Optical Fiber

An optical fiber is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric (glass, plastic), which
guides light waves along its length by total internal reflection. The propagation of light in an
optical fiber from one of its ends to the other end is based on the principle of total internal
reflection.

Structure: An optical fiber is cylindrical in shape and has in general three coaxial regions.

1) Core: The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region known as the core. In
general, the diameter of the core is of the order of 8.5 μm to 62.5 μm.
2) Cladding: The core is surrounded by a coaxial middle region known as cladding. The
diameter of the cladding is of the order of 125 μm. The refractive index of the cladding
(n2) is always lower than the refractive index of the core (n1).
3) Buffer coating/Jacket/Sheath: The outermost region is called as buffer or jacket. This
coating provides physical and environmental protection for the fiber. The buffer is elastic
in nature and prevents abrasion. The coating varies in size from 250 μm to 900 μm.

Total Internal Reflection:

Snell’s law can be written as
𝑛
sin θ1=(𝑛2 )sin θ2 ---------------(1)
1

where θ1 is the angle of incidence of light ray in the denser medium

θ2 is the angle of refraction of light ray in the rarer medium.

Also n1>n2

At some particular angle θc, the refracted ray glides along the boundary surface, so that θ2=900 as
seen in fig b. At angles greater than critical angle θc, there are no refracted rays at all. The rays
are reflected back into the denser medium.

Thus,

If θ1 < θc , then the ray refracts into the rarer medium.

If θ1 = θc , then the ray just grazes the interface of rarer to denser media.

If θ1 >θc , then the ray is reflected back into the denser medium.

Determination of critical angle θc:

When θ1 =θc, then θ2= 900 (Put this condition in equation 1)

𝑛
sin θc=(𝑛2 )sin 90
1

𝑛
sin θc=(𝑛2 ) ---(2)
1

Acceptance angle:

Consider a step index optical fiber into which the light is launched at one end, as shown in fig.
Let, the refractive index of the core be n1 and the refractive index of the cladding be n2.

Let, n0 be the refractive index of the medium from which the light is launched into the fiber.

Let the light ray enters the fiber at an angle of θi to the axis of the fiber. The ray refracts at an
angle of θr and strikes the core cladding interface at an angle of φ. As long as the angle φ is
greater than θc, the light ray will stay within the fiber.

Applying Snell’s law to the launching face of the fiber, we get

sin θ𝑖 𝑛
=(𝑛1 ) ---------- (1)
sinθ𝑟 0

If θi is increased beyond a limit, φ will drop below the critical value θc and the ray escapes into
the cladding. The largest value of θi occurs when φ= θc.

From the ΔABC, it is seen that sinθ𝑟 =sin(90 − φ) =cos φ ----------------- (2)

Put the value of eq. 2 into eq. 1

sin θ𝑖 𝑛
=(𝑛1 )
cos φ 0

𝑛
sin θ𝑖 =(𝑛1 ) cos φ ---------------- (3)
0

When φ= θc., then, θi is maximum

Let (θi)max=θacc

Substituting above condition in equation 3,

𝑛
sin θ𝑎𝑐𝑐 =(𝑛1 ) cos θc ----------------- (4)
0

We know that the critical angle at core cladding interface (point B) is given by
𝑛
sin θ𝑐 =(𝑛2 )
1

Using the identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 =1

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
cos θ𝑐 = -----------put in equation 4
𝑛1

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
𝑛
sin θ𝑎𝑐𝑐 =(𝑛1 ) 𝑛1
0
 √𝑛12 −𝑛22
sin θ𝑎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑛0

where θacc is called the acceptance angle of the optical fiber.

Fractional refractive index change (Δ):

The fractional difference Δ between the refractive indices of the crore and the cladding is known
as fractional refractive index change. It is expressed as
𝑛1 −𝑛2
Δ= 𝑛1

Typically, the value of Δ is of the order of 0.01.

Numerical aperture (NA):

The light gathering ability of a fiber depends on the numerical aperture. The numerical aperture
of fiber in turn depends on the acceptance angle, refractive indices of the core and the cladding,
fractional refractive index change.

NA is defined as sine of the acceptance angle.

