HUMANRI

GHTS

Quest
ions

Q.
1.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenHumanRi
ght
sandFundament
al

Ri
ght
s?Q.
2.HowdoesNat
ional
HumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
onconst
it
ute?

Q.
3.Whatar
etheobj
ect
ivesofUni
tedNat
ionsChar
ter
?

Q.
4.Wr
it
eaboutt
heconceptofHumanRi
ght

Q.
5.Whatar
ethecor
eci
vi
landpol
i
tical
right
spr
otect
edunderi
nter
nat
ional
humanr
ight
s

l
aw(
e.g.r
ightt
oli
fe,
li
ber
ty,
secur
it
y,f
reedom ofexpr
essi
on,
assembl
y,r
eli
gion,
etc.
)?

Q.
6.Whati
sthescopeandappl
i
cat
ionoft
hepr
inci
pleofequal
i
tyandnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion

i
nhumanr
ight
slaw?

Q.
7.Howdohumanr
ight
sfr
amewor
ksaddr
esst
her
ight
sofchi
l
dren,
women,
minor
it
ies,

i
ndi
genouspeopl
es,
migr
ant
s,pr
isoner
s,et
c.?

8.Di
Q. scusst
heNat
ional
humanr
ightcommi
ssi
on

9.Di
Q. scusst
her
ight
senshr
inedi
nEur
opeanConv
ent
iononHumanRi
ght
s

10.Wr
Q. it
eanessayonHumanRi
ght
sandUni
tedNat
ionsChar
ter

The Uni
ted Nat
ions Commi
ssi
on on Human Ri
ght
s(UNCHR)was a f
unct
ional
commi
ssi
onwi
thi
ntheov
eral
lfr
amewor
koft
heUni
tedNat
ionsf
rom 1946unt
ili
twas
r
epl
acedbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionsHumanRi
ght
sCounci
lin2006.I
twasasubsi
diar
ybody
oft
heUNEconomi
candSoci
alCounci
l(ECOSOC)
,andwasal
soassi
stedi
nit
swor
kby
t
heOf
fi
ceoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsHi
gh

1
Commi
ssi
onerf
orHumanRi
ght
s(UNOHCHR)
.Itwast
heUN'
spr
inci
palmechani
sm and
i
nter
nat
ional
for
um concer
nedwi
tht
hepr
omot
ionandpr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
s
On15Mar
ch2006,t
heUNGener
alAssembl
yvot
edov
erwhel
mingl
ytor
epl
aceUNCHR
wi
tht
heUNHumanRi
ght
sCounci
l
.

Hi
stor
y:
El
eanorRoosev
eltatUni
tedNat
ionsf
orHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
onmeet
ingi
nLake
Success,
NewYor
kin1947
The UNCHR wasest
abl
i
shed i
n 1946 byECOSOC,and wasone oft
he f
ir
stt
wo
"
Funct
ionalCommi
ssi
ons"setupwi
thi
ntheear
lyUN st
ruct
ure(
theot
herbei
ngt
he
Commi
ssi
onont
heSt
atusofWomen)
.Itwasabodycr
eat
edundert
het
ermsoft
he
Uni
tedNat
ionsChar
ter(
speci
fi
cal
l
y,underAr
ti
cl
e68)t
owhi
chal
lUNmemberst
atesar
e
si
gnat
ori
es.
I
tmetf
ort
hef
ir
stt
imei
nJanuar
y1947andest
abl
i
shedadr
aft
ingcommi
tt
eef
ort
he
Uni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s,whi
chwasadopt
edbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionson
December10,
1948.Thebodywentt
hrought
wodi
sti
nctphases.Fr
om 1947t
o1967,
it
f
oll
owedt
hepol
i
cyofabsent
eei
sm,
whi
chmeantt
hatt
heCommi
ssi
onwoul
d
concent
rat
eonpr
omot
inghumanr
ight
sandhel
pingst
atesel
abor
atet
reat
ies,
butnot
oni
nvest
igat
ingorcondemni
ngv
iol
ator
s.I
twasaper
iodofst
ri
ctobser
vanceoft
he
sov
erei
gnt
ypr
inci
ple.
I
n1967,
theCommi
ssi
onadopt
edi
nter
vent
ioni
sm asi
tspol
i
cy.Thecont
extoft
hedecade
wasofdecol
oni
zat
ionofAf
ri
caandAsi
a,andmanycount
ri
esoft
hecont
inentpr
essedf
or
amor
eact
ive

2
UNpol
i
cyonhumanr
ight
sissues,especi
all
yinl
i
ghtofmassi
vev
iol
ati
onsi
napar
thei
d
Sout
hAf
ri
ca.Thenew pol
i
cymeantt
hatt
heCommi
ssi
onwoul
dal
soi
nvest
igat
eand
pr
oducer
epor
tsonv
iol
ati
ons.
Toal
l
owbet
terf
ulf
il
lmentoft
hisnewpol
i
cy,
otherchangest
ookpl
ace.I
nthe1970s,
the
possi
bil
i
tyofgeogr
aphi
cal
l
y-or
ient
edwor
kgr
oupswascr
eat
ed.Thesegr
oupswoul
d
speci
ali
zet
hei
ract
ivi
ti
esont
hei
nvest
igat
ionofv
iol
ati
onsonagi
venr
egi
onorev
ena
si
ngl
ecount
ry,
aswast
hecasewi
thChi
l
e.Wi
tht
he1980scamet
hecr
eat
ionoft
heme-
or
ient
edwor
kgr
oups,
whi
chwoul
dspeci
ali
zei
nspeci
fi
cty
pesofabuses.
Noneoft
hesemeasur
es,howev
er,wer
eabl
etomaket
heCommi
ssi
onasef
fect
iveas
desi
red,
mai
nlybecauseoft
hepr
esenceofhumanr
ight
svi
olat
orsandt
hepol
i
tici
zat
ion
oft
he body
.Dur
ing t
he f
oll
owi
ng y
ear
s unt
ili
ts ext
inct
ion,t
he UNCHR became
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ydi
scr
edi
tedamongact
ivi
stsandgov
ernment
sal
i
ke.

TheCommi
ssi
onhel
dit
sfi
nal
meet
ingi
nGenev
aonMar
ch27,
2006andwas
r
epl
acedbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionsHumanRi
ght
sCounci
li
nthesamey
ear
.
Mandat
e:
TheCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
swasi
ntendedt
oexami
ne,moni
torandpubl
i
cly
r
epor
tonhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsi
nspeci
fi
ccount
ri
esort
err
it
ori
es(
knownascount
ry
mechani
smsormandat
es)aswel
lasonmaj
orphenomenaofhumanr
ight
svi
olat
ions
wor
ldwi
de(
knownast
hemat
icmechani
smsormandat
es)
.TheHumanRi
ght
sdi
vi
sion
oft
heU.
N.i
sal
soexpect
edt
ouphol
dandpr
otectt
heUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHuman
Ri
ght
s.
St
ruct
ure:
Att
het
imei
twasext
ingui
shed,t
heCommi
ssi
onconsi
stedofr
epr
esent
ati
vesdr
awn
f
rom 53memberst
ates,
elect
edbyt
hemember
sofECOSOC.Ther
ewer
enoper
manent
member
s;each y
ear(
usual
l
yin May
)appr
oxi
mat
elya t
hir
d oft
he seat
s oft
he
Commi
ssi
onwoul
dcomeupf
orel
ect
ion,andt
her
epr
esent
ati
veswer
eappoi
ntedf
ora
t
hree-
yeart
erm.
Seat
sont
heCommi
ssi
onwer
eappor
ti
onedbyr
egi
on,usi
ngt
hemechani
sm oft
he
Uni
ted Nat
ions Regi
onalGr
oups.Dur
ing i
tsl
asty
ear of ser
vice i
n 2005,t
he
r
epr
esent
ati
onbyr
egi
onwasasf
oll
ows:

3
• 15f
rom t
heAf
ri
canGr
oup:
o Bur
kinaFaso,
Republ
i
coft
heCongo,
Egy
pt,
Eri
tr
ea,
Ethi
opi
a,Gabon,
Gui
nea,
Keny
aMaur
it
ani
a,Ni
ger
ia,
Sout
hAf
ri
ca,
Sudan,
Swazi
l
and,
Togo,
Zimbabwe
• 12f
rom t
heAsi
anGr
oup:
o Bhut
an,
Peopl
e'
sRepubl
i
cofChi
na,
Indi
a,I
ndonesi
a,Japan,
Mal
aysi
a,Nepal
,
Paki
stan,
Qat
ar,
Republ
i
cofKor
ea,
Saudi
Arabi
a,Sr
iLanka
• 5f
rom t
heEast
ernEur
opeanGr
oup:
o Ar
meni
a,Hungar
y,Romani
a,Russi
anFeder
ati
onUkr
aine
• 11f
rom t
heLat
inAmer
icanandCar
ibbeanGr
oup:
o Ar
gent
ina,
Brazi
l
,Cost
aRi
ca,
Cuba,
Domi
nicanRepubl
i
c,Ecuador
,Guat
emal
a,
Hondur
as,
Mexi
co,
Par
aguay
,Per
u
• 10f
rom t
heWest
ernEur
opeanandOt
her
sGr
oup:
o Aust
ral
i
a,Canada,
Finl
and,
France,
Ger
many
,Ir
eland,
Ital
y,Net
her
lands,
Uni
ted
Ki
ngdom,
Uni
tedSt
ates
TheCommi
ssi
onwoul
dmeeteachy
eari
nregul
arsessi
onf
orsi
xweeksdur
ingMar
ch
andApr
ili
nGenev
a,Swi
tzer
land.I
nJanuar
y2004,
Aust
ral
i
awasel
ect
edaschai
roft
he
60t
hSessi
on.I
nJanuar
y2005,
Indonesi
awasel
ect
edchai
roft
he61stSessi
on.Per
u
wasel
ect
edchai
roft
he62ndSessi
oni
nJanuar
y2006.TheCommi
ssi
onhel
dit
sfi
nal
meet
ingi
nGenev
aonMar
ch27,
2006.Sub-
Commi
ssi
onont
hePr
omot
ionand
Pr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
s:

I
n1999t
heEconomi
candSoci
alCounci
lchangedi
tst
it
lef
rom t
heSub-
Commi
ssi
onon
Pr
event
ionofDi
scr
imi
nat
ionandPr
otect
ionofMi
nor
it
iest
otheSub-
Commi
ssi
onont
he
Pr
omot
ionandPr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
s".
TheSub-
Commi
ssi
onont
hePr
omot
ionandPr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
swast
hemai
n
subsi
diar
ybodyoft
heCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
s.I
twascomposedoft
went
y-si
x
exper
tswhose r
esponsi
bil
i
tywast
o under
take st
udi
es,par
ti
cul
arl
yinl
i
ghtoft
he
Uni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s,andmaker
ecommendat
ionst
otheCommi
ssi
on
concer
ningt
hepr
event
ionofdi
scr
imi
nat
ionofanyki
ndr
elat
ingt
ohumanr
ight
sand
f
undament
alf
reedomsandt
hepr
otect
ion

4
ofr
aci
al,
nat
ional
,rel
i
giousandl
i
ngui
sti
cmi
nor
it
ies.Member
shi
pwassel
ect
edwi
th
r
egar
dtoequi
tabl
egeogr
aphi
cal
dist
ri
but
ion.
TheSub-
Commi
ssi
onest
abl
i
shedsev
enWor
kingGr
oupst
hati
nvest
igat
especi
fi
c
humanr
ight
sconcer
ns,
incl
udi
ng:
• Mi
nor
it
ies
• Tr
ansnat
ional
cor
por
ati
ons
• Admi
nist
rat
ionofj
ust
ice
• Ant
i-
ter
ror
ism
• Cont
empor
aryFor
msofSl
aver
y
• I
ndi
genousPopul
ati
ons
• Communi
cat
ion
• Soci
alFor
um
The Uni
ted Nat
ions Human Ri
ght
s Counci
lassumed r
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
he Sub-
Commi
ssi
onwheni
trepl
acedt
heCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
sin2006.
Speci
alpr
ocedur
es:
TheCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
sest
abl
i
shed30speci
alpr
ocedur
es,ormechani
sms,
t
o addr
ess speci
fi
c count
ry si
tuat
ions ort
hemat
ici
ssues such as f
reedom of
expr
essi
onandopi
nion,
tor
tur
e,t
her
ightt
ofood,
andt
her
ightt
oeducat
ion.
I
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thexper
ti
sei
npar
ti
cul
arar
easofhumanr
ight
swer
eappoi
ntedbyt
he
chai
roft
heCommi
ssi
ont
oser
veasSpeci
alRappor
teur
sforamaxi
mum ofsi
xyear
s.
Theyar
eunpai
d,i
ndependentexper
tswhor
ecei
veper
sonnel
andl
ogi
sti
cal
suppor
tfr
om
t
heOf
fi
ceoft
heHi
ghCommi
ssi
onerf
orHumanRi
ght
sfort
hei
rwor
k.Thei
rmai
n
act
ivi
ti
esar
etoexami
ne,
moni
tor
,adv
iseandpubl
i
clyr
epor
tonhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions
i
nspeci
fi
ccount
ri
esort
err
it
ori
es.Theyar
eabl
etowr
it
etogov
ernment
saboutr
epor
ted
v
iol
ati
onsandconductf
act
-f
indi
ngv
isi
tst
ocount
ri
est
hati
nvi
tet
hem.
Thespeci
almechani
smsar
ecat
egor
izedaccor
dingt
o:
• Themat
icMandat
es.
• Count
ryMandat
es.

