ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF CELL

Structure and function of cells

Dr LSK
 Cell Structure

Structure of cells: ANATOMY

Functions of cells: PHYSIOLOGY
Cell Injury and Repair: PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL HUMAN CELL

Cells are the building blocks of tissues and organs.

They are the smallest functional unit found in our
bodies.

cells tissues organs systems

Each human cell consists of a plasma membrane.

Inside the plasma membrane, is the cytoplasm.
Suspended within the cytoplasm are tiny organs
called organelles. There are several different organelles, including the nucleus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and centrioles. Each
organelle has a specialised and individual function.
 THE CELL (PLASMA) MEMBRANE
 It consists of two flexible layers surrounding the
cell and enclosing its contents.

 The membrane has a similar consistency

Fluid-mosaic model?
to olive oil.
 The layers are embedded with protein and sugar
molecules, communicating with the contents on
either side of the cell membrane.

 Everything inside the cell is known as

intracellular fluid; everything outside the cell is
extracellular fluid.
 C.M allows cell-to-cell communication and
also protects the organelles
 3 layers:
• Lipids (phospholipids and
cholesterol)
• proteins, and
• carbohydrate groups
 THE CYTOPLASM
Cell forming
This is the region in the cell between the material
nucleus and the plasma membrane. Most
of the cellular activity occurs in the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contents are
contained by the cell membrane.

The cytoplasm consists of:

• cytosol, a semi-transparent viscous

liquid. It is made up of mainly water, but
also proteins, sugars, sales and other
solutes

• organelles suspended in the cytosol

• other chemical substances, depending
on the function of the cell.
 THE NUCLEUS Control centre

The nucleus is the largest organelle.

It contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which

is our genetic material.

Its function can be described as the board of

directors, control centre, design departments
and construction boss! Responsible for
directing metabolic activities in the cells and
for providing instructions for the synthesis of
Nuclei = pit / kernel
proteins in the cells.

The majority of cells have one nucleus. However, some, including bone, skeletal,
and liver cells, have many.
Red blood cells are an exception, as their nuclei are ejected before the cells begin
to circulate in the blood.
 MITOCHONDRIA Power house

These are organelles found in the

cytoplasm.

They are recognisable by their distinct

sausage-shaped structures.

They are involved in aerobic respiration - a

process whereby energy is made available in
the cell. It is often, as a result, referred to as
the powerhouse of the cell.

The more active a cell needs to be, the

more mitochondria it has, eg muscle and
liver cells.
 CENTRIOLES
These are small cylindrical organelles,
found in pairs and positioned at right
angles to each other.

They’re usually located in close proximity

to the nucleus.

Each centriole is composed of short

lengths of microtubules.

They move to opposite ends of the cell

(the poles) when it is time for cell division.

They are involved in the development of

spindles during cell division.
 CELL COMMUNICATION OR CELL
SIGNALLING

There are four basic mechanisms for cellular

communication:
1. Direct contact
2. Paracrine communication
3. Endocrine communication
4. Synaptic communication
Direct contact communication – molecules on the
11
surface of one cell are recognized by receptors on the
adjacent cell

Gap Junction:
1. osteocyte of bone
2. Myofibres of
Muscle cell
Paracrine communication – signal released from a cell has
12
an effect on neighbouring cells. E.g Cell proliferation and
growth
Endocrine communication – hormones released from a cell affect
other cells throughout the body
13
Synaptic communication – nerve cells release the signal
(neurotransmitter) which binds to receptors on nearby cells. E.g
14
Between two neurons
 SYNAPSE
15
AXON

What is this
The synapse -
in the
where the action
membrane?
happens

Transport
The next cell’s plasma
protein
membrane
• That means that the impulse cannot be transmitted directly.
• Rather, the impulse is transmitted by the release of chemicals
called chemical transmitters (or neurotransmitters).
 INTRODUCTION TO CELL TRANSPORT

• What is Transport?
• Name of the life process in which materials are
exchanged between an organism and its
environment
WHAT TYPES OF MATERIALS NEED TO BE
TRANSPORTED INTO/OUT OF LIVING CELLS?

INTO Cells OUT of Cells

• Water • Carbon
• Glucose Dioxide
• Salt • Waste
• Ions Materials
• Lipids • Ions
• Amino Acids • Water
 SIMPLE AND COMPLEX

• Can be as simple as moving materials between one one-celled organism and

its environment
• OR
• As complex as the transport systems in higher organisms
• Like Us! (Humans)
IN ANY CASE BELOW, THE FINAL
POINT OF TRANSFER IS:
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

• Protein molecules are embedded in the phospholipid

bilayer of most cell membranes.

• Because the protein molecules can move around and

"float" among the lipids, and because so many different
kinds of molecules make up the cell membrane, scientists
describe the membrane as a fluid mosaic.
WHAT ARE THESE DIFFERENT MOLECULES
DOING?

PROTEINS CARBOHYDRATES

• Form channels/pumps to help • Many act like chemical

move material across the identification cards, allowing
cell membrane. individual cells to identify
• Attach directly to the one another.
cytoskeleton, enabling cells to
respond to their environment
by using their membranes to
help move/change shape
Some materials are allowed to enter and leave the cell… some are NOT!

SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE…
• All cells need to constantly exchange materials with its environment
• Many of these materials/substances can cross biological
membranes freely.
• HOWEVER
• Some are too large or too strongly charged to pass across
the cell membrane
Also known as…
Glucose, ions
 CELL TRANSPORTATION

• The cell membrane has selective permeability.