NA=sin θacc

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
NA= 𝑛0

Relation between NA and Δ:

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
NA= 𝑛0

For air medium, refractive index n0 =1

So, NA=√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ----------------------- (1)

(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )= (n1+n2) (n1-n2)

𝑛1 +𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
=( )( )(2n1) ------- (2)
2 𝑛1

𝑛1 +𝑛2
Approximating as ( )= 𝑛1
2

Equation 2 becomes (𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )=2𝑛12 Δ put this value in eq. 1

NA=√2𝑛12 Δ
NA= 𝑛1 √2Δ

Numerical aperture is a measure of the amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. Above
equation shows that NA is dependent on the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials
and does not depend on the physical dimensions of the fiber. The value of NA ranges from 0.1 to
0.5. Larger value of NA implies that a fiber will accept large amount of light from the source.

Types of optical fiber:

Optical fibers are categorized based on different parameters. On the basis of refractive index
profile, optical fibers are classified as step index and graded index optical fiber. Depending on
the modes of propagation of light, optical fibers are of two types: single mode and multimode
optical fibers. Single mode optical fibers are step index fiber, whereas multimode optical fibers
are of step index multimode fiber and graded index multi-mode fiber.

Step Index optical fiber:

In step index optical fibers,

1) The refractive index of the core is constant along the radial direction and
2) It abruptly falls to a lower value (n2) at the core cladding boundary as shown in fig below.
Graded Index optical fiber (GRIN)

In GRIN fibers

1) The refractive index of the core is not constant but it varies smoothly over the diameter of
the core.
2) It has a maximum value at the center of core ad it decreases gradually towards the outer
edge of the core as shown in fig above.
3) The refractive index of the cladding is constant.

Single mode step index fiber

In SMSI fiber,

1) The fiber consists of a very thin core of diameter of 8μm to 12μm as shown in fig below.
2) The core is surrounded by a thick cladding of lower refractive index.
3) The external diameter of the cladding is of the order of 125μm.
4) The refractive index of the fiber changes abruptly at the core cladding interface.
5) It supports only one mode in which the entire energy is concentrated.
6) Light travels along a single path along the axis of the fiber.
7) Both Δ and NA are small for SMSI fiber.
8) Low NA means a low acceptance angle.
9) The numerical aperture of single mode step index fiber is given by
NA=√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
10) The variation of the refractive index of a step index fiber as a function of radial distance
is represented as follows.
n( r )= n1 if r<a (inside core)
= n2 if r>a (in cladding)
Advantages:

1) Loss due to intermodal dispersion does not exist (very less).

2) Low dispersion makes the fiber suitable for use with high data rate. SM fiber gives high
transmission rate and up to 50 times more than MM fiber.
3) The attenuation is least.
4) The single mode fibers carry higher bandwidth than multimode fiber.
5) Highly suited for communication.

Disadvantages:

1) Manufacturing and handling of SMF is more difficult.

2) Launching of light into the fiber becomes difficult.
3) Costly laser diodes are used to launch light into the SMSI fiber.
4) The fiber is costlier.

Multi-mode step index fiber (MMSI fiber)

In MMSI fiber,

1) Its core diameter is larger and is of the order of 50 to 100μm.

2) The external diameter of the cladding is of the order of 150 to 250μm.
3) The numerical aperture is larger and is of the order of 0.3.
4) Larger NA allows more number of modes, which caused larger intermodal dispersion.
5) Attenuation is high
6) Zigzag paths of propagation are permitted in a MMSI fiber as shown in fig below.
7) The numerical aperture of multi-mode step index fiber is given by
NA=√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
Advantages:

1) The MMSI fiber is relatively easy to manufacture and is less expensive

2) LED or LASER source can be used.
3) Launching of light into the fiber is easier.
4) It is easy to couple MM fibers with other fiber.

Disadvantages:

1) MM fibers have smaller bandwidth.

2) Due to higher dispersion, data rate is lower and transmission is less efficient.

Graded Index optical fiber (GRIN):

A graded index optical fiber is a multimode fiber with a core consisting of concentric layers of
different refractive indices.

In GRIN,

1) The refractive index of the core varies with distance from the fiber.
2) It has a maximum value at the center and falls off with increasing radial distance from the
fiber axis.
3) A typical structure and its index profile are shown in figure below. The core diameter is
in the range of 50-100μm
4) Light rays follow a sinusoidal path while propagating through the fiber.
5) The intermodal dispersion is zero, but material dispersion is present.
6) It has medium attenuation.
7) It has better bandwidth than multimode step index fiber.
8) The acceptance angle and numerical aperture decrease with radial distance from the axis.
9) The NA of GRIN fiber is given by
𝑟
NA= n1√2𝛥√1 − [(𝑎)2 ]
10) The variation of the refractive index of a step index fiber as a function of radial distance
is represented as follows.
𝑟
n(r)= n1√1 − [2𝛥(𝑎)α , r<a inside the core
=n2 r>a in cladding
Advantages:

Either an LED or a LASER source can be used as the source of light with GRIN fiber.