5
Speci
alpr
ocedur
esal
soi
ncl
udewor
kinggr
oupsmadeupofupt
ofi
veexper
tswho
moni
torandi
nvest
igat
especi
fi
chumanr
ight
sconcer
ns.Thr
eegr
oupswer
eest
abl
i
shed
byt
heCommi
ssi
on:
• Wor
kingGr
ouponAr
bit
rar
yDet
ent
ion
• Wor
kingGr
ouponEnf
orcedorI
nvol
unt
aryDi
sappear
ances
• Wor
kingGr
oupont
heuseofmer
cenar
iesasameansofi
mpedi
ngt
heexer
cise
oft
her
ightofpeopl
est
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion
Thespeci
alpr
ocedur
esar
enowundert
hedi
rect
ionoft
heUni
tedNat
ionHumanRi
ght
s
Counci
l
.Cr
it
ici
sm:
TheCommi
ssi
onwasr
epeat
edl
ycr
it
ici
zedf
ort
hecomposi
ti
onofi
tsmember
shi
p.I
n
par
ti
cul
ar,sev
eralofi
tsmembercount
ri
est
hemsel
veshad dubi
oushuman r
ight
s
r
ecor
ds,i
ncl
udi
ng st
ates whose r
epr
esent
ati
ves had been el
ect
ed t
o chai
rthe
commi
ssi
on.
Anot
hercr
it
ici
sm wast
hatt
heCommi
ssi
ondi
dnotengagei
nconst
ruct
ivedi
scussi
onof
human r
ight
sissues,butwas a f
orum f
orpol
i
tical
l
ysel
ect
ivef
inger
-poi
nti
ng and
cr
it
ici
sm.Thedesi
reofst
ateswi
thpr
obl
emat
ichumanr
ight
srecor
dst
obeel
ect
edt
o
t
heCommi
ssi
onwasv
iewedl
argel
yasawayt
odef
endt
hemsel
vesf
rom suchat
tacks.
Act
ivi
stgr
oupshadl
ongexpr
essedconcer
nov
ert
hemember
shi
psoft
hePeopl
e'
s
Republ
i
c ofChi
na,Zi
mbabwe,Russi
a,SaudiAr
abi
a,and Paki
stan,and t
he past
member
shi
psofAl
ger
ia,Sy
ria,Li
bya,UgandaandVi
etnam ont
heCommi
ssi
on.These
count
ri
eshadext
ensi
ver
ecor
dsofhumanr
ight
svi
olat
ions,andoneconcer
nwast
hat
bywor
kingagai
nstr
esol
uti
onsont
hecommi
ssi
oncondemni
nghumanr
ight
svi
olat
ions,
t
heyi
ndi
rect
lypr
omot
eddespot
ism anddomest
icr
epr
essi
on.OnMay4,2004,Uni
ted
St
atesambassadorSi
chanSi
vwal
kedoutoft
heCommi
ssi
onf
oll
owi
ngt
heuncont
est
ed
el
ect
ionofSudant
othecommi
ssi
on,cal
l
ingi
tan"
absur
dit
y"i
nli
ghtofSudan'
set
hni
c
cl
eansi
ngi
ntheDar
furr
egi
on.Onemaj
orconsequenceoft
heel
ect
ionofSudant
othe
Commi
ssi
on wast
hel
ackofwi
l
li
ngnessf
orsomecount
ri
est
o wor
kthr
ough t
he
commi
ssi
on.I
ndeed,onJul
y30,2004,i
twast
heUni
tedNat
ionsSecur
it
yCounci
l
,not
t
he Commi
ssi
on,t
hatpassed a r
esol
uti
on—by 13–0,wi
th Chi
na and Paki
stan
abst
aini
ng—t
hreat
eni
ngSudanwi
thunspeci
fi
edsanct
ionsi
fthesi
tuat
ioni
ntheDar
fur
r
egi
ondi
dnoti
mpr
ovewi
thi
nthef
oll
owi
ng30

6
day
s.Ther
easonsgi
venf
ort
heact
ionwer
etheat
tacksbyt
heJanj
aweedAr
abmi
l
iti
as
ofSudanont
henon-
ArabAf
ri
canMusl
i
m popul
ati
onofDar
fur
,ar
egi
oni
nwest
ern
Sudan.
Thecommi
ssi
onhadal
socomeunderr
epeat
edcr
it
ici
sm f
rom t
heUni
tedSt
atesf
ori
ts
unwi
l
li
ngnesst
oaddr
essr
ealhumanr
ight
sconcer
ns.I
n2002,t
heUni
tedSt
ateswas
ki
ckedof
fthecommi
ssi
onbyt
heot
hermemberst
ates,manyofwhom hav
ebeen
cr
it
ici
zedf
ort
hei
rhumanr
ight
svi
olat
ions,andi
n2003Sy
riaputf
orwar
dapr
oposalt
o
di
scussUSwarcr
imesi
nIr
aq.Butj
our
nal
i
stAnneAppl
ebaum wr
ote,"
theEur
opean
Uni
onandt
heUni
tedSt
atesar
en'
texemptf
rom bl
ame,ei
ther
",ci
ti
ngt
hei
rhesi
tancei
n
v
oti
ngt
ocr
it
ici
zeRussi
a'
sact
ionsi
nChechny
a

HUMANRI
GHTCOUNCI
L

The new Human Ri

ght
s Counci
l(―HRC‖or―Counci
l
‖)was cr
eat
ed i
n or
dert
o
st
rengt
hen pr
otect
ion f
ort
he v
ict
ims ofhuman r
ight
svi
olat
ions wor
ldwi
de.The
Counci
l
‘sabi
l
ityt
osucceedi
nthatmi
ssi
onwi
l
ldependont
hedev
elopmentofamor
e
ef
fect
iveappr
oacht
oconsi
der
ati
onofhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsi
npar
ti
cul
arcount
ri
es.
Thi
spaperpr
oposesamechani
sm f
ort
heHumanRi
ght
sCounci
ltoconsi
dersuch
si
tuat
ionswi
tht
hreekeyel
ement
s:
(
1)a mul
ti
-l
evelsy
stem whi
ch al
l
ows f
ora gr
aduat
ed r
esponse t
o human r
ight
s
si
tuat
ions;(
2)a f
lexi
bleappr
oach wi
th manyent
rypoi
ntsf
ordi
scussi
on ofsuch
si
tuat
ions;
and
(
3)af
ullr
angeofopt
ionst
orespondt
ohumanr
ight
svi
olat
ions.Wi
tht
hispaper
,
HumanRi
ght
sWat
chseekst
ocont
ri
but
etoacont
inui
ngdi
alogueont
hisi
ssuei
nwhi
ch
posi
ti
onswi
l
lev
olv
e,i
ncl
udi
ngourown.

LessonsLear
nedf
rom t
heCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
s:

Ther
eisnearuni
ver
salagr
eementt
hatt
heappr
oach t
o count
rysi
tuat
ionsatt
he
Commi
ssi
on on Human Ri
ght
s was si
gni
fi
cant
lyf
lawed,al
though t
her
e ar
ever
y
di
ff
erentv
iewsonwhatt
hepr
obl
emswer
eandhow t
heyshoul
dbef
ixed.Somehav
e
ar
guedt
hatt
hesel
ect
ionofcount
ri
esf
orconsi
der
ati
onwasov
erl
ypol
i
tical
,andcal
l
ed
f
oranel
i
minat
ionofconsi
der
ingcount
rysi
tuat
ionsont
hatbasi
s.Ot
her
shav
epoi
nted
7
outt
hatal
loft
hecount
ri
esconsi
der
edbyt
heCommi
ssi
on

8
mer
it
eddi
scussi
on,butt
hatt
heCommi
ssi
ondi
dfai
ltot
akeonot
hersi
tuat
ionst
hat
wer
eequal
l
ywor
thyofat
tent
ion;i
not
herwor
ds,t
hatt
hepr
obl
em wasnott
hatt
he
Commi
ssi
onconsi
der
edt
oomanycount
ri
es,
butt
hati
tconsi
der
edt
oof
ew.

Despi
teconcer
nsov
ert
heCommi
ssi
on‘
sappr
oacht
oconsi
der
ingcount
rysi
tuat
ions,
t
her
eisnodoubtt
hatcount
rydi
scussi
onscont
ri
but
edt
oimpr
ovement
sofhumanr
ight
s
condi
ti
onsonmanyoccasi
ons.TheCommi
ssi
on‘
sresol
uti
onshav
emobi
l
izedpubl
i
c
opi
nion,cont
ri
but
edt
opol
i
cychange,andpr
ovi
dedencour
agementf
orhumanr
ight
s
v
ict
imsatbot
hanat
ionalandgl
oball
evel
.Resol
uti
onsbyt
heCommi
ssi
on,especi
all
y
t
hosei
ncl
udi
ngdeci
sionst
oappoi
ntexper
tst
orepor
tont
hehumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ion,
hav
epl
ayedacr
uci
alr
olei
ncal
l
ingat
tent
iont
ohumanr
ight
sabusesandi
mpr
ovi
ng
pr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
s.I
ncount
rysi
tuat
ionsasdi
ver
seasChi
l
e,Cambodi
a,andt
he
f
ormerYugosl
avi
a,t
heat
tent
ionoft
heCommi
ssi
onandt
her
epor
ti
ngbyi
ndependent
exper
tshasenhancedhumanr
ight
spr
otect
ion.

I
naddi
ti
on,t
hewor
koft
heCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
sil
l
ust
rat
eshowsomeoft
he
mostef
fect
ivecount
ryr
esol
uti
onswer
ethosewhi
chwer
enev
eradopt
ed.Ti
meaf
ter
t
ime,t
het
hreatofar
esol
uti
onser
vedt
hei
mpor
tantpur
poseofget
ti
ngot
her
wise
i
ntr
ansi
gentgov
ernment
stot
ake si
gni
fi
cantst
eps t
o addr
essi
ng human r
ight
s
v
iol
ati
ons.Forexampl
e,di
scussi
ons ov
era r
esol
uti
on on Nepalatl
asty
ear
‘s
Commi
ssi
onsessi
onwer
easi
gni
fi
cantf
act
ori
nobt
aini
ngNepal
‘
sagr
eementt
othe
depl
oyment of a count
ry-
wide moni
tor
ing mi
ssi
on by t
he Of
fi
ce of t
he Hi
gh
Commi
ssi
onerf
orHumanRi
ght
s(OHCHR)
.Inmanyot
heri
nst
ances,t
hepossi
bil
i
tyof
consi
der
ati
onbyanupcomi
ngCommi
ssi
onsessi
onhaspushedgov
ernment
stot
ake
st
epst
oaddr
essconcer
nst
hatmi
ghtber
aisedaboutt
hei
rhumanr
ight
srecor
ds,f
or
exampl
ethr
ought
her
eleaseofdet
ainees.

Fi
ndi
ngt
heRi
ghtRemedy
:

Accor
dingl
y,t
hequest
ionshoul
dnotbewhet
hert
heHRCwi
l
llookathumanr
ight
s
si
tuat
ionsi
ncount
ri
es—asi
tmustgi
vent
hemandat
esetf
ort
hinGener
alAssembl
y
r
esol
uti
on60/
251—but

9
r
atherhow i
tshoul
dunder
taket
hosedi
scussi
ons.Fort
heCounci
ltoi
mpr
oveont
he
Commi
ssi
on‘
spr
act
ice,i
tshoul
ddev
elopamor
ever
sat
il
esy
stem f
orconsi
der
ati
onof
human r
ight
s si
tuat
ions t
hatdi
sti
ngui
shes bet
ween sev
eralbr
oad cat
egor
ies of
si
tuat
ions.Thi
ssy
stem shoul
dal
sopr
ovi
def
orescal
ati
ngl
evel
sofCounci
lint
eract
ion
t
oal
l
ow f
orasi
tuat
iont
obeaddr
essedt
hroughmor
evi
gor
ousi
nter
vent
ionsi
ncases
wher
east
atedoesnotcooper
ateorpr
ogr
essi
snotmade.Suchasy
stem woul
dal
so
al
l
ow t
he HRC t
oful
fi
llt
he suggest
ion by st
ates t
hatt
her
e be mor
eroom f
or
const
ruct
ivedi
aloguewi
thi
ntheHRC,
rat
hert
hansi
mpl
ycondemnat
ion.

Thest
art
ingpoi
ntf
ordi
scussi
onofhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionswi
thi
nthenew Counci
lis
Resol
uti
on60/
251,whi
chpr
ovi
desatl
eastf
ivebasesf
orconsi
der
ati
onofcount
ry
si
tuat
ions.Ther
esol
uti
on pr
ovi
dest
hatt
heCounci
l―shoul
d addr
esssi
tuat
ionsof
v
iol
ati
ons ofhuman r
ight
s,i
ncl
udi
ng gr
oss and sy
stemat
icv
iol
ati
ons,and make
r
ecommendat
ions t
her
eon‖
.The Counci
lisr
equi
red byt
his par
agr
aph t
olook at
si
tuat
ionsofgr
ossandsy
stemat
icv
iol
ati
ons.I
naddi
ti
on,
theuseoft
hewor
d
―i
ncl
udi
ng‖makesi
tcl
eart
hatt
heCounci
lmustal
sol
ookatot
her―si
tuat
ionsof
v
iol
ati
onsofhumanr
ight
s.‖Fur
ther
mor
e,t
heCounci
lisr
equi
redt
olookatsi
tuat
ions
i
nvol
vi
ngt
hepr
omot
ionofhumanr
ight
seducat
ionandl
ear
ning,aswel
lasadv
isor
y
ser
vices,t
echni
calassi
stance,andcapaci
ty-
bui
l
ding,si
tuat
ionswher
etheCounci
lcan
pr
omot
ethef
ulli
mpl
ement
ati
onofhumanr
ight
sobl
i
gat
ionsunder
takenbySt
ates;
and
si
tuat
ionsi
nvol
vi
ngt
hepr
event
ionofhumanr
ight
svi
olat
ionsandr
esponset
ohuman
r
ight
semer
genci
es.

Ast
hisl
i
sti
l
lust
rat
es,t
her
ear
eanumberofpot
ent
ialbasesf
ordi
scussi
onofhuman
r
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsi
npar
ti
cul
arcount
ri
esatt
heCounci
l
.Thest
rengt
hoft
heCounci
l‘s
wor
kwi
l
ldependont
he―t
ool
box‖ofopt
ionsi
thasav
ail
abl
etoaddr
esst
hewi
dev
ari
ety
ofhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsi
twi
l
lconsi
der
.Whi
l
esomest
ateshav
ear
guedt
hatcount
ry
r
esol
uti
onsshoul
dbeel
i
minat
ed,t
hef
ullr
angeoft
ool
s—f
rom t
echni
calassi
stancet
o
r
esol
uti
ons—i
sneededf
ort
heCounci
ltobeef
fect
ive.

10
I
ndeed,r
esol
uti
onst
hemsel
vesmaybeusedbyt
heCounci
linav
ari
etyofway
s.The
Counci
lmaywantt
oadoptr
esol
uti
onst
orecogni
zei
nnov
ati
veappr
oachesunder
taken
byagov
ernmentorcal
lforsuppor
tofhumanr
ight
s-r
elat
edpr
ogr
ams.Att
hesamet
ime,
t
heHRCwi
l
latt
imesneedt
odi
scussandt
akeact
ionr
egar
dinghumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions
wher
egov
ernment
alact
ionsorf
ail
uresar
eati
ssue.Forexampl
e,t
heHRCmustbeabl
e
t
orespondshoul
dgov
ernment
sfai
ltocooper
atewi
thi
t,f
orexampl
ebyexcl
udi
ngi
ts
speci
alr
appor
teur
sorf
ail
i
ngt
oimpl
ementt
hei
rrecommendat
ions.I
naddi
ti
on,t
he
t
hreatofar
esponsebyt
heCounci
l
,incl
udi
ngt
hepossi
bil
i
tyofar
esol
uti
on,i
sit
sel
fan
i
mpor
tantl
everwhi
chcanbeusedbyt
heCounci
ltof
urt
herhumanr
ight
spr
otect
ion.
Whi
l
est
atesmaydi
ff
eraboutwhent
heHRCshoul
dusewhi
cht
ool
s,i
twoul
dbehugel
y
dest
ruct
ivet
otheHRC‘
swor
ktot
akeawayanyoft
heopt
ionsi
tnowhast
orespondt
o
humanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions.

Rel
ati
onshi
ptoOt
herAppr
oaches:

Ofcour
se,t
heUni
ver
salPer
iodi
cRev
iew (
UPR)pr
ocesswi
l
lit
sel
fpr
ovi
deat
hor
ough
l
ookatt
hehuman r
ight
ssi
tuat
ion i
n each count
ry.I
tisal
so wi
del
yaccept
ed by
gov
ernment
sthatoneout
comeofUPR maybeadeci
siont
hatt
hehumanr
ight
s
si
tuat
ion i
n a par
ti
cul
ar count
ry shoul
d be addr
essed wi
thi
n an HRC sessi
on
i
mmedi
atel
yfol
l
owi
ngoratper
iodi
cint
erv
alsaf
tert
her
evi
ew,ori
naspeci
alsessi
on.
Somest
ateshav
equest
ionedwhet
heri
twoul
dbenecessar
ytor
aisehumanr
ight
s
si
tuat
ionsout
sideoft
heset
ypesof―r
efer
ral
s‖f
rom t
heUPRpr
ocess.

Theanswert
othatquest
ionmustbey
es,f
ort
wor
easons.Fi
rst
,theuni
ver
salr
evi
ewi
s
―per
iodi
c.‖Undert
hesy
stemsofUPRbei
ngdi
scussed,
itcoul
dbeasl
ongasf
ivey
ear
s
bef
oresomest
atesar
eaddr
essedundert
hatpr
ocess.Thenew Counci
lwi
l
lnotbe
cr
edi
blei
fitwai
tst
hatl
ongt
oconsi
dert
hemanyser
ioushumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionst
hat
demand i
ts at
tent
ion wor
ldwi
de.Second,human r
ight
s si
tuat
ions ar
e exceedi
ngl
y
changeabl
e—new cr
isescandev
elopov
erni
ght
,gov
ernment
scanchange,andonce-
st
abl
esi
tuat
ionscansuddenl
ydet
eri
orat
e.Ofcour
se,
speci
alsessi
onsmaybe

11
cal
l
edbyt
heHRCt
orespondi
nthemostur
gentsi
tuat
ions,
butt
her
emustbet
heabi
l
ity
t
otake up si
tuat
ionst
hathav
e changed ordet
eri
orat
ed wi
thi
nthe HRC‘
sregul
ar
pr
ogr
am ofwor
kaswel
l
.

