the vascular system along with xylem to distribute resources.
 Helps store food in storage organs like roots and tubers.
 Assists in supplying energy to growing and non-photosynthetic parts of the plant.

Important Points

Importance of Plant Organs and Their Functions:

1. Main Structural Organs:
o Roots, stems, and leaves are the primary organs of a plant. They are made up of various
tissues and play critical roles in the plant's survival.
2. Roots and Stems:
o Roots and stems are essential for plants because they provide support and help in the
transportation of water, minerals, and nutrients.
o Roots absorb water and mineral salts from the soil, which are crucial for the plant's
biological processes.
o Stems transport water and nutrients from the roots to other parts of the plant, much like
pipes in a building that transport water to different floors.
3. Vascular Plants:
o Vascular plants have specialized transport tissues (xylem and phloem) to move water,
nutrients, and food throughout the plant body.
4. Water Transport:
o Water and minerals absorbed by roots are transported upward through the stem to the
higher branches and other parts of the plant.
 5. Photosynthesis:
o In the presence of sunlight, plants use water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars
through photosynthesis.
o Oxygen is also generated as a byproduct, which is crucial for plant respiration and for
creating a habitable environment for humans and animals.
6. Respiration and Oxygen Release:
o Oxygen produced in photosynthesis is used in the respiration process, where
carbohydrates are broken down in the plant's body.

Stem
1. Nodes are the points on the stem where leaves form, while internodes are the sections
between nodes.
2. The stem starts off soft, but as it matures, it becomes hard and can eventually be used as
timber.
3. The stem has a thick outer layer called bark which offers protection and defines the tree’s
shape.
4. Lateral growth causes the stem, branches, and trunks to thicken over time, forming growth
rings visible in cross-sections.
5. A ring marks a cycle season of a year.

Root
1. The root is the part of the plant that is connected to the soil, responsible for storing food and
absorbing water and mineral nutrients from the soil.
2. Roots have tiny root hairs, designed to absorb large quantities of water and dissolved mineral
salts from the soil.
3. At the tip of each root, there is a root cap, a tough covering of cells that protects the root from
injury.
4. Roots are classified into two types: the main root, which penetrates deep into the soil, and
branch roots, which spread closer to the surface.
5. Both main and branch roots are involved in absorbing water and minerals.
6. Root hairs, lateral roots, and branch roots help absorb water and minerals, creating liquid
pressure in root cells.
7. Water and minerals are then transported from the roots to the upper branches and leaves
through the stem due to transpiration pull.
Leaf
1. The most prominent part of a plant is its leaves, which are vital for the plant's survival.
2. Leaves contain chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis, enabling plants to produce food.
3. They come in various colors, sizes, and shapes, with structures related to their functions.
4. Many leaves are flat and wide to maximize sunlight absorption.
5. Trees like mango, jackfruit, blackberry, and banyan have single or simple leaves.
6. Plants like rose, neem, and moringa have compound leaves with multiple small laminae.
7. Some plants have needle-like leaves, while others have prickly leaves.
8. Evergreen trees, such as pine trees, maintain green leaves throughout the year.
9. The outer layer of a leaf is covered by a wax-like cuticle, which prevents excessive water
loss.
10. The epidermis is the next layer, playing a role in protection and gas exchange.
11. Leaves contribute not only to food production and respiration but also to the plant's
reproduction.
12. Some leaves, like those of the air plant (Kalanchoe pinnata), can grow new plants.

Flower

2. Flowers produce colors and fragrances to attract pollinators, with each flower emitting a
unique scent.
3. A typical flower of a higher-level plant consists of five main parts: receptacle, sepals, corolla,
stamens, and carpels.
4. Stamens and carpels are the most crucial parts as they directly participate in reproduction.
5. A flower containing all five parts is called a complete flower, while a flower missing any part
is termed an incomplete flower.
6. Flowers that have both stamens and carpels are called bisexual flowers; examples include
hibiscus and datura.
7. If either the stamen or carpel is absent, the flower is considered unisexual; examples include
gourd and pumpkin flowers.