Disadvantages:

1) The manufacture of GRIN fiber is more complex. Hence, it is the most expensive fiber.
2) Coupling fiber to the light source is difficult.

Losses in an optical fiber: As the light signal propagates through the fiber, it suffers loss of
amplitude and change in shape. The loss of amplitude is referred to as attenuation and the change
in shape as distortion.

Attenuation: When an optical signal propagates through a fiber, its power decreases
exponentially with distance. The loss of optical power as light travels down a fiber is known as
attenuation. The attenuation of optical signal is defined as the ratio of the optical output power
from a fiber of length L to the input optical power.

If Pi is the optical power launched at the input end of the fiber, then the power Po at a distance L
down the fiber is given by

Po=Pi𝑒 −𝛼𝐿 -------- (1)

Where 𝛼 is called the fiber attenuation coefficient (expressed in units of km-1).

Taking log of equation 1

1 𝑃
𝛼=𝐿 ln(𝑃 𝑖 ) ------------- (2)
𝑜

In terms of dB/km, 𝛼 is defined through the equation

 10 𝑃
𝛼dB/km = 𝐿 log(𝑃 𝑖 )
𝑜

In case of an ideal optical fiber, Po=Pi and the attenuation would be zero.

Factors affecting attenuation coefficient: There are several loss mechanisms responsible for
attenuation in optical fibers. They are broadly classified into two categories: Intrinsic and
extrinsic attenuation. Intrinsic attenuation is caused by substances inherently present in the fiber,
whereas extrinsic attenuation is caused by external forces such as bending.

Intrinsic attenuation: It results from the material inherent to the fiber. It is caused by impurities
present in the glass. When a light signal hits an impurity in the fiber, either it is scattered or it is
absorbed. Intrinsic attenuation can be further classifies as: Material absorption and Rayleigh
scattering

Material absorption: It results due to the imperfection and impurities in the fiber and accounts
for 3-5% of fiber attenuation. Absorption losses can be limited by controlling the amount of
impurities during the manufacturing process.

Rayleigh scattering: It accounts for the majority (about 96%) of attenuation in optical fiber. The
local microscopic density variations in glass cause local variations in refractive index. This
variation act as obstructions and scatter light in all directions (as shown in fig). This is known as
Rayleigh scattering. The Rayleigh scattering loss greatly depends on the wavelength. It varies as
1/λ4 and becomes important at lower wavelengths. Thus, Rayleigh scattering sets a lower limit
on the wavelengths that can be transmitted by a glass fiber at 0.8μm, below which the scattering
loss is very high.

Extrinsic attenuation (Bending losses): It is caused by two external mechanisms: Macro

bending and Micro bending. Both of them cause a reduction of optical power. The bending strain
affects the refractive index and the critical angle of the light ray in that specific area. As a result,
the condition of total internal reflection is no longer satisfied. Hence, light travelling in the core
can refract out and loss occurs.

Macro bending: A macro bend is a large scale bend that is visible. To prevent macro bends,
optical fiber has a minimum bend radius specification that should not be exceeded. This is a
restriction on how much bend a fiber can withstand before experiencing problems in optical
performance or mechanical reliability.

Micro bending: A micro bend is a small scale distortion. It is caused by imperfections in the
cylindrical geometry of fiber during manufacturing process or installation processes. Light rays
get scattered at the small bends and escape into the cladding. Such losses are known as
microbends.

Fiber optic communication system: The optical fiber communication system consists of three
major components, transmitter, optical fiber and receiver as shown in figure 10.34 below.
A transmitter converts electrical signal to light signals, an optical fiber transmits the signal and a
receiver captures the signals at the other end of the fiber and converts them to electrical signals.

The block diagram fig. 10.34 shows a typical communication system. The transmitter consists of
a light source supported by necessary drive circuits. A transducer converts a non-electrical
message into an electrical signal and is fed to a light source. The light waves are modulated with
the signal. The transmitter feeds the modulated light wave to the transmission channel, i.e.
optical fiber link.

The optical signal travelling through the fiber will get attenuated progressively and distorted due
to dispersion effects. Therefore repeaters are to be used at specific intervals to regenerate the
signal.

At the end of the fiber, an output coupler directs the light from the fiber onto a semiconductor
photodiode, which converts the light signals to electrical signals. The photodetector converts the
light waves into electrical signals which are then amplified and decoded to obtain the message.
The output is fed to a suitable transducer to convert it into an audio or video form.