Norcanef
for
tsbyt
heThi
rdCommi
tt
eeoft
heGener
alAssembl
yel
i
minat
etheneedf
or
di
scussi
onsofcount
rysi
tuat
ionsi
ntheCounci
l
.Whi
l
etheThi
rdCommi
tt
eecanand
shoul
dcont
inuet
opl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
ndi
scussi
nghumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions,t
he
HRC i
stheUN i
nst
it
uti
onspeci
fi
cal
l
ymandat
ed t
o addr
esshumanr
ight
s,and i
ts
r
esponsi
bil
i
ties expl
i
cit
lyi
ncl
ude addr
essi
ng human r
ight
s si
tuat
ions.I
twoul
d be
i
nappr
opr
iat
efort
heCounci
ltosomehowcedet
hispor
ti
onofi
tsmandat
etot
heThi
rd
Commi
tt
ee.I
naddi
ti
on,t
heThi
rdCommi
tt
eemeet
sonl
yonceay
ear
,forappr
oxi
mat
ely
ei
ghtweeks.Gi
vent
hatconst
rai
nt,t
heThi
rdCommi
tt
eewoul
dnotbei
naposi
ti
ont
o
r
espondt
oev
olv
inghumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsorur
genti
ssues.

St
art
ingDi
scussi
onsofHumanRi
ght
sSi
tuat
ions:

Humanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsmayber
aisedi
ntheHumanRi
ght
sCounci
linsev
eraldi
ff
erent
way
s.Someoft
hepossi
bil
i
tiesi
ncl
ude:

1. Si
tuat
ionswher
ether
eisanexi
sti
ngspeci
alpr
ocedur
esmandat
e;

2. Si
tuat
ionsment
ionedbyt
heHi
ghCommi
ssi
onerf
orHumanRi
ght
s(UNHCHR)i
n
herr
epor
ttot
heHRC,i
ncl
udi
ng count
ri
esi
nwhi
cht
heOHCHR hasamoni
tor
ing
pr
esence;

3. Si
tuat
ions wher
e one ormor
e HRC member
s hav
e suggest
ed t
he need f
or
di
scussion;

4. Si
tuat
ionsr
aisedbyt
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
,theGener
alAssembl
y,orot
herUN
i
nter
gov
ernment
albodi
es,and t
hosesuggest
ed f
ordi
scussi
on byUN agenci
esor
speci
alpr
ocedur
es;
and

12
5. Si
tuat
ionssuggest
edf
ordi
scussi
onasar
esul
tofUni
ver
sal
Per
iodi
cRev
iew.

Thel
engt
hofdi
scussi
on,t
ypeofdi
scussi
on,andpot
ent
ialout
comescoul
dvar
ybased
onhowsi
tuat
ionsar
ise.

Empl
oyi
ngaMul
ti
-Lev
elAppr
oach:

Theappr
oacht
oaddr
essi
nghumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsshoul
dal
soal
l
ow f
ordi
ff
erent
l
evel
sofi
nter
act
ion,dependi
ngont
heur
gencyandsev
eri
tyoft
hesi
tuat
ion,andt
he
out
comesofpr
evi
ousHRCdi
scussi
ons.Forexampl
e,apar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ioncoul
dfi
rst
ber
aisedatt
heHRCasani
tem f
or
―i
nit
ialdi
scussi
on.
‖Thet
hreshol
dforsuchadi
scussi
onshoul
dbel
ow—anymember
shoul
dbeabl
etor
aiseasi
tuat
iont
hati
tthi
nkswoul
dbenef
itf
rom di
scussi
onwi
thi
nthe
Counci
l
—andt
hedi
scussi
oni
tsel
fwoul
dber
elat
ivel
yshor
t.Thei
deaofsuchani
nit
ial
l
ookwoul
dbet
oexpl
orewhet
herf
urt
herdi
scussi
onsont
hissi
tuat
ionwoul
dbehel
pful
and,
ifso,
whatt
ypeoff
oll
owupwoul
dbemostusef
ul.

I
naddi
ti
on,r
athert
hanhav
ingal
ldi
scussi
onsatt
heHRC f
ocusonadopt
ionofa
r
esol
uti
on,si
tuat
ionscoul
dbesubj
ectt
o―pr
eli
minar
yconsi
der
ati
on‖wi
thav
iew onl
y
t
owar
dsa―out
comedocument
‖thatwoul
drai
sequest
ionsormaker
ecommendat
ions,
ont
heunder
standi
ngt
hatt
hesubj
ectwoul
dagai
nbedi
scussedatt
henextmeet
ingof
t
heHRC.Whet
hert
hesi
tuat
ionwoul
dbesubj
ectt
omor
eint
ensi
veconsi
der
ati
onwoul
d
t
hen depend on t
he i
nvol
ved gov
ernment
‘sr
esponse and t
he dev
elopmentoft
he
si
tuat
ioni
nthei
nter
veni
ngper
iod.

Fi
nal
l
y,si
tuat
ionscoul
dal
sobesubj
ectt
o―consi
der
ati
on‖byt
heHRC,meani
ngt
hat
mor
esubst
ant
ialdi
scussi
onswoul
dbehel
dandr
esol
uti
onsmaybet
abl
ed.TheHRC
woul
d notcar
ryf
orwar
dthe Commi
ssi
on‘
s di
sti
nct
ion bet
ween consi
der
ati
on of
t
echni
cal
assi
stancei
nsome

13
si
tuat
ions(
It
em 19)andsi
tuat
ionsmor
egener
all
y(I
tem 9)
,ast
echni
calassi
stanceand
cooper
ati
onshoul
dbepar
tofdi
scussi
onst
hroughoutt
heCounci
l
‘swor
k.Fol
l
owi
ng
di
scussi
onandconsi
der
ati
onofapar
ti
cul
arcount
rysi
tuat
ion,t
heHRCshoul
densur
e
f
oll
ow up based on t
hewi
destr
angeofpot
ent
ialout
comeswhi
ch coul
dincl
ude:
agr
eement
sont
echni
calassi
stance,adeci
siont
osendal
ett
ert
othei
nvol
vedst
ate,
submi
ssi
onofcommi
tment
sbyt
hest
atei
nvol
vedast
ost
epsi
twi
l
ltaket
oaddr
esst
he
si
tuat
ion,f
indi
ngsandr
ecommendat
ions(
adopt
edbyconsensus)i
ncl
udi
ngst
epsf
or
f
oll
ow up,aChai
r‘
sst
atement
,orar
esol
uti
on,andr
efer
ralt
oot
herbodi
esf
oract
ion
i
ncl
udi
ngt
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.

Thepr
inci
plei
sthatt
heseopt
ionswoul
dincl
udebot
hposi
ti
vemeasur
esdesi
gnedt
o
r
einf
orceandencour
agegoodpr
act
ices,aswel
lascr
it
ici
smsofcur
rentpr
act
icesand
measur
est
hatar
eint
endedt
oactasadet
err
entt
ofur
therabusest
hroughi
ncr
easi
ng
pol
i
ticalat
tent
ionandpubl
i
cpr
essur
eont
hegov
ernmentconcer
ned.I
far
esol
uti
oni
s
t
abl
ed,i
tcoul
dbehel
dforaddi
ti
onaldi
scussi
onatanupcomi
ngmeet
ingoft
heHRC,
shoul
dthe gov
ernment i
nvol
ved engage i
n a cooper
ati
ve manner and make
commi
tment
saboutt
hest
epsi
twi
l
ltaket
oaddr
esst
hesi
tuat
ion.I
fthesi
tuat
ionont
he
gr
oundcont
inuest
owor
senandt
hegov
ernmentconcer
nedf
ail
stoshowgoodf
ait
hin
cooper
ati
on,
aspeci
alsessi
onoft
heHRCcoul
dbeconv
ened.

I
ncl
usi
onofSi
tuat
ionsi
nthePr
ogr
am ofWor
k:
I
fthesuggest
ionsmadeabov
ear
eimpl
ement
ed,
theHRCwi
l
lrequi
reapr
ogr
am ofwor
k
t
hatcr
eat
esbr
oadcat
egor
iesofwor
k,andal
l
owsf
orf
requentf
oll
ow-
updi
scussi
ons.
Thepr
ogr
am ofwor
kcoul
dpot
ent
ial
l
yhav
eani
tem f
or―HumanRi
ght
sSi
tuat
ions,
‖
whi
chi
ncl
udesf
ivesegment
s.Thr
eeoft
hosesegment
swoul
dcov
ert
hemul
ti
-l
evel
appr
oachdi
scussedabov
e,wi
thonesegmentf
ori
nit
ialdi
scussi
ons,
onef
orpr
eli
minar
y
consi
der
ati
on,andonef
orconsi
der
ati
onofsi
tuat
ions.A f
our
thsegmentshoul
dbe
i
ncl
udedwhi
chwoul
daddr
essnewl
y-
ari
singorur
genti
ssues.Fi
nal
l
y,asaf
if
thpar
tof
t
hehumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ionsi
tem,t
heCounci
lshoul
dhav
easegmenton―cont
inui
ng
di
scussi
ons.
‖Si
tuat
ionst
hathav
ebeenunderconsi
der
ati
onbyt
heCounci
lcoul
dbe
mov
edt
othe

14
―cont
inui
ngdi
scussi
ons‖segmentwhent
hesi
tuat
ionhasshowni
mpr
ovementbut
f
urt
hermoni
tor
ingi
srequi
red.

Thekeypr
ocedur
alquest
iont
henwoul
dbehow t
odet
ermi
newhi
chsi
tuat
ionsar
e
addr
essedwi
thi
neachsegment
,andhow si
tuat
ionscanber
aised.TheHRC‘
scur
rent
pr
ogr
am ofwor
k,i
ncl
udi
ngwor
kcar
ri
edov
erf
rom t
heCommi
ssi
on,pr
ovi
desausef
ul
mat
ri
xforanswer
ingt
hosequest
ions.What
everappr
oachi
sadopt
ed,
itmustr
efl
ectt
he
wi
dedi
ver
sit
yofhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions,andr
espondf
lexi
blyt
otheneedsofeach
si
tuat
ion.

Forexampl
e,whi
l
esomesi
tuat
ionswoul
dbef
ir
staddr
essedi
nthesegmenton―i
nit
ial
di
scussi
ons,
‖ ot
her
s because of t
hei
r sev
eri
ty woul
d need t
o be subj
ect t
o
―consi
der
ati
on‖byt
heCounci
limmedi
atel
y.Wher
eamandat
eal
readyexi
stsf
ora
par
ti
cul
arcount
rysi
tuat
ion,
thatsi
tuat
ioni
sal
readyunderdi
scussi
on,
andeachoft
hose
si
tuat
ionsshoul
d bei
ncl
uded i
nthesegmentf
or―consi
der
ati
on ofhuman r
ight
s
si
tuat
ions.
‖The UNHCHR shoul
d al
so be abl
eto add si
tuat
ions f
ori
mmedi
ate
di
scussi
ont
othe―consi
der
ati
onofhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions‖segmentbynot
ingt
he
sev
eri
ty oft
he si
tuat
ion and speci
fi
cal
l
yrecommendi
ng t
hati
tbe put―under
consi
der
ati
on‖byt
heCounci
l
.Bot
htheGener
alAssembl
yandt
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
shoul
dbeabl
etoaddt
othesi
tuat
ionsunder―consi
der
ati
on‖byt
heHRCbyr
equest
ing
t
hatt
heHRCaddr
essasi
tuat
ion.

Humanri
ght
ssi
tuat
ionsaboutwhi
cht
heUNHCHRexpr
essesconcer
ninherr
epor
tthat
ar
enot
―underconsi
der
ati
on‖i
naccor
dancewi
tht
heabov
ecr
it
eri
ashoul
daut
omat
ical
l
ybe
i
ncl
udedi
nthe―i
nit
ialdi
scussi
on‖segment
,asshoul
dsi
tuat
ionssuggest
edbyot
her
UN mechani
sms oragenci
es.Once t
he UPR i
s under
way
,itshoul
d be abl
eto
r
ecommendt
hatasi
tuat
ionbet
akenupbyt
heHRCunderanyoft
het
hreet
ypesof
di
scussi
on,
aswel
last
osuggestwhensuchdi
scussi
onsshoul
dcommence.

15
I
naddi
ti
on,i
ndi
vi
dualmember
soft
heHRCshoul
dbeabl
etosuggestsi
tuat
ionsf
or
―i
nit
ialdi
scussi
on.
‖Al
argernumberofHRCmember
s(possi
blyf
ive)shoul
dbeabl
eto
puta subj
ecti
mmedi
atel
yfordi
scussi
on wi
thi
nthe ―pr
eli
minar
y consi
der
ati
on‖
segment
,anday
etl
argernumberofHRCmember
s(possi
blyt
en)shoul
dbeabl
etoput
asi
tuat
ioni
ntot
hesegmentf
or
―consi
der
ati
onofhumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions.
‖

Topi
csf
ordi
scussi
oni
nthenewl
y-
ari
singorur
genti
ssuessegmentshoul
dbeset
t
hroughsuggest
ionsoft
heUNHCHR,t
heChai
r,orasmal
lnumberofst
ates(
possi
bly
t
hree)
.Ast
henewl
y-ar
isi
ngi
ssuesmaywar
rantsubst
ant
ialdi
scussi
on,t
hesesubj
ect
s
shoul
dbehandl
edatt
hebegi
nni
ngofasessi
on.Thi
swoul
dal
l
ow t
opi
cst
hatar
e
consi
der
edi
nthenewl
y-
ari
singi
ssuessegmentt
obedi
scussedf
urt
heri
nsubsequent
segment
s,i
fnecessar
y.

Summar
yofRecommendat
ions:

TheHumanRi
ght
sCounci
l
‘sconsi
der
ati
onofcount
rysi
tuat
ionsshoul
dincl
udet
he
f
oll
owi
ngt
hreeel
ement
s:

• Amul
ti
-l
evelsy
stem t
hatal
l
owsf
ordi
ff
eri
ngsi
tuat
ionst
obet
reat
eddi
ff
erent
ly,
pr
ovi
desf
orr
atchet
ingupconsi
der
ati
onofsi
tuat
ionswher
eimpr
ovement
sdonotoccur
ort
her
eisaf
ail
uret
ocooper
ate,
andensur
esef
fect
ivef
oll
ow-
upondi
scussi
ons;

• Af
lexi
bleappr
oachunderwhi
chsi
tuat
ionscanber
aisedf
ordi
scussi
oni
na
v
ari
ety ofway
s and whi
ch i
ncl
udes mul
ti
ple ent
ry poi
ntsi
ntot
he sy
stem f
or
consi
der
ati
onofcount
rysi
tuat
ions;
and

16
• Af
ullr
angeofopt
ionst
orespondt
ohumanr
ight
ssi
tuat
ions,i
ncl
udi
ngbot
h
posi
ti
ve,r
einf
orci
ngmeasur
es(
forexampl
e,t
echni
calassi
stance)andwar
ningsor
cr
it
icalappr
oachesdesi
gnedt
oencour
agechangeandr
espondt
onon-
cooper
ati
on(
for
exampl
e,st
atement
sorr
esol
uti
ons)
.