• This means that only certain substances can come in
and go out of the cell.
• Transportation across the cell membrane can occur in
many different ways, depending on the size and
characteristics of the substance.
• Two methods of transportation are diffusion and
osmosis
 DIFFUSION
This is the movement of a chemical
substance from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration so that the solution is of
equal concentration. It can occur in
gases, liquids and solutions.

Can you think of some examples?

• Coffee granules in a cup when water

is added, squash in a glass when
water is added, the smell of aroma
from perfume or a diffuser.
Source: magnetix/Shutterstock.com
 DIFFUSION (CONT.)

Diffusion can also occur across a semipermeable membrane.

Only molecules able to cross the membrane will be able to diffuse
through.
Can you think of some examples where this occurs in the body?
• Through the plasma membrane, in the walls of alveoli in the lungs,
capillary walls.
 OSMOSIS
This is the movement of water
down its concentration gradient.
This is often because the solute
molecules are too large to pass
through the pores of a membrane.
The force with which this occurs is
referred to as osmatic pressure
- water is pulled from the dilute
solution to the stronger solution
across a membrane.
Source: magnetix/Shutterstock.com
E.g. 1. Dialysis of the kidney in the
excretory system
2. Feeling thirty after taking salty
food
 CELL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

• The cell cycle is a series of changes from formation to the time it reproduces.
• There are two major periods within the cell cycle:

• Interphase: Cell growth and cellular routine activity. In addition to routine

activities, the cell prepares for the next cell division.There are three sub-phases
where the cell grows by producing proteins and organelles:

1. G1: the cell grows in size and volume. It may vary in length, but it’s
usually the longest phase
2. S phase: the synthesis of DNA 46 chromosomes become 92. Chromatin is
reproduced which is an essential component for the mitotic phase
3. G2: further growth and preparation

• Cell division/mitotic (M) phase

 CELL DIVISION

Cell division is essential for the growth and repair of tissues during
normal use.

When fully mature, some cells lose their ability to divide such as muscle
and nervous cells, resulting in scar tissue.
In most cells, the mitotic phase of the cell cycle involves two events:
• Mitosis (M phase): division of the cell
• Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm

Another type of cell division, meiosis, occurs when the sex cells (ova and
sperm) divide with only half the number of genes found in other cells.
UNIT: CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
LESSON: THE CELL CYCLE

AGRISCIENCE INSTRUCTOR:
STUDENT OBJECTIVES

• 1) Diagram and label the cell cycle and understand of each

phase.
• 2) Identify cells in each stage of the cell cycle.
• 3) Understand how the cell controls cell division.
 UNDERSTANDING THE
CELL CYCLE
• There are three major stages to the cell cycle –
Interphase, Mitosis and Cytokinesis.
1. Interphase encompasses the phases of G1
(Growth/GAP 1), S (DNA Synthesis) and G2
(Growth/GAP 2) phase.
2. Mitosis encompasses the phases of prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
3. Cytokinesis (cytoplasm divides)
THE CELL CYCLE IN ACTION!
WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT
CELL DIVISION?

• A) Cell division is a
process of reproducing
cells. This occurs during
growth, repair and
development of tissues.
WHAT IS THE CELL CYCLE?

• Repeating sequence of
cellular growth and
division throughout the
life of an organism
• Interphase (GSG)
• Mitosis ( PMAT)
• Cytokinesis (
INTERPHASE – AN OVERVIEW

• 1st Growth Phase: gathering of

material
• DNA Synthesis Phase: duplication of
DNA
• 2nd Growth Phase: accumulation of
nutrients. Check points
 PHASES OF INTERPHASE

• A) 1st Growth Phase = (G1)

• 1. The cell grows rapidly and carries out routine
functions

• 2. Phase takes most of the cell’s life

• 3. Muscle and nerve cells never divide, so they remain

in G1
PHASES OF INTERPHASE
(CONT.)
• B) Synthesis Phase (S)
• 1. Cell’s DNA is copied
• 2. At the end of the stage, each
chromosome consists of 2 chromatids
attached @ a centromere.
 PHASES OF INTERPHASE
(CONT.)
• C) Second Growth Phase (G2)
• 1. Hollow microtubules are assembled

• 2. Microtubules are used to move chromosomes

during mitosis
 SECOND PHASE OF THE CELL
CYCLE

D) Mitosis
1. Nucleus is divided into 2 nuclei
2. Each nucleus ends up with the same number of
chromosomes as the original cell.
3. Includes :prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
FINAL STAGE OF THE CELL
CYCLE
Cytokinesis
1. During this final stage, the
cytoplasm divides.
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS IN
PROPHASE

• Plant & animal cells in

prophase
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS IN
METAPHASE
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS IN
ANAPHASE
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS IN
TELOPHASE
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS IN
CYTOKENISIS
 CONTROL OF CELL CYCLE

There are three checkpoints:

1) G1 Checkpoint
a. Decides when a cell can divide based on
environmental conditions, health and cell size
b. Favorable conditions begin S phase
If not favourable, a resting period begins
 CONTROL OF CELL CYCLE

2) G2 Checkpoint
a) DNA repairs enzymes and checks DNA
replication
b) Once this checkpoint is passed, then mitosis
begins
3)Mitosis Checkpoint
a) Signals end of mitosis and G1 begins again
 CONTROL OF CELL CYCLE

What happens when checkpoints fail?

1. Cancer can occur
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells.
2. Mutation missed by checkpoint can cause
overproduction of growth hormone
3. Damage done to a cell by environmental factors
can cause cells to constantly repair