Fruit
1. Fruits are a distinctive feature of flowering plants, often associated with sweet varieties like
mangoes, berries, and bananas.
2. Many commonly consumed vegetables, such as gourds, pumpkins, and luffas, are also
classified as fruits.
3. The formation of fruit begins after fertilization occurs in the ovary of flowers.
4. The organ formed by the ovary, either alone or maturing with other parts of the flower, is
called fruit.
5. When only the ovary of a flower develops into fruit, it is termed a true fruit; examples
include mangoes and blackberries.
6. When other parts of the flower, including the ovary, contribute to the fruit's formation, they
are called false fruits (or accessory fruits); examples include apples and elephant apples.
7. After fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed containing a small undeveloped plant
called an embryo.
8. The ovary surrounding the ovules develops into fruit that contains one or more seeds, as seen
in tomatoes.
Plant Physiology
1. Every plant cell performs numerous biological functions, including water absorption,
osmosis, diffusion, transpiration, transport, and photosynthesis.
2. Plants require energy to perform these biological functions.
3. Plants obtain energy from food, which they prepare through the process of photosynthesis.
4. To make food, plants absorb water and minerals from the soil using their roots.
5. Plants also use their leaves and stems to collect carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
6. The food produced by plants is transported to different parts of the plant, facilitating physical
growth.
7. These biological functions are carried out in an organized and controlled manner.

Diffusion and Transpiration

1. When the leaves of a tree in a tub droop due to a lack of water, they revive after watering
because of diffusion.
2. In leaf mesophyll tissue, a shortage of water causes water-deficient cells to draw water from
nearby cells due to diffusion pressure deficit.
3. Diffusion is the process where a substance spreads evenly from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration at the same temperature and atmospheric
pressure.
4. Diffusion pressure is the force that drives a solvent to move from a higher concentration
solution to a lower concentration solution.
5. The diffusion pressure deficit in the leaf’s mesophyll tissue helps maintain the effectiveness
of the plant's transport system.
6. Diffusion plays a critical role in the water absorption of plants and is involved in all
physiological functions.
7. During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen through
diffusion.
8. Water absorbed by the plant is released in the form of water vapors through transpiration,
which also involves diffusion.
9. Plants primarily absorb water through their roots, with about 99% of this water evaporating
through stomata as water vapours.
10. Transpiration is the physiological process that allows extra water to evaporate from different
organs of the plant.
11. Stomata are pores surrounded by guard cells, located in leaves, soft stems, sepals, and
petals, essential for photosynthesis.
12. When stomata are open, they allow carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to be released,
resulting in significant water loss as vapor.
13. Transpiration ensures a constant flow of water from roots to leaves.
14. The process helps plants regulate excess heat by evaporating water but can also lead to
dehydration.
15. Farmers must maintain an adequate irrigation system to protect their crops from
dehydration.
16. Transpiration is vital for supplying water to all plant cells and transporting food made
through photosynthesis to different plant parts.
17. The pull caused by transpiration in the plant's outer tubes assists root hairs in absorbing
water.
18. Transpiration also helps lift water and food juices, absorb salts, and deliver minerals to
leaves and other parts of the plant.

Transport System
1. Transport in plants involves the movement of water and minerals absorbed from the soil, as
well as food prepared in the leaves.
2. Water inside the cells and the dissolved minerals are referred to as cell sap.
3. Cell sap travels to the plant's leaves through xylem vessels due to transpiration pull and other
processes.
4. When water reaches the leaves, food is produced through photosynthesis.
5. Phloem tissues are responsible for transporting the prepared food to different regions of the
plants.
6. Plant roots absorb water and minerals, which enter the root through root hairs via osmosis.
7. Osmosis is the movement of a liquid with lower concentration into a liquid with higher
concentration through a semipermeable membrane.
8. Water and minerals absorbed through root hairs move from one cell to neighboring cells in
the root via osmosis.
9. This movement continues as water and minerals transfer from cell to cell, eventually reaching
the xylem vessels.
10. The xylem vessels transport water and minerals to the mesophyll tissue of the leaf with the
transpiration current through the stem's transport tissue.
11. Food produced in the leaves through photosynthesis is transported to different parts of the
plant through the sieve tubes of the phloem.
12. A sieve tube is a thin-walled, tube-shaped living cell without a nucleus.
13. Sieve tubes are longitudinally connected to form a long tube-like structure in the plant body.
14. The transverse walls between sieve tube cells disappear in places, creating a sieve-like
shape for easy food movement.
15. Thus, nutrients are supplied throughout the plant via the phloem, sustaining life.
16. If xylem vessels or sieve tubes of the phloem become blocked, the plant will inevitably die.

Plant Tissue Culture and Its use

Plant tissue culture is an artificial method of growing plant tissues isolated from organs like
terminal buds or young leaves under sterile conditions with essential nutrients. This process,
also known as micro propagation, allows for the mass production of seedlings from healthy
plants, creating disease-free specimens, preserving nearly extinct species, and achieving faster
seedling production through techniques like embryo culture. In Bangladesh, tissue culture has
successfully produced various seedlings, including local and exotic orchids, bananas, wood
apples, jackfruits, pulses, groundnuts, and disease-free strawberries and stevia.