UNI
VERSALDECLARATI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTS

Hi
stor
yoft
heDecl
arat
ion:
Ast
hesecondWor
ldWarbegant
ocl
ose,t
hewor
ldcl
i
mat
ewasr
eadyf
oragr
eatl
eap
f
orwar
dint
her
ecogni
ti
onandobser
vanceofhumanr
ight
s.Whenr
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
he
f
ourmaj
orpower
smeti
n1944atDumbar
tonOaks,ast
atel
ymansi
oni
nGeor
get
own,
Washi
ngt
onDC,t
wowor
ldwar
shadbeenf
oughti
nlesst
han30y
ear
s,andcr
uel
ty
al
mostbey
ondbel
i
efhadbeeni
nfl
i
ctedonmember
soft
heJewi
shr
acei
nEur
opeand
onpr
isoner
sofwari
ndet
ent
ioni
nAsi
aandEur
ope.Anat
omi
cbombwasaboutt
obe
setof
fthatwoul
dshowwhatenor
mousdest
ruct
ivepowerhumanki
ndcoul
dunl
eashi
n
t
arget
ingnat
ionsaswel
lasi
ndi
vi
dual
s,of
tensi
mpl
ybecauset
heywer
emember
sofa
par
ti
cul
arr
aceorr
eli
gion.

Thel
eader
sfel
tther
emustbeabet
terwayf
ort
henat
ionsandpeopl
esoft
hewor
ldt
o
l
i
vet
oget
herandsor
toutt
hei
rpr
obl
emsandl
aidpl
ansf
orest
abl
i
shi
ngwhatwast
o
becomet
heUni
tedNat
ions.I
nlat
e1945,l
eader
soft
hewor
ld'
snat
ionsmeti
nSan
Fr
anci
scot
ofor
mtheUni
tedNat
ions.I
nspi
redbyt
hegr
eatSout
hAf
ri
canpr
e-apar
thei
d
l
eaderFi
eld-
Mar
shal
lSmut
s,t
heyi
ncl
udedi
nthepr
eambl
etot
heChar
teroft
heUN,an
i
mpor
tantr
efer
encet
ohumanr
ight
s.
I
nApr
il1946,Mr
sEl
eanorRoosev
elt
,wi
dow ofPr
esi
dentFr
ankl
i
nRoosev
eltoft
he
Uni
tedSt
ateswasappoi
ntedt
ochai
rani
nter
im gr
oupof9member
s.ByJunet
he
i
nter
im bodyhadsuggest
ed

17
t
hatt
henew Commi
ssi
onshoul
dmakei
tsf
ir
stt
askt
hedev
elopmentassoonas
possi
bleofani
nter
nat
ional
bil
lofhumanr
ight
s.
Lat
eri
nthey
ear
,thenewCommi
ssi
onofHumanRi
ght
sof18member
s,agai
nchai
red
byMr
sEl
eanorRoosev
elt
,wasappoi
nted,andi
ncl
udedChi
na'
sP.
C.Chang,Fr
enchmen
ReneCassi
nandDrChar
lesMal
i
kofLebanon.TheCommi
ssi
onmetf
ort
hef
ir
stt
imei
n
Januar
y 1947 and consi
der
ed sev
eralcr
it
icali
ssues.I
ts deci
sions hav
e gr
eat
ly
i
nfl
uencedt
hehumanr
ight
sdev
elopmentsi
ncet
hen,
incl
udi
ngact
ionatnat
ional
lev
el.I
t
concl
udedt
hati
tshoul
dwor
ktodev
elopf
ir
stadecl
arat
ionr
athert
hanat
reat
y.(
An
i
nter
nat
ionaldecl
arat
ioni
sast
atementofi
mpor
tance,andhashi
ghmor
alandof
ten
pol
i
ticalsi
gni
fi
cance,andi
smor
ethanar
ecommendat
ion,buti
tisl
esst
hanat
reat
y,
whi
chi
sbi
ndi
ngi
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.
)Per
hapsmosti
mpor
tantofal
l
,itdeci
dedt
hatt
he
decl
arat
ionshoul
dcont
ainbot
hci
vi
landpol
i
tical
andal
soeconomi
candsoci
alr
ight
s.
The Commi
ssi
on'
svi
ew was t
hatt
he decl
arat
ion shoul
d be a r
elat
ivel
y shor
t,
i
nspi
rat
ionalandener
gisi
ngdocumentusabl
ebycommonpeopl
e.I
tshoul
dbet
he
f
oundat
ionandcent
raldocumentf
ort
her
emai
nderofani
nter
nat
ionalbi
l
lofhuman
r
ight
s.I
tthusav
oidedt
hemor
edi
ff
icul
tpr
obl
emst
hathadt
obeaddr
essedwhent
he
bi
ndi
ngt
reat
ycameupf
orconsi
der
ati
on-j
ustwhatr
olet
hest
ateshoul
dhav
ein
enf
orci
ngt
her
ight
sini
tst
err
it
ory
,andwhet
hert
hemodeofenf
orci
ngci
vi
landpol
i
tical
r
ight
sshoul
dbedi
ff
erentf
rom t
hatf
oreconomi
candsoci
alr
ight
s.
I
twasf
ort
unat
ethatt
heCommi
ssi
onmadet
hedeci
siont
osepar
atet
hef
ormal
l
ylegal
l
y
bi
ndi
ngcov
enantf
rom t
hei
nit
ialdecl
arat
ion.Al
thought
hedecl
arat
ionwasendor
sedi
n
December1948,t
het
wocov
enant
s(t
heI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enantonCi
vi
landPol
i
tical
Ri
ght
sandt
heI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enantonEconomi
c,Soci
alandCul
tur
alRi
ght
s)t
hat
emer
gedt
odef
inet
heobl
i
gat
ionsofeachst
atewer
enotr
eadyf
orr
ati
fi
cat
ion(
for
mal
appr
oval
byt
hegov
ernment
soft
hewor
ld)unt
il1966,
some18y
ear
slat
er.

18
St
ruct
ureofUDHR:

Pr
eambl
e:Reasonsf
ort
heDecl
arat
ion

◻◻Recogni
ti
onofi
nher
enthumandi
gni
tyi
sthef
oundat
ionoff
reedom,
just
ice,
andpeace.
◻◻Cont
emptf
orhumanr
ight
sresul
tsi
nbar
bar
ism,
cruel
ty,
tyr
anny
,andr
ebel
l
ion.
◻◻Nati
onspl
edget
opr
omot
efr
iendl
yrel
ati
ons,
soci
alpr
ogr
ess,
andr
espectf
orhuman
ri
ght
s.

Ar
ti
cles1-
3:Gener
alPr
inci
ples

◻◻Humanbei
ngsar
ebor
nfr
eeandequal
wit
hinher
entdi
gni
ty,
reason,
andconsci
ence.
◻◻Equal
i
tyi
nvol
vesf
reedom f
rom di
scr
imi
nat
ion.
◻◻Ri
ght
sar
euni
ver
sal
acr
ossnat
ions.
◻◻Fundament
alr
ight
s:l
i
fe,
li
ber
ty,
andsecur
it
y.

Ar
ti
cles4-
21:
Per
sonal
,Legal
,andPol
i
tical
Right
s
Ar
ti
cles4-
5
Per
sonal
Saf
ety
(
freedom f
rom
sl
aver
y;f
reedom
f
rom t
ort
ure)
Ar
ti
cles6-
11
Legal
Right
s
(
equal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw;
rightt
ojust
ice,
duepr
ocess,
andaf
airt
ri
al)
Art
icl
es12-
18Per
sonal
Right
s
(
ri
ght
stopr
ivacy
,mov
ement
,asy
lum,
nat
ional
i
ty,
fami
l
y,pr
oper
ty,
andr
eli
gion)Ar
ti
cles
19-
21Pol
i
tical
Right
s
(
freedom ofopi
nionandexpr
essi
on;
freedom ofassembl
y;r
ightt
ovot
eand
par
ti
cipat
eingov
ernment
)

19
Ar
ti
cles22-
28:
Soci
al,
Economi
c,andCul
tur
alRi
ght
s

Ar
ti
cl
e22,
28
Soci
alRi
ght
s
(
ri
ghtt
osoci
alsecur
it
y;r
ightt
onat
ional
andi
nter
nat
ional
eff
ort
stouphol
dhuman
di
gni
ty;
rightt
osoci
alandi
nter
nat
ional
ordert
hatpr
omot
eshumanr
ight
s)Ar
ti
cles23-
25
Economi
cRi
ght
s
(
ri
ghtt
owor
k,t
orecei
vef
airpay
,andt
ofor
m auni
on;
rightt
olei
sur
e;r
ightt
oadecent
st
andar
dofl
i
vingi
ncl
udi
ngf
ood,
clot
hing,
housi
ngandmedi
cal
car
e,andhel
pwhenone
cannotwor
k)
Ar
ti
cl
es26-
27Cul
tur
alRi
ght
s
(
ri
ghtt
oeducat
ion;
rightt
opar
ti
cipat
eincul
tur
all
i
fe;
prot
ect
ionofi
ntel
l
ect
ual
and
cr
eat
ivepr
oduct
s)
Ar
ti
cles29-
30:
Responsi
bil
i
ties

◻◻Ev
ery
onehasdut
iest
ocont
ri
but
etot
hecommongood.
◻◻Ev
ery
onei
sresponsi
blef
orr
espect
inganduphol
dingot
herpeopl
e‘
sri
ght
s.
◻◻Indi
vi
dual
sorgov
ernment
smaynotdest
roysomer
ight
sinor
dert
opr
otectot
her
ri
ght
s.

Legal
Signi
fi
cance:

TheUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
sist
hef
ir
stt
imeani
ntr
oduct
ionofet
hical
andmor
alconcer
nsi
ntot
hei
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem t
akespl
acei
nanov
ertmanner
.
Yetwhi
l
ether
eisnowawi
despr
eadaccept
anceoft
hei
mpor
tanceofhumanr
ight
sin
t
hei
nter
nat
ional
str
uct
ure,
ther
eisconsi
der
abl
econf
usi
onast
othei
rpr
eci
senat
ureand
r
olei
nint
ernat
ional
lawwhi
cht
hisdi
scussi
onwi
l
lat
temptt
ouncov
er.

20
TheUDHRr
epr
esent
sthef
ir
stgl
obalexpr
essi
onofr
ight
stowhi
chal
lhumanbei
ngsar
e
i
nher
ent
lyent
it
led.Accor
dingl
ythei
ntentbehi
ndt
hisdocumentwoul
dpr
obabl
ybet
o
guar
ant
eet
heser
ight
sev
ery
wher
eint
hewor
ld.Yethumanr
ight
slawst
odayar
eseen
asemanat
ingf
rom v
ari
oussour
ces,notf
rom t
heUDHRi
tsel
f.Whet
hert
hesesour
ces
ev
ent
ual
l
ytr
acebackt
otheUDHRi
stobedebat
ed,
howev
eri
tdoesseem cl
eart
haton
i
tsownt
heUDHRi
sinef
fect
ivei
nachi
evi
ngsuchai
m.TheUDHRwasadopt
edbyt
he
UN Gener
alAssembl
yont
he10December1948wi
thoutanydi
ssent
.AsaGener
al
Assembl
yresol
uti
on t
he UDHR has no l
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ng ef
fect
.The documentwas
t
her
efor
e onl
yan expr
essi
on ofcol
l
ect
ive wi
l
lbyst
atest
o guar
ant
ee oratl
east
r
ecogni
sehumanr
ight
s.Thathumanr
ight
slawst
odayemanat
efr
om v
ari
ousot
her
sour
cesi
sduet
odev
elopment
sel
sewher
eini
nter
nat
ionall
aw,andt
hef
actt
hatt
he
UDHRi
tsel
ffai
l
edt
opr
ovi
demeani
ngsoft
her
ight
sther
est
ated.Ont
heassumpt
ion
t
hatt
heUDHRwoul
dnoti
mposesuf
fi
cient
lybi
ndi
ngobl
i
gat
ions,
theUNCommi
ssi
onon
HumanRi
ght
spr
oceededwi
tht
hedr
aft
ingoft
heCov
enant
sonhumanr
ight
sdesi
gned
t
obecomel
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngont
heUNsmemberst
ates.Thatwor
kbegani
n1947,and
wasnotcompl
etedunt
il1954,
whent
woCov
enant
swher
epr
esent
edt
otheUNGener
al
Assembl
y:t
heI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enantonCi
vi
landPol
i
ticalRi
ght
sandt
heI
nter
nat
ional
Cov
enantonEconomi
cSoci
alandCul
tur
alRi
ght
s.I
ttookaf
urt
hert
wel
vey
ear
sbef
ore
t
he Gener
alAssembl
y adopt
ed t
hese i
n 1966.
Alt
hough adopt
ed by t
he Gener
al
Assembl
yin1966,t
het
woCov
enant
sdi
dnotcomei
ntof
orce(
bydeposi
toft
he35
i
nst
rumentofr
ati
fi
cat
ion)i
n1976.Whi
l
etheset
woCov
enant
sbr
oughtmeani
ngsof
r
ight
spr
escr
ibedundert
heUDHR,t
her
ear
est
il
lnopr
ovi
sionsf
ori
nter
pret
ati
onand
appl
i
cat
ionoft
heser
ight
s.Thi
svacuum woul
dev
ent
ual
l
ybef
il
ledbyl
aterr
egi
onal
t
reat
ies.Per
hapst
hemostsuccessf
ulexampl
eist
heEur
opeanConv
ent
iononHuman
Ri
ght
s.I
nthepr
eambl
eoft
hisEur
opeanpi
ecesi
gnedi
n1950ar
eµt
hef
ir
stst
epsf
ort
he
col
l
ect
iveenf
orcementofcer
tai
noft
her
ight
sst
atedi
ntheUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ion.I
nit
s
pr
ovi
sionsf
ori
nter
pret
ati
on,
appl
i
cat
ionandenf
orcementt
heECHRgoesmuchf
urt
her
.
I
test
abl
i
shesaper
manentCommi
ssi
onandCour
tofHumanRi
ght
stoensur
ethest
ate
par
ti
essecur
etoev
ery
onewi
thi
nthei
rjur
isdi
cti
on,t
her
ight
sandf
reedomsdef
inedi
n
t
he Conv
ent
ion.Si
mil
arl
yint
he Amer
icas,t
he obl
i
gat
ions undert
he Amer
ican
Conv
ent
iononHumanRi
ght
s1978ar
eabsol
ute,
andanI
nter
-Amer
icanCour
tofHuman
Ri
ght
stoenf
orcet
heser
ight
s.Thenot
abl
e

21
di
ff
erence bet
ween t
he UDHR,I
CSR and t
he I
CESCR (
col
l
ect
ivel
y known as t
he
I
nter
nat
ional
Bil
lofRi
ght
s)ononehandandt
heECHRandt
heACHRont
heot
heri
sthat
t
heI
nter
nat
ionalBi
l
lofRi
ght
slagsf
arbehi
ndt
heECHRandt
heACHRi
nit
srat
eof
i
ncor
por
ati
on,
wit
hreser
vat
ionsandµopt
-out
smor
efr
equentatt
hegl
oball
evel
.Cl
ear
ly
t
hisshowst
hei
nef
fect
ivenessoft
heUDHRandt
hesubsequentI
nter
nat
ionalBi
l
lof
Ri
ght
sont
hegl
obalst
age.Howev
er,
thi
sdoesnotmeant
hati
twasaf
ail
edi
nst
rument
.
Al
thoughcl
ear
lynotal
egal
l
yenf
orceabl
einst
rumentassuch,t
hequest
ionar
isesast
o
whet
hert
heUDHRhassubsequent
lybecomebi
ndi
ngei
therbywayofcust
om orst
ate
pr
act
ice.Af
teral
l
,bot
htheECHR andt
heACHR ar
eref
lect
ionsoft
heUDHR and
t
her
efor
ear
esuccessf
uli
mpl
ement
ati
onsoft
heUDHR.Gi
vent
hatunderAr
ti
cle38(
1)(
b)
oft
heSt
atut
eoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icecust
om i
soneoft
hesour
cesof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw whi
chcanbeci
ted,t
heUDHRcanpr
ovi
deaf
orcei
nlegalar
gument
concer
ningbr
eachofhumanr
ight
s.Ther
eis,howev
er,asi
gni
fi
cantobst
acl
etoa
successf
ulr
ecogni
ti
onofcust
om orst
atepr
act
iceoft
hepr
inci
plesundert
heUDHR.I
t
comesi
nthef
orm ofasepar
atehumanr
ight
sdocument
,whi
chi
ssi
gni
fi
cant
lydi
ff
erent
f
rom t
heUDHRi
tsel
f,andwhi
chwasadopt
edbyasi
gni
fi
cantmi
nor
it
yofst
ates.Such
documenti
stheCai
roDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
sinI
slam,
whi
chessent
ial
l
yser
vesas
t
heal
ter
nat
ivehumanr
ight
sgui
del
i
nesf
orI
slami
ccount
ri
es.Gi
vent
hatst
atepr
act
ice
essent
ial
l
yrequi
resasi
gni
fi
cantnumberofst
atesf
oll
owi
ngsuchpr
act
ice,
iti
sdoubt
ful
t
hatt
he UDHR,as oft
oday
,can be r
ecogni
sed as cust
om i
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
heUDHR hasbeenf
urt
herempower
edwi
thef
fect
ingoft
heVi
enna
Conv
ent
ionont
heLawofTr
eat
iesi
n1980whi
chi
ntr
oducest
heconceptofj
uscogens
underAr
ti
cl
e53.Ev
enbef
oret
headopt
ionoft
heVCLT,
humanr
ight
swer
eper
cei
vedas
i
nher
eunt
ojuscogensasopposedj
usposi
ti
vi
sm.SuchwasJudgeTanakasdi
ssent
ing
opi
nioni
ntheSout
hWestAf
ri
caCasei
n1966.Thecogencyofj
uscogensi
s,howev
er,
f
air
lyweakduet
oit
slat
efor
mali
ntr
oduct
ioni
ntot
reat
ylaw.Theconcepti
sal
soqui
te
v
agueatt
hispoi
ntandpr
obabl
ynoonecoul
dst
ateconf
ident
lyofwhatconst
it
utesj
us
cogens.Andr
eaBi
anchi
hasev
engonet
otheext
entofcal
l
ingi
tmagi
c.I
nspi
teoft
hese
pr
obl
ems,t
hev
alueofpr
eempt
oryhumanr
ight
snor
msi
ssucht
hatasj
uscogensi
t
woul
dtr
umpal
lot
heri
nter
nat
ionall
awsi
nµl
essercat
egor
ies.TheI
nter
nat
ional
Law
Commi
ssi
oni
n1966hadal
sopr
ovi
dedexampl
esofnor
mswhi
chcoul
dbechar
act
eri
sed
aspr
eempt
oryi
nnat
ure,
andt
hoseconcer
nedwi
thhumanr
ight
sst
oodout
.Thusj
us

22
cogenshav
eessent
ial
l
ycr
eat
edahi
erar
chyofnor
msonwhi
chhumanr
ight
ssi
tatt
he
v
eryt
op.Theconcl
usi
ont
othi
sdi
scussi
ont
her
efor
eist
hatwi
tht
hedev
elopmentofj
us
cogen si
nint
ernat
ionall
aw and wi
th consi
stentst
atepr
act
ice,t
heUDHR hast
he
pot
ent
ialt
o ser
veast
hebedr
ockofi
nter
nat
ionalconst
it
uti
onalr
ight
s.Al
readyt
he
Eur
opeanCour
tofJust
icei
nLoi
zi
dou
v
.Tur
key
procl
aimedt
heECHRt
obeaconst
it
uti
onali
nst
rumentofEur
opeanpubl
i
c
or
der
.TheUDHRt
ooi
ssl
owl
ymov
ingt
owar
dsbecomi
ngonef
ort
hegl
obal
order
.

RI
GHTTOLI
FEANDPERSONALLI
BERTY:EVOLUTI
ONOFNEW DI
MENSI
ONOFHUMAN
RI
GHTSTHROUGHJUDI
CIALI
NTERPRETATI
ON

NAMEOFRI
GHTUDHRI
NDI
ANCONSTI
TUTI
ON
1.
Equal
i
tybef
orel
awAr
ti
cle7 Ar
ti
cle14
2.
Equal
i
tyofoppor
tuni
tyi
n
mat
ter
sofpubl
i
cempl
oyment 21(
2) 16(
1)
3.
Prot
ect
ionofcer
tai
nri
ght
s
r
egar
dingf
reedom ofspeech,
etc,
19 19(
1)(
a)
4.
Prot
ect
ioni
nrespectof
conv
ict
ionf
orof
fences 11(
2)20(
1)
5.
Prot
ect
ionofl
i
feandper
sonal
li
ber
ty9 21
6.
Prohi
bit
ionoft
raf
fi
cki
ngi
n
humanbei
ngsandf
orcedl
abour14 23
7.
Freedom ofconsci
enceand
f
reePr
ofessi
onpr
act
iceand
pr
opagat
ionofr
eli
gion 18
25(
1)
8.
Prot
ect
ionofI
nter
est
sofmi
nor
it
ies 22 29(
1)
9.
Rightofmi
nor
it
iest
oest
abl
i
shand
admi
nist
erEducat
ional
Inst
it
uti
ons 20(
3) 30(
1)
10.
Rightt
opr
oper
ty17(
2)Notaf
undament
alr
ight
saf
teramendment44.Ar
ti
cle300A

23
Remedi
esf
orenf
orcementofr
ight
sconf
err
edbyAr
ti
cle32

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Ar
ti
cle21r
eadsas:
―Noper
sonshal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
sli
feorper
sonall
i
ber
tyexceptaccor
dingt
oa
pr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw.
‖
Accor
dingt
oBhagwat
i,J.
,Ar
ti
cl
e21―embodi
esaconst
it
uti
onalv
alueofsupr
eme
i
mpor
tancei
nademocr
ati
csoci
ety
.‖I
yer
,J.
,haschar
act
eri
zedAr
ti
cle21as―t
he
pr
ocedur
almagnacar
tapr
otect
iveofl
i
feandl
i
ber
ty.
Thi
sri
ghthasbeenhel
dtobet
hehear
toft
heConst
it
uti
on,t
hemostor
gani
cand
pr
ogr
essi
vepr
ovi
si
oni
nourl
i
vingconst
it
uti
on,
thef
oundat
ionofourl
aws.
Art
icl
e21canonl
ybecl
aimedwhenaper
soni
sdepr
ivedofhi
s―l
i
fe‖or―per
sonall
i
ber
ty‖
bythe
―St
ate‖asdef
inedi
nAr
ti
cle12.Vi
olat
ionoft
her
ightbypr
ivat
eindi
vi
dual
sisnotwi
thi
n
t
hepr
evi
ewofAr
ti
cl
e21.
Ar
ti
cle21secur
est
wor
ight
s:
1)Ri
ghtt
oli
fe
2)Ri
ghtt
oper
sonal
li
ber
ty
TheAr
ti
cl
epr
ohi
bit
sthedepr
ivat
ionoft
heabov
eri
ght
sexceptaccor
dingt
oapr
ocedur
e
est
abl
i
shedbyl
aw .
Art
icl
e21cor
respondst
otheMagnaCar
taof1215,t
heFi
ft
h
Amendmentt
otheAmer
icanConst
it
uti
on,
Art
icl
e40(
4)oft
heConst
it
uti
onofEi
re1937,
andAr
ti
cleXXXIoft
heConst
it
uti
onofJapan,
1946.
Ar
ti
cle21appl
i
est
onat
uralper
sons.Ther
ighti
sav
ail
abl
etoev
eryper
son,ci
ti
zenor
al
i
en.Thus,
evenaf
orei
gnercancl
aimt
hisr
ight
.It
,howev
er,
doesnotent
it
leaf
orei
gner
t
her
ightt
oresi
deandset
tl
einI
ndi
a,asment
ionedi
nAr
ti
cle19(
1)(
e).

MEANI
NGANDCONCEPTOF‘
RIGHTTOLI
FE’
:

24
‗
Ever
yonehast
her
ightt
oli
fe,l
i
ber
tyandt
hesecur
it
yofper
son.
‘Ther
ightt
oli
fei
s
undoubt
edl
ythemostf
undament
alofal
lri
ght
s.Al
lot
herr
ight
saddqual
i
tyt
othel
i
fei
n
quest
ionanddependont
hepr
e-exi
stenceofl
i
fei
tsel
ffort
hei
roper
ati
on.Ashuman
r
ight
scanonl
yat
tacht
oli
vi
ngbei
ngs,onemi
ghtexpectt
her
ightt
oli
fei
tsel
ftobei
n
somesensepr
imar
y,si
ncenoneoft
heot
herr
ight
swoul
dhav
eanyv
alueorut
il
it
y
wi
thouti
t.Ther
ewoul
dhav
ebeennoFundament
alRi
ght
swor
thment
ioni
ngi
fAr
ti
cle21
hadbeeni
nter
pret
edi
nit
sor
igi
nalsense.Thi
sSect
ionwi
l
lexami
net
her
ightt
oli
feas
i
nter
pret
edandappl
i
edbyt
heSupr
emeCour
tofI
ndi
a.
Ar
ti
cle21oft
heConst
it
uti
onofI
ndi
a,1950pr
ovi
dest
hat
,―Noper
sonshal
lbedepr
ived
ofhi
sli
feorper
sonall
i
ber
tyexceptaccor
dingt
opr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw.
‖‗Li
fe‘
in
Ar
ti
cle21oft
heConst
it
uti
oni
snotmer
elyt
hephy
sicalactofbr
eat
hing.I
tdoesnot
connot
emer
eani
malexi
stenceorcont
inueddr
udger
ythr
oughl
i
fe.I
thasamuchwi
der
meani
ngwhi
chi
ncl
udesr
ightt
oli
vewi
thhumandi
gni
ty,r
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood,r
ightt
o
heal
th,r
ightt
opol
l
uti
onf
reeai
r,et
c.Ri
ghtt
oli
fei
sfundament
alt
oourv
eryexi
stence
wi
thoutwhi
chwecannotl
i
veashumanbei
ngandi
ncl
udesal
lthoseaspect
sofl
i
fe,
whi
chgot
omakeaman‘
sli
femeani
ngf
ul,compl
ete,andwor
thl
i
ving.I
tist
heonl
y
ar
ti
clei
ntheConst
it
uti
ont
hathasr
ecei
vedt
hewi
destpossi
blei
nter
pret
ati
on.Undert
he
canopyofAr
ti
cl
e21somanyr
ight
shav
efoundshel
ter
,gr
owt
handnour
ishment
.Thus,
t
he bar
e necessi
ti
es,mi
nimum and basi
crequi
rement
sthat i
s essent
ialand
unav
oidabl
eforaper
soni
sthecor
econceptofr
ightt
oli
fe.
I
nthecaseofKhar
akSi
nghv
.St
ateofUt
tarPr
adesh,
theSupr
emeCour
tquot
edand
hel
dthat
:Byt
het
erm ―l
i
fe‖asher
eusedsomet
hingmor
eismeantt
hanmer
eani
mal
exi
stence.Thei
nhi
bit
ionagai
nsti
tsdepr
ivat
ionext
endst
oal
lthosel
i
mbsandf
acul
ti
es
bywhi
chl
i
fei
senj
oyed.Thepr
ovi
sionequal
l
ypr
ohi
bit
sthemut
il
ati
onoft
hebodyby
amput
ati
onofanar
mourl
egort
hepul
l
ingoutofaney
e,ort
hedest
ruct
ionofanyot
her
or
ganoft
hebodyt
hroughwhi
cht
hesoul
communi
cat
eswi
tht
heout
erwor
ld.
I
nSuni
lBat
rav
.Del
hiAdmi
nist
rat
ion,
theSupr
emeCour
trei
ter
atedwi
tht
heappr
oval
the
abov
eobser
vat
ionsandhel
dthatt
he―r
ightt
oli
fe‖i
ncl
udedt
her
ightt
oleadaheal
thy
l
i
fesoast
oenj
oyal
lfacul
ti
esoft
hehumanbodyi
nthei
rpr
imecondi
ti
ons.I
twoul
dev
en
i
ncl
udet
her
ightt
opr
otect
ionofaper
son‘
str
adi
ti
on,
cul
tur
e,her
it
ageandal
lthatgi
ves
meani
ngt
oaman‘
sli
fe.I
tincl
udest
her
ightt
oli
vei
npeace,t
osl
eepi
npeaceandt
he
r
ightt
oreposeandheal
th.

25
Ri
ghtToLi
vewi
thHumanDi
gni
ty:
I
nManekaGandhiv
.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,t
heSupr
emeCour
tgav
eanewdi
mensi
ont
oAr
t.21
andhel
dthatt
her
ightt
oli
vet
her
ightt
oli
vei
snotmer
elyaphy
sicalr
ightbuti
ncl
udes
wi
thi
nit
sambi
tther
ightt
oli
vewi
thhumandi
gni
ty.El
abor
ati
ngt
hesamev
iew,
theCour
t
i
nFr
anci
sCor
ali
ev.Uni
onTer
ri
tor
yofDel
hi,
obser
vedt
hat
:
―Ther
ightt
oli
vei
ncl
udest
her
ightt
oli
vewi
thhumandi
gni
tyandal
lthatgoesal
ong
wi
thi
t,v
iz.
,thebar
enecessi
ti
esofl
i
fesuchasadequat
enut
ri
ti
on,cl
othi
ngandshel
ter
ov
ert
heheadandf
aci
l
iti
esf
orr
eadi
ngwr
it
ingandexpr
essi
ngonesel
findi
ver
sef
orms,
f
reel
ymov
ingaboutandmi
xi
ngandmi
ngl
i
ngwi
thf
ell
ow humanbei
ngsandmust
i
ncl
udet
her
ightt
obasi
cnecessi
ti
est
hebasi
cnecessi
ti
esofl
i
feandal
sot
her
ightt
o
car
ryonf
unct
ionsandact
ivi
ti
esasconst
it
utet
hebar
emi
nimum expr
essi
onofhuman
sel
f.
‖
Fol
l
owi
ngt
heabov
est
atedcases,t
heSupr
emeCour
tinPeopl
esUni
onf
orDemocr
ati
c
Ri
ght
sv.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,hel
dthatnon-
pay
mentofmi
nimum wagest
othewor
ker
s
empl
oyedi
nvar
iousAsi
adPr
oject
sinDel
hiwasadeni
alt
othem oft
hei
rri
ghtt
oli
ve
wi
thbasi
chumandi
gni
tyandv
iol
ati
veofAr
ti
cle21oft
heConst
it
uti
on.Bhagwat
iJ.hel
d
t
hat
,ri
ght
sandbenef
it
sconf
err
edonwor
kmenempl
oyedbyacont
ract
orunderv
ari
ous
l
abourl
awsar
ecl
ear
lyi
ntendedt
oensur
ebasi
chumandi
gni
tyt
owor
kmen.Hehel
dthat
t
henon-
impl
ement
ati
onbyt
hepr
ivat
econt
ract
orsengagedf
orconst
ruct
ingbui
l
dingf
or
hol
ding Asi
an Games i
n Del
hi,and non-
enf
orcementoft
hese l
aws byt
he St
ate
Aut
hor
it
iesoft
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
hesel
awswashel
dtobev
iol
ati
veoff
undament
alr
ight
ofwor
ker
stol
i
vewi
thhumandi
gni
tycont
ainedi
nAr
t.21
Ri
ghtAgai
nstSexual
Har
assmentatWor
kpl
ace:
Art
.21guarant
eesr
ightt
oli
fer
ightt
oli
fewi
thdi
gni
ty.Thecour
tint
hiscont
exthas
obser
vedt
hat:
―Themeani
ngandcont
entoff
undament
alr
ightguar
ant
eedi
ntheconst
it
uti
onofI
ndi
a
ar
e ofsuf
fi
ci
entampl
i
tude t
o encompass al
lfacet
s ofgenderequal
i
tyi
ncl
udi
ng
pr
event
ionofsexual
har
assmentorabuse.
‖
Sexual
Har
assmentofwomenhasbeenhel
dbyt
heSupr
emeCour
ttobev
iol
ati
veoft
he
mostcher
ishedoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
s,namel
y,t
heRi
ghtt
oLi
fecont
ainedi
nAr
t.21.

26
I
nVi
shakhav
.St
ateofRaj
ast
han,t
heSupr
emeCour
thasdecl
aredsexualhar
assment
ofawor
kingwomanatherwor
kasamount
ingt
ovi
olat
ionofr
ight
sofgenderequal
i
ty
andr
ight
stol
i
feandl
i
ber
tywhi
chi
scl
earv
iol
ati
onofAr
ti
cles14,15and21oft
he
Const
it
uti
on.I
nthel
andmar
kjudgment
,Supr
emeCour
tint
heabsenceofenact
edl
awt
o
pr
ovi
de f
oref
fect
ive enf
orcementofbasi
c human r
ight
s ofgenderequal
i
ty and
guar
ant
eeagai
nstsexual
har
assmentl
aiddownt
hef
oll
owi
nggui
del
i
nes:
1.
Allempl
oyer
sorper
sonsi
nchar
geofwor
kpl
acewhet
heri
nthepubl
i
corpr
ivat
e
sect
orshoul
dtakeappr
opr
iat
est
epst
opr
eventsexualhar
assment
.Wi
thoutpr
ejudi
ce
t
othegener
ali
tyoft
hisobl
i
gat
iont
heyshoul
dtaket
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps:
a.
Expr
esspr
ohi
bit
ionofsexualhar
assmentasdef
inedabov
eatt
hewor
kpl
aceshoul
d
benot
if
ied,
publ
i
shedandci
rcul
atedi
nappr
opr
iat
eway
s.
b.TheRul
es/
Regul
ati
onsofGov
ernmentandPubl
i
cSect
orbodi
esr
elat
ingt
oconduct
and di
sci
pli
ne shoul
dincl
ude r
ules/
regul
ati
ons pr
ohi
bit
ing sexualhar
assmentand
pr
ovi
def
orappr
opr
iat
epenal
ti
esi
nsuchr
ulesagai
nstt
heof
fender
.
c.
As r
egar
ds pr
ivat
e empl
oyer
s st
eps shoul
d be t
aken t
oincl
ude t
he af
oresai
d
pr
ohi
bit
ionsi
nthest
andi
ngor
der
sundert
heI
ndust
ri
alEmpl
oyment(
Standi
ngOr
der
s)
Act
,1946.
d.
Appr
opr
iat
ewor
kcondi
ti
onsshoul
dbepr
ovi
dedi
nrespectofwor
k,l
eisur
e,heal
thand
hy
gienet
ofur
therensur
ethatt
her
eisnohost
il
eenv
ironmentt
owar
dswomenatwor
k
pl
acesandnoempl
oyeewomanshoul
dhav
ereasonabl
egr
oundst
obel
i
evet
hatshei
s
di
sadv
ant
agedi
nconnect
ionwi
thherempl
oyment
.
2.Wher
esuchconductamount
stospeci
fi
cof
fencesunderI
,
P,C,
orunderanyot
herl
aw,
t
heempl
oyershal
lini
ti
ateappr
opr
iat
eact
ioni
naccor
dancewi
thl
aw bymaki
nga
compl
aintwi
thappr
opr
iat
eaut
hor
it
y.
3.
The v
ict
ims ofSex
ualhar
assmentshoul
d hav
ethe opt
ion t
o seek t
ransf
erof
per
pet
rat
orort
hei
rownt
ransf
er.

Ri
ghtt
oReput
ati
on:

27
Reput
ati
oni
sani
mpor
tantpar
tofone‘
sli
fe.I
tisoneoft
hef
inergr
acesofhuman
ci
vi
li
zat
iont
hatmakesl
i
fewor
thl
i
ving.TheSupr
emeCour
tref
err
ingt
oD.
F.Mar
ionv
.
Mi
nni
eDav
isi
nSmt
.Ki
ranBediv
.Commi
tt
eeofI
nqui
ryhel
dthat―goodr
eput
ati
onwas
anel
ementofper
sonalsecur
it
yandwaspr
otect
ivebyt
heConst
it
uti
on,equal
l
ywi
tht
he
r
ightt
otheenj
oymentofl
i
fe,l
i
ber
tyandpr
oper
ty.Thecour
taf
fi
rmedt
hatt
her
ightt
o
enj
oymentofl
i
fe,
li
ber
tyandpr
oper
ty.Thecour
taf
fi
rmedt
hatt
her
ightt
oenj
oymentof
pr
ivat
ereput
ati
onwasofanci
entor
igi
nandwasnecessar
ytohumansoci
ety
.‖
.
Ri
ghtToLi
vel
i
hood:
Tobegi
nwi
th,
theSupr
emeCour
ttookt
hev
iewt
hatt
her
ightt
oli
fei
nAr
t.21woul
dnot
i
ncl
uder
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood.I
nReSantRamacasewhi
char
osebef
oreManekaGandhi
case,
wher
etheSupr
emeCour
trul
edt
hatt
her
ightt
oli
vel
i
hoodwoul
dnotf
allwi
thi
nthe
expr
essi
on―l
i
fe‖i
nAr
ti
cle21.
Thecour
tsai
dcur
tl
y:
―Ther
ightt
oli
vel
i
hoodwoul
dbei
ncl
udedi
nthef
reedomsenumer
atedi
nAr
t.
19,or
ev
eni
nAr
t.
16,
inal
i
mit
edsense.Butt
hel
anguageofAr
t.
21cannotbepr
essedi
ntoai
d
ofar
gumentt
hatt
hewor
d‗l
i
fe‘
inAr
t.21i
ncl
udes‗
li
vel
i
hood‘
also.
‖
Butt
hent
hev
iewunder
wentachange.Wi
tht
hedef
ini
ngoft
hewor
d―l
i
fe‖i
nAr
ti
cle21
i
nbr
oadandexpansi
vemanner
,thecour
tinBoar
dofTr
ust
eesoft
hePor
tofBombayv
.
Di
l
ipkumarRaghav
endr
anat
hNandkar
nicamet
ohol
dthat―t
her
ightt
oli
fe‖guar
ant
eed
byAr
ti
cle21i
ncl
udes
―t
he r
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood‖
.The Supr
eme Cour
tin Ol
ga Tel
l
isv
.BombayMuni
cipal
Cor
por
ati
on,popul
arl
yknownast
he―Pav
ementDwel
l
ersCase‖af
ivej
udgebenchof
t
heCour
tnow i
mpl
i
edt
hat‗
rightt
oli
vel
i
hood‘i
sbor
neoutoft
he‗
rightt
oli
fe‘
,asno
per
soncanl
i
vewi
thoutt
hemeansofl
i
ving,t
hati
s,t
hemeansofLi
vel
i
hood.Thatt
he
cour
tint
hiscaseobser
vedt
hat
:
―Thesweepofr
ightt
oli
feconf
err
edbyAr
t.
21i
swi
deandf
arr
eachi
ng.I
tdoesnot
mean,mer
elyt
hatl
i
fecannotbeext
ingui
shedort
akenawayas,f
orexampl
e,byt
he
i
mposi
ti
onandexecut
ionofdeat
hsent
ence,
exceptaccor
dingt
opr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shed
byl
aw.Thati
sbutoneaspecti
fther
ightt
oli
fe.Anequal
l
yimpor
tantf
acetoft
her
ight
t
oli
fei
sther
ightt
oli
vel
i
hoodbecausenoper
soncanl
i
vewi
thoutt
hemeansof
l
i
vel
i
hood.
‖

28
I
fther
ightt
oli
vel
i
hoodi
snott
reat
edasapar
tandpar
celoft
heconst
it
uti
onalr
ightt
o
l
i
fe,t
heeasi
estwayofdepr
ivi
ngaper
sonofhi
sri
ghtt
oli
fewoul
dbet
odepr
ivehi
m of
hi
smeansofl
i
vel
i
hoodt
othepoi
ntofabr
ogat
ion.I
nthei
nst
antcase,t
hecour
tfur
ther
opi
ned:
Thest
atemaynotbyaf
fi
rmat
iveact
ion,becompel
l
edt
opr
ovi
deadequat
emeansof
l
i
vel
i
hoodorwor
ktot
heci
ti
zens.But
,anyper
sonwhoi
sdepr
ivedofhi
sri
ghtt
o
l
i
vel
i
hoodexceptaccor
dingt
ojustandf
airpr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
awcanchal
l
enge
t
hedepr
ivat
ionasof
fendi
ngt
her
ightt
oli
feconf
err
edi
nAr
ti
cle21.
‖
Emphasi
zi
ngupont
hecl
oser
elat
ionshi
pofl
i
feandl
i
vel
i
hood,t
hecour
tSt
ated:―That
,
whi
chal
onemakesi
timpossi
blet
oli
ve,l
eav
easi
dewhatmakesl
i
fel
i
vabl
e,mustbe
deemedt
obeani
ntegr
alpar
tofr
ightt
oli
fe.Depr
iveaper
sonf
rom hi
sri
ghtt
o
l
i
vel
i
hoodandy
oushal
lhav
edepr
ivedhi
m ofhi
sli
fe.
‖
Ar
t.21doesnotpl
aceanabsol
uteembar
goont
hedepr
ivat
ionofl
i
feorper
sonall
i
ber
ty
andf
ort
hatmat
teronr
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood.WhatAr
t.21i
nsi
stsi
sthatsuchdepr
ivat
ion
oughtt
obeaccor
dingt
opr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw whi
chmustbef
air
,justand
r
easonabl
e.Ther
efor
eany
onewhoi
sdepr
ivedofr
ightt
oli
vel
i
hoodwi
thoutaj
ustand
f
airpr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
awcanchal
l
engesuchdepr
ivat
ionasbei
ngagai
nstAr
t.
21andgeti
tdecl
aredv
oid
I
nD.
T.C.v
.D.
T.C.MazdoorCongr
essar
egul
ati
onconf
err
ingpoweront
heaut
hor
it
yto
t
ermi
nat
etheser
vicesofaper
manentandconf
ir
m empl
oyeebyi
ssui
nganot
ici
ng
wi
thoutassi
gni
nghi
m anyr
easonsandwi
thoutgi
vi
nghi
m ahear
inghasbeenhel
dtobe
awhol
l
yar
bit
rar
yandv
iol
ati
veofAr
t.21.
I
nM.PaulAnt
honyv
.Bi
harGol
dMi
nesLt
d.,
itwashel
dthatwhenagov
ernmentser
vant
oronei
napubl
i
cunder
taki
ngi
ssuspendedpendi
ngadepar
tment
aldi
sci
pli
nar
yinqui
ry
agai
nsthi
m,subsi
stenceal
l
owancemustbepai
dtohi
m.TheCour
thasemphasi
zed
t
hatagov
ernmentser
vantdoesnothi
sri
ghtt
oli
feandot
herf
undament
alr
ight
s.
Howev
er,i
faper
soni
sdepr
ivedofsuchar
ightaccor
dingt
opr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedby
l
awwhi
chmustbef
air
,justandr
easonabl
eandwhi
chi
sint
hel
argeri
nter
estofpeopl
e,
t
hepl
eaofdepr
ivat
ionofr
ightt
oli
vel
i
hoodunderAr
t.21i
sunsust
ainabl
e.I
n,Chamel
i
Si
nghv
.St
ateofUt
tarPr
adeshi
twashel
dbyt
heHon‘
bl
eSupr
emeCour
tthatwhent
he
l
andofal
andownerwasacqui
redbyst
atei
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ocedur
elai
ddown
i
nther
elev
antl
awofacqui
sit
iont
her
ightt
o

29
l
i
vel
i
hoodofsuchal
andownerev
ent
houghadv
ersel
yaf
fect
ed,hi
sri
ghtt
oli
vel
i
hoodi
s
notv
iol
ated.TheCour
topi
nedt
hat
,thest
ateacqui
resl
andi
nexer
ciseofi
tspowerof
emi
nentdomai
nforapubl
i
cpur
pose.Thel
andowneri
spai
dcompensat
ioni
nli
euof
l
and,and t
her
efor
e,t
hepl
eaofdepr
ivat
ion ofr
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood underAr
t.21 i
s
unsust
ainabl
e.

I
nM.J.Si
vaniv
.St
ateofKar
nat
aka&Or
stheSupr
emeCour
thel
dthatr
ightt
oli
feunder
Ar
ti
cle21doespr
otectl
i
vel
i
hoodbutaddedar
idert
hati
tsdepr
ivat
ioncannotbe
ext
endedt
oof
arorpr
oject
edorst
ret
chedt
otheav
ocat
ion,busi
nessort
radei
njur
ious
t
o publ
i
cint
erestorhasi
nsi
diousef
fecton publ
i
cmor
alorpubl
i
cor
der
.Itwas,
t
her
efor
e,hel
dthatr
egul
ati
onofv
ideogamesorpr
ohi
bit
ionofsomev
ideogamesof
pur
echanceormi
xedchanceandski
l
lar
enotv
iol
ati
veofAr
ti
cle21nori
sthepr
ocedur
e
unr
easonabl
e,unf
air
,orunj
ust
.
HI
VNotaSoundgr
oundf
orTer
minat
ion

I
nMXofBombayI
ndi
anI
nhabi
tant
sv.M/
s.ZY,
itwashel
dthataper
sont
est
edposi
ti
ve
f
orHI
Vcoul
dnotber
ender
ed―medi
cal
l
yunf
it
‖sol
elyont
hatgr
oundsoast
odenyhi
m
t
heempl
oyment
.Ther
ightt
oli
fei
ncl
udest
her
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood.Ther
efor
e,r
ightt
o
l
i
vel
i
hoodcannothangont
othef
anci
esoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
sinaut
hor
it
y.Ev
ent
hought
he
pet
it
ionermi
ghthav
ebeenanui
sancet
oot
her
sandconduct
edt
hemsel
vesei
theri
na
di
sor
der
lywayorunbecomi
ngont
hei
rpr
ofessi
onbut
,thati
nit
sel
f,i
tisnotsuf
fi
cientf
or
t
heexecut
ivet
otakeawayt
hei
rsour
ceofl
i
vel
i
hoodbyanexecut
ivef
iat
.

Ri
ghtt
oShel
ter
:
I
nU.
P.Av
asVi
kasPar
ishadv
.Fr
iendsCoop.Housi
ngSoci
etyLi
mit
ed,t
her
ightt
o
shel
terhasbeen hel
dto beaf
undament
alr
ightwhi
ch spr
ingsf
rom t
her
ightt
o
r
esi
dencesecur
edi
nar
ti
cle19(
1)(
e)andt
her
ightt
oli
feguar
ant
eedbyar
ti
cle21.To
make t
he r
ightmeani
ngf
ult
othe poor
,the st
ate has t
o pr
ovi
de f
aci
l
iti
es and
oppor
tuni
ti
est
obui
l
dhouses.
Uphol
ding t
hei
mpor
tanceoft
her
ightt
o adecentenv
ironmentand ar
easonabl
e
accommodat
ion,
inShant
ist
arBui
l
der
sv.Nar
ayanKhi
mal
alTot
ame,
theCour
thel
dthat

30
―Ther
ightt
oli
fewoul
dtakewi
thi
nit
ssweept
her
ightt
ofood,
ther
ightt
ocl
othi
ng,
the
r
ightt
odecentenv
ironmentandar
easonabl
eaccommodat
iont
oli
vei
n.Thedi
ff
erence
bet
weent
heneedofanani
mal
andahumanbei
ngf
orshel
terhast
obekepti
nvi
ew.For
t
heani
mali
tist
hebar
epr
otect
ionoft
hebody
,forahumanbei
ngi
thast
obeasui
tabl
e
accommodat
ion,
whi
chwoul
dal
l
owhi
mtogr
owi
nev
eryaspect–phy
sical
,ment
aland
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
.TheConst
it
uti
onai
msatensur
ingf
ull
erdev
elopmentofev
erychi
l
d.That
woul
dbepossi
bleonl
yift
hechi
l
disi
napr
operhome.I
tisnotnecessar
ythatev
ery
ci
ti
zenmustbeensur
edofl
i
vingi
nawel
l
-bui
l
tcomf
ort
abl
ehousebutar
easonabl
e
homepar
ti
cul
arl
yforpeopl
einI
ndi
acanev
enbemud-
bui
l
tthat
chedhouseoramud-
bui
l
tfi
repr
oofaccommodat
ion.
‖
I
nChamel
iSi
nghv
.St
ateofU.
P.,aBenchoft
hreeJudgesofSupr
emeCour
thad
consi
der
edandhel
dthatt
her
ightt
oshel
teri
saf
undament
alr
ightav
ail
abl
etoev
ery
ci
ti
zenandi
twasr
eadi
ntoAr
ti
cle21oft
heConst
it
uti
onofI
ndi
aasencompassi
ng
wi
thi
nit
sambi
t,t
her
ightt
oshel
tert
omaket
her
ightt
oli
femor
emeani
ngf
ul.TheCour
t
obser
vedt
hat
:
―Shel
terf
orahumanbei
ng,
ther
efor
e,i
snotamer
epr
otect
ionofhi
sli
feandl
i
mb.I
tis
howev
erwher
ehehasoppor
tuni
ti
est
ogr
ow phy
sical
l
y,ment
all
y,i
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yand
spi
ri
tual
l
y.Ri
ghtt
oshel
ter
,ther
efor
e,i
ncl
udesadequat
eli
vi
ngspace,saf
eanddecent
st
ruct
ure,cl
eananddecentsur
roundi
ngs,suf
fi
cientl
i
ght
,pur
eai
randwat
er,el
ect
ri
cit
y,
sani
tat
ionandot
herci
vi
cameni
ti
esl
i
ker
oadset
c.soast
ohav
eeasyaccesst
ohi
s
dai
l
yav
ocat
ion.Ther
ightt
oshel
ter
,ther
efor
e,doesnotmeanamer
eri
ghtt
oar
oofov
er
one‘
sheadbutr
ightt
oal
lthei
nfr
ast
ruct
urenecessar
ytoenabl
ethem t
oli
veand
dev
elopasahumanbei
ng.
‖
Ri
ghtt
oSoci
alSecur
it
yandPr
otect
ionofFami
l
y:
Ri
ghtt
oli
fecov
erswi
thi
nit
sambi
tther
ightt
osoci
alsecur
it
yandpr
otect
ionoff
ami
l
y.K.
RamaswamyJ.
,in Cal
cut
ta El
ect
ri
cit
ySuppl
yCor
por
ati
on (
Indi
a)Lt
d.v
.Subhash
Chandr
aBose,hel
dthatr
ightt
osoci
alandeconomi
cjust
icei
saf
undament
alr
ight
underAr
t.21.Thel
ear
nedj
udgeexpl
ainedt
hatr
ightt
oli
feanddi
gni
tyofaper
sonand
st
atuswi
thoutmeans,wer
ecosmet
icr
ight
s.Soci
o-economi
cri
ght
swer
e,t
her
efor
e,
basi
c aspi
rat
ions f
ormeani
ng r
ightt
oli
fe and t
hatRi
ghtt
o Soci
alSecur
it
yand
Pr
otect
ionofFami
l
ywer
eint
egr
alpar
tofr
ightt
oli
fe.
I
nN.
H.R.
C.v
.St
ateofAr
unachalPr
adesh,
(ChakmasCase)
,thesupr
emecour
tsai
dthat
t
heSt
atei
sboundt
opr
otectt
hel
i
feandl
i
ber
tyofev
eryhuman-
bei
ng,
beheaci
ti
zenor
31
ot
her
wise,
andi
t

32
cannotper
mitany
bodyorgr
oupofper
sonst
othr
eat
enot
herper
sonorgr
oupof
per
sons.NoSt
ateGov
ernmentwor
tht
henamecant
oler
atesucht
hreat
sbyonegr
oup
ofper
sonst
oanot
hergr
oupofper
sons;
iti
sdut
yboundt
opr
otectt
het
hreat
enedgr
oup
f
rom suchassaul
tsandi
fitf
ail
stodoso,
itwi
l
lfai
ltoper
for
mit
sConst
it
uti
onalaswel
l
asst
atut
oryobl
i
gat
ions.
Mur
li
dharDay
andeoKesekarv
.Vi
shwanat
hPandeBar
de,i
twashel
dthatr
ightt
o
economi
c empower
ment of poor
,di
sadv
ant
aged and oppr
essed dal
i
ts was a
f
undament
alr
ightt
omaket
hei
rri
ghtofl
i
feanddi
gni
tyofper
sonmeani
ngf
ul.
I
nRegi
onalDi
rect
or,
ESICor
por
ati
onv
.Fr
anci
sDeCost
atheSupr
emehel
dthatsecur
it
y
agai
nstsi
cknessanddi
sabl
ementwasaf
undament
alr
ightunderAr
t.21r
eadwi
thSec.
39(
e)oft
heConst
it
uti
onofI
ndi
a.
I
nL.
I.
C.ofI
ndi
av.ConsumerEducat
ionandResear
chCent
re,i
twasf
urt
herhel
dthat
r
ightt
oli
feandl
i
vel
i
hoodi
ncl
udedr
ightt
oli
fei
nsur
ancepol
i
ciesofLI
CofI
ndi
a,butt
hat
i
tmustbewi
thi
nthepay
ingcapaci
tyandmeansoft
hei
nsur
ed.

Ri
ghtAgai
nstHonourKi
l
li
ng:
Adi
vi
si
onbenchofAl
l
ahabadhi
ghcour
t,I
nSur
ji
tKumarv
.St
ateofU.
P.,t
ookser
ious
not
eonhar
assment
,ini
l
ltr
eat
mentandki
l
li
ngofaper
sonwhowasamaj
or,
forwant
ing
t
ogetmar
ri
edt
oaper
sonofanot
hercast
eorcommuni
ty,f
orbr
ingi
ngdi
shonort
o
f
ami
l
ysi
ncei
ntercast
eori
ntercommuni
tymar
ri
agewasnotpr
ohi
bit
edi
nlaw,
thecour
t
sai
dthatsuchpr
act
iceof―honourki
l
li
ng‖wasabl
otonsoci
ety
.Thecour
t,t
her
efor
e,
di
rect
ed t
he pol
i
ce t
otake st
rong measur
es,agai
nstt
hose who commi
tt
ed such
‗
honourki
l
li
ng‘
.

Ri
ghtt
oHeal
th:
I
nSt
ateofPunj
abv
.M.
S.Chawl
a,i
thasbeenhel
dthat
-ther
ightt
oli
feguar
ant
eed
underAr
ti
cle21i
ncl
udeswi
thi
nit
sambi
tther
ightt
oheal
thandmedi
cal
car
e.
TheSupr
emeCour
tinVi
ncentv
.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,emphasi
zedt
hataheal
thybodyi
sthe
v
eryf
oundat
ionofal
lhumanact
ivi
ti
es.
Art
.47,
adi
rect
ivePr
inci
pleofSt
atePol
i
cyi
nthi
s
r
egar
dlay
sst
ressnot
eoni
mpr
ovementofpubl
i
cheal
thandpr
ohi
bit
ionofdr
ugs
i
njur
ioust
oheal
thasoneofpr
imar
ydut
iesoft
hest
ate.

33
I
nConsumerEducat
ionandResear
chCent
rev
.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,TheSupr
emeCour
tlai
d
downt
hat
:
―Soci
alj
ust
icewhi
chi
sdev
icet
oensur
eli
fet
obemeani
ngf
ulandl
i
vabl
ewi
thhuman
di
gni
tyr
equi
rest
heSt
atet
opr
ovi
det
owor
kmenf
aci
l
iti
esandoppor
tuni
ti
est
oreachat
l
eastmi
nimum st
andar
dofheal
th,
economi
csecur
it
yandci
vi
li
zedl
i
ving.Theheal
thand
st
rengt
hofwor
ker
,thecour
tsai
d,wasani
mpor
tantf
acetofr
ightt
oli
fe.Deni
alt
her
eof
denudest
hewor
kment
hef
inerf
acet
sofl
i
fev
iol
ati
ngAr
t.21.
‖

Ri
ghtt
oMedi
cal
Car
e:

I
n Par
mananda Kat
arav
.Uni
on ofI
ndi
a,t
heSupr
emeCour
thasv
eryspeci
fi
cal
l
y
cl
ari
fi
edt
hatpr
eser
vat
ionofl
i
fei
sofpar
amounti
mpor
tance.TheApexCour
tst
ated
t
hat‗
oncel
i
fei
slost
,st
atusquoant
ecannotber
est
ored’I
twashel
dthati
tist
he
pr
ofessi
onalobl
i
gat
ionofal
ldoct
ors(
gov
ernmentorpr
ivat
e)t
oext
entmedi
calai
dto
t
hei
njur
edi
mmedi
atel
ytopr
eser
vel
i
fewi
thoutl
egalf
ormal
i
tiest
obecompl
i
edwi
tht
he
pol
i
ce.Ar
ti
cl
e21cast
stheobl
i
gat
ionont
hest
atet
opr
eser
vel
i
fe.I
tist
heobl
i
gat
ionof
t
hosewhoar
einchar
geoft
heheal
thoft
hecommuni
tyt
opr
eser
vel
i
fesot
hatt
he
i
nnocentmaybepr
otect
edandt
hegui
l
tymaybepuni
shed.Nol
aworst
ateact
ioncan
i
nter
venet
odel
ayanddi
schar
get
hispar
amountobl
i
gat
ionoft
hemember
soft
he
medi
cal
prof
essi
on.Nol
aworSt
ateact
ioncani
nter
venet
oav
oid/
del
ayt
hedi
schar
geof
t
hepar
amountobl
i
gat
ioncastuponmember
soft
hemedi
calpr
ofessi
on.Theobl
i
gat
ion
bei
ngt
otal
,absol
uteandpar
amount
,lawsofpr
ocedur
ewhet
heri
nst
atut
eorot
her
wise
whi
chwoul
dint
erf
erewi
tht
hedi
schar
geoft
hisobl
i
gat
ioncannotbesust
ainedand
must
,ther
efor
e,gi
veway
.Thecour
tal
soobser
ved:
―Ar
t.21oft
heConst
it
uti
oncastt
heobl
i
gat
ionont
heSt
atet
opr
eser
vel
i
fe.Thepat
ient
whet
herhebeani
nnocentper
sonoracr
imi
nall
i
abl
etopuni
shmentundert
hel
awsof
t
he soci
ety
,iti
sthe obl
i
gat
ion oft
hose who ar
ein char
ge oft
he heal
th oft
he
communi
tyt
opr
eser
vel
i
fesot
hatt
hei
nnocentmaybepr
otect
edandt
hegui
l
tymaybe
puni
shed.Soci
all
awsdonotcont
empl
atedeat
hbynegl
i
gencet
otant
amountt
olegal
puni
shment
….Ev
erydoct
orwhet
herataGov
ernment

34
hospi
talorot
her
wisehast
hepr
ofessi
onalobl
i
gat
iont
oext
endhi
sser
viceswi
thdue
exper
ti
sef
orpr
otect
ingl
i
fe.
‖
I
nanot
hercasePaschi
m BangaKhetMazdoorSami
tyv
.St
ateofWestBengal
,aper
son
suf
fer
ingf
rom ser
iousheadi
njur
iesf
rom at
rai
nacci
dentwasr
efusedt
reat
mentat
v
ari
ous hospi
tal
s on t
he excuse t
hat t
hey l
acked t
he adequat
efaci
l
iti
es and
i
nfr
ast
ruct
uret
opr
ovi
det
reat
ment
.Int
hiscase,t
heSupr
emeCour
tfur
therdev
eloped
t
her
ightt
oemer
gencyt
reat
ment
,andwentont
ost
atet
hatt
hef
ail
ureont
hepar
toft
he
Gov
ernmenthospi
talt
opr
ovi
det
imel
ymedi
calt
reat
mentt
oaper
soni
nneedofsuch
t
reat
mentr
esul
tsi
nvi
olat
ion ofhi
sri
ghtt
oli
fe guar
ant
eed underAr
ti
cle 21.I
t
acknowl
edgedt
hel
i
mit
ati
onoff
inanci
alr
esour
cest
ogi
veef
fectt
osuchar
ight
,but
mai
ntai
nedt
hati
twasnecessar
yfort
heSt
atet
opr
ovi
def
ort
her
esour
cest
ogi
veef
fect
t
otheent
it
lementoft
hepeopl
eofr
ecei
vi
ngemer
gencymedi
cal
treat
ment
.
I
thasbeenr
eit
erat
ed,t
imeandagai
n,t
hatt
her
eshoul
dbenoi
mpedi
mentt
opr
ovi
ding
emer
gencymedi
calcar
e.I
nPr
avatKumarMukher
jeev
.RubyGener
alHospi
tal&Ot
her
s,
i
twashel
dthatahospi
tal
isdut
yboundt
oacceptacci
dentv
ict
imsandpat
ient
swhoar
e
i
ncr
it
icalcondi
ti
onandt
hati
tcannotr
efuset
reat
mentont
hegr
oundt
hatt
hev
ict
imi
s
noti
naposi
ti
ont
opayt
hef
eeormeett
heexpensesoront
hegr
oundt
hatt
her
eisno
cl
oser
elat
ionoft
hev
ict
im av
ail
abl
ewhocangi
veconsentf
ormedi
cal
treat
ment
.
Thecour
thasl
aidst
ressonav
erycr
uci
alpoi
nt,
viz.
,st
atecannotpl
eadl
ackoff
inanci
al
r
esour
cest
ocar
ryoutt
hesedi
rect
ionsmeantt
opr
ovi
deadequat
emedi
calser
vicest
o
t
hepeopl
e.Thest
atecannotav
oidi
tsconst
it
uti
onalobl
i
gat
iont
opr
ovi
deadequat
e
medi
cal
ser
vicest
opeopl
eonaccountoff
inanci
alconst
rai
nts.
But
,inSt
ateofPunj
abv
.Ram Lubhay
aBaggat
heSupr
emeCour
thasr
ecogni
zedt
hat
pr
ovi
sionofheal
thf
aci
l
iti
escannotbeunl
i
mit
ed.Thecour
thel
dthati
thast
obet
othe
ext
entf
inanceper
mit
s.Nocount
rygasunl
i
mit
edr
esour
cest
ospendonanyofi
ts
pr
oject
s.
I
nConf
eder
ati
onofEx-
ser
vicemenAssoci
ati
onv
.Uni
onofI
ndi
ari
ghtt
ogetf
reeand
t
imel
ylegalai
d orf
aci
l
iti
es has been hel
dto be nota f
undament
alr
ightofex-
ser
vicemen.A pol
i
cydeci
sioni
nfor
mul
ati
ngcont
ri
but
oryschemef
orex-
ser
vicemen
and aski
ng t
hem t
o payone t
ime cont
ri
but
ion doesnotv
iol
ate Ar
t.21 nori
sit
i
nconsi
stentwi
thPar
tIVoft
heconst
it
uti
on.
Sent
enceofdeat
h–Rar
estofr
arecases:

35
Thei
ssueofabol
i
tionorr
etent
ionofcapi
talpuni
shmentwasdeal
twi
thbyt
hel
aw
commi
ssi
on ofI
ndi
a.Af
tercol
l
ect
ing asmuch av
ail
abl
emat
eri
alaspossi
bleand
assessi
ngt
hev
iewsexpr
essedbywest
ernschol
ars,
thecommi
ssi
onr
ecommendedt
he
r
etent
ionoft
hecapi
talpuni
shmenti
nthepr
esentst
ateoft
hecount
ry.Thecommi
ssi
on
hel
dtheopi
niont
hathav
ingr
egar
dtot
hecondi
ti
onsofI
ndi
a,t
othev
ari
etyoft
hesoci
al
upbr
ingi
ngofi
tsi
nhabi
tant
s,t
othedi
spar
it
yint
hel
evelofmor
ali
tyandeducat
ioni
nthe
count
ry,t
othev
ast
nessofi
tsar
ea,t
othedi
ver
sit
yofi
tspopul
ati
on and t
othe
par
amountneedf
ormai
ntai
ningl
aw andor
deri
nthecount
ry,I
ndi
acoul
dnotr
iskt
he
exper
imentofabol
i
tionofcapi
tal
puni
shment
.
I
nJagmohanv
.St
ateofU.
P,t
heSupr
emeCour
thadhel
dthatdeat
hpenal
tywasnot
v
iol
ati
veofar
ti
cl
es14,19and21.
itwassai
dthatt
hej
udgewast
omaket
hechoi
ce
bet
weendeat
hpenal
tyandi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
i
feont
hebasi
sofci
rcumst
ances,f
act
s
andnat
ureofcr
imebr
oughtonr
ecor
ddur
ingt
rai
l
.Ther
efor
e,t
hechoi
ceofawar
ding
deat
hsent
encewasdonei
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw as
r
equi
redunderar
ti
cl
e21
But
,inRaj
i
nder
aPar
sadv
.St
ateofU.
P.Kr
ishnaI
yerJ.
,speaki
ngf
ort
hemaj
ori
ty,hel
d
t
hatcapi
tal
puni
shmentwoul
dnotbej
ust
if
iedunl
essi
twasshownt
hatt
hecr
imi
nal
was
danger
oust
othesoci
ety
.Thel
ear
nedj
udgepl
eadf
ort
heabol
i
tionofdeat
hpenal
tyand
sai
dthati
tshoul
dret
ainedonl
yfor―whi
tecol
l
arcr
imes‖
Howev
er,i
nBachanSi
nghv
.St
ateofPunj
abt
hel
eadi
ngcaseofont
hequest
ion,a
const
it
uti
onbenchoft
hesupr
emecour
texpl
ainedt
hatar
ti
cle21r
ecogni
zedt
her
ightof
t
hest
atet
odepr
iveaper
sonofhi
sli
fei
naccor
dancewi
thj
ust
,fai
randr
easonabl
e
pr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyav
ali
dlaw
.
Itwasf
urt
herhel
dthatdeat
hpenal
tyf
ort
heof
fenceofmur
derawar
dedundersect
ion
302ofI
.P.
Cdi
dnotv
iol
atet
hebasi
cfeat
ureoft
heconst
it
uti
on.

Ri
ghtt
oCl
eanEnv
ironment
:
The ―Ri
ghtt
o Li
fe‖underAr
ti
cle 21 means a l
i
fe ofdi
gni
tyt
oli
vei
n a pr
oper
env
ironmentf
reef
rom t
hedanger
sofdi
seasesandi
nfect
ion.Mai
ntenanceofheal
th,
pr
eser
vat
ionoft
hesani
tat
ionandenv
ironmenthav
ebeenhel
dtof
allwi
thi
nthepur
view
ofAr
ti
cl
e21asi
tadv
ersel
yaf
fect
sthel
i
feoft
heci
ti
zensandi
tamount
stosl
ow
poi
soni
ngandr
educi
ngt
hel
i
feoft
heci
ti
zensbecauseoft
hehazar
dscr
eat
edi
fnot
checked.
36
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hewel
l
-knowncasesonenv
ironmentunderAr
ti
cle21:
I
nM.
C.Meht
av.Uni
onofI
ndi
a(1988)t
heSupr
emeCour
tor
der
edcl
osur
eoft
anner
ies
t
hatwer
epol
l
uti
ngwat
er.
I
nM.
C.Meht
av.Uni
onofI
ndi
a(1997)
,theSupr
emeCour
tissuedsev
eralgui
del
i
neand
di
rect
ions f
or t
he pr
otect
ion of t
he TajMahal
,an anci
ent monument
,fr
om
env
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion.
I
nVel
l
oreCi
ti
zensWel
far
eFor
um v
.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,t
heCour
ttookcogni
zanceoft
he
env
ironment
alpr
obl
ems bei
ng caused byt
anner
ies t
hatwer
e pol
l
uti
ng t
he wat
er
r
esour
ces,r
iver
s,canal
s,under
groundwat
erandagr
icul
tur
all
and.TheCour
tissued
sev
eral
dir
ect
ionst
odeal
wit
hthepr
obl
em.
I
nMi
l
kMenCol
onyVi
kasSami
tiv
.St
ateOfRaj
ast
hant
heSupr
emeCour
thel
dthatt
he
„
ri
ghtt
oli
fe‟meanscl
eansur
roundi
ngwhi
chl
eadt
oheal
thybodyandmi
nd.I
tincl
udes
r
ightt
ofr
eedom f
rom st
raycat
tl
eandani
mal
sinur
banar
eas.
I
nM.
C.Meht
av.Uni
onofI
ndi
a(2006)t
heCour
thel
dthatt
hebl
atantandl
arge-
scal
e
mi
suse ofr
esi
dent
ialpr
emi
ses f
orcommer
cialuse i
n Del
hi,v
iol
ated t
he r
ightt
o
sal
ubr
ioussanddecentenv
ironment
.Taki
ngnot
eoft
hepr
obl
em t
heCour
tissued
di
rect
ivest
otheGov
ernmentont
hesame.
I
nMur
liS.Deor
av.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,t
heper
sonsnoti
ndul
gingi
nsmoki
ngcannotbe
compel
l
edt
oorsubj
ect
edt
opassi
vesmoki
ngonaccountofactofsmoker
s.Ri
ghtt
o
Li
feunderAr
ti
cle21i
saf
fect
edasanon-
smokermaybecomeav
ict
im ofsomeone
smoki
ngi
napubl
i
cpl
ace.
Ri
ghtt
oKnoworRi
ghtt
oBeI
nfor
med:
Hol
dingt
hatt
her
ightt
oli
fehasr
eachednew di
mensi
onsandur
gencyt
heSupr
eme
Cour
tinR.
P.Lt
d.v
.Pr
opr
iet
orsI
ndi
anExpr
essNewspaper
s,BombayPv
t.Lt
d.,
obser
ved
t
hati
fdemocr
acyhadt
ofunct
ionef
fect
ivel
y,peopl
emusthav
ether
ightt
oknowandt
o
obt
aint
heconductofaf
fai
rsoft
heSt
ate.
I
nEssarOi
lLt
d.v
.Hal
arUt
kar
shSami
ti
,theSupr
emeCour
tsai
dthatt
her
ewasast
rong
l
i
nkbet
weenAr
t.
21andRi
ghtt
oknow,
par
ti
cul
arl
ywher
e―secr
etgov
ernmentdeci
sions
mayaf
fectheal
th,
li
feandl
i
vel
i
hood.

37
Rei
ter
ati
ngt
heabov
eobser
vat
ionsmadei
nthei
nst
antcase,
theApexCour
tinRel
i
ance
Pet
rochemi
cal
sLt
d.v
.Pr
opr
iet
orsofI
ndi
anEx
pressNewspaper
s,r
uledt
hatt
heci
ti
zens
whohadbeenmader
esponsi
blet
opr
otectt
heenv
ironmenthadar
ightt
oknow t
he
gov
ernmentpr
oposal
.

PERSONALLI
BERTY:
Li
ber
tyoft
heper
soni
soneoft
heol
destconcept
stobepr
otect
edbynat
ionalcour
ts.
Asl
ongas1215,
theEngl
i
shMagnaCar
tapr
ovi
dedt
hat
,
Nof
reemanshal
lbet
akenori
mpr
isoned…but
…byt
hel
awoft
hel
and.
Thesmal
l
estAr
ti
cleofei
ght
eenwor
dshast
hegr
eat
estsi
gni
fi
cancef
ort
hosewho
cher
isht
hei
deal
sofl
i
ber
ty.Whatcanbemor
eimpor
tantt
hanl
i
ber
ty?I
nIndi
athe
conceptof‗
li
ber
ty‘hasr
ecei
vedaf
armor
eexpansi
vei
nter
pret
ati
on.TheSupr
eme
Cour
tofI
ndi
ahasr
eject
edt
hev
iew t
hatl
i
ber
tydenot
esmer
elyf
reedom f
rom bodi
l
y
r
est
rai
nt;andhashel
dthati
tencompassest
hoser
ight
sandpr
ivi
l
egest
hathav
elong
beenr
ecogni
zedasbei
ngessent
ialt
otheor
der
lypur
sui
tofhappi
nessbyf
reemen.The
meani
ngoft
het
erm‗
per
sonall
i
ber
ty‘wasconsi
der
edbyt
heSupr
emeCour
tint
he
Khar
akSi
ngh‘
scase,
whi
char
oseoutoft
hechal
l
enget
oConst
it
uti
onal
val
i
dit
yoft
he
U.P.Pol
i
ceRegul
ati
onst
hatpr
ovi
dedf
orsur
vei
l
lancebywayofdomi
cil
i
aryv
isi
tsand
secr
etpi
cket
ing.Oddl
yenoughbot
hthemaj
ori
tyandmi
nor
it
yont
hebenchr
eli
edont
he
meani
nggi
vent
othet
erm ―per
sonall
i
ber
ty‖byanAmer
icanj
udgment(
perFi
eld,
J.,
)in
MunnvI
ll
i
noi
s,whi
chhel
dthet
erm‗
li
fe‘meantsomet
hingmor
ethanmer
eani
mal
exi
stence.Thepr
ohi
bit
ion agai
nsti
tsdepr
ivat
ion ext
ended t
o al
lthosel
i
mit
sand
f
acul
ti
esbywhi
cht
hel
i
fewasenj
oyed.Thi
spr
ovi
sionequal
l
ypr
ohi
bit
edt
hemut
il
ati
on
oft
hebodyort
heamput
ati
onofanar
m orl
egort
heput
ti
ngofaney
eort
hedest
ruct
ion
ofanyot
heror
ganoft
hebodyt
hroughwhi
cht
hesoulcommuni
cat
edwi
tht
heout
er
wor
ld.Themaj
ori
tyhel
dthatt
heU.P.Pol
i
ceRegul
ati
onsaut
hor
izi
ngdomi
cil
i
aryv
isi
ts
[
atni
ghtbypol
i
ceof
fi
cer
sasaf
orm ofsur
vei
l
lance,const
it
utedadepr
ivat
ionofl
i
ber
ty
andt
hus]unconst
it
uti
onal
.TheCour
tobser
vedt
hatt
her
ightt
oper
sonall
i
ber
tyi
nthe
I
ndi
an Const
it
uti
on i
sthe r
ightofan i
ndi
vi
dualt
o be f
ree f
rom r
est
ri
cti
ons or
encr
oachment
sonhi
sper
son,whet
hert
heyar
edi
rect
lyi
mposedori
ndi
rect
lybr
ought
aboutbycal
cul
atedmeasur
es.

38
TheSupr
emeCour
thashel
dthatev
enl
awf
uli
mpr
isonmentdoesnotspel
lfar
ewel
ltoal
l
f
undament
alr
ight
s.Apr
isonerr
etai
nsal
lther
ight
senj
oyedbyaf
reeci
ti
zenexceptonl
y
t
hose
‗
necessar
il
y‘l
ostasani
nci
dentofi
mpr
isonment
.

Ri
ghtt
oPr
ivacy
:
AsperBl
ack‘
sLawDi
cti
onar
y,pr
ivacymeans―r
ightt
obel
etal
one;
ther
ightofaper
son
t
o be f
ree f
rom unwar
rant
ed publ
i
cit
y;and t
he r
ightt
oli
ve wi
thoutunwar
rant
ed
i
nter
fer
encebyt
hepubl
i
cinmat
ter
swi
thwhi
cht
hepubl
i
cisnotnecessar
il
yconcer
ned‖
Al
thoughnotspeci
fi
cal
l
yref
erencedi
ntheConst
it
uti
on,
ther
ightt
opr
ivacyi
sconsi
der
eda
‗
penumbr
alr
ight
‘undert
heConst
it
uti
on,
i.
e.ar
ightt
hathasbeendecl
aredbyt
he
Supr
emeCour
tasi
ntegr
alt
othef
undament
alr
ightt
oli
feandl
i
ber
ty.Ri
ghtt
opr
ivacy
hasbeencul
l
edbySupr
emeCour
tfr
om Ar
t.21andsev
eral
otherpr
ovi
sionsoft
he
const
it
uti
onr
eadwi
tht
heDi
rect
ivePr
inci
plesofSt
atePol
i
cy.Al
thoughnosi
ngl
est
atut
e
conf
ersacr
osscut
ti
ng‗
hor
izont
al‘
rightt
opr
ivacy
;var
iousst
atut
escont
ainpr
ovi
sions
t
hatei
theri
mpl
i
cit
lyorexpl
i
cit
lypr
eser
vet
hisr
ight
.Fort
hef
ir
stt
imei
nKhar
akSi
nghv
.
St
ateofU.
P.quest
ionwhet
hert
her
ightt
opr
ivacycoul
dbei
mpl
i
edf
rom t
heexi
sti
ng
f
undament
alr
ight
ssuchasAr
t.19(
1)(
d),
19(
1)(
e)and21,
camebef
oret
hecour
t.
―Sur
vei
l
lance‖underChapt
erXXoft
heU.
P.Pol
i
ceRegul
ati
onsconst
it
utedan
i
nfr
ingementofanyoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sguar
ant
eedbyPar
tII
Ioft
heConst
it
uti
on.
Regul
ati
on236(
b),
whi
chper
mit
tedsur
vei
l
lanceby―domi
cil
i
aryv
isi
tsatni
ght
‖,was
hel
dtobei
nvi
olat
ionofAr
ti
cle21.Asev
en-
judgebenchhel
dthat
:
―t
hemeani
ngsoft
heexpr
essi
ons―l
i
fe‖and―per
sonall
i
ber
ty‖i
nAr
ti
cle21wer
e
consi
der
edbyt
hiscour
tinKhar
akSi
ngh‘
scase.Al
thought
hemaj
ori
tyf
oundt
hatt
he
Const
it
uti
oncont
ainednoex
pli
ci
tguar
ant
eeofa―r
ightt
opr
ivacy
‖,i
treadt
her
ightt
o
per
sonall
i
ber
tyex
pansi
vel
ytoi
ncl
udear
ightt
odi
gni
ty.I
thel
dthat―anunaut
hor
ized
i
ntr
usi
oni
ntoaper
son‘
shomeandt
hedi
stur
bancecausedt
ohi
mther
eby
,isasi
twer
e
t
hev
iol
ati
onofacommonl
awr
ightofaman-
anul
ti
mat
eessent
ialofor
der
edl
i
ber
ty,
if
notoft
hev
eryconceptofci
vi
li
zat
ion‖
I
nami
nor
it
yjudgmenti
nthi
scase,
Just
iceSubbaRaohel
dthat
:
―t
her
ightt
oper
sonall
i
ber
tyt
akesi
nnotonl
yar
ightt
obef
reef
rom r
est
ri
cti
onspl
aced
onhi
smov
ement
s,butal
sof
reef
rom encr
oachment
sonhi
spr
ivat
eli
fe.I
tist
rueour
Const
it
uti
ondoes

39
notexpr
essl
ydecl
arear
ightt
opr
ivacyasaf
undament
alr
ightbutt
hesai
dri
ghti
san
essent
iali
ngr
edi
entofper
sonall
i
ber
ty.Ev
erydemocr
ati
ccount
rysanct
if
iesdomest
ic
l
i
fe;i
tisexpect
edt
ogi
vehi
mrest
,phy
sicalhappi
ness,peaceofmi
ndandsecur
it
y.I
n
t
hel
astr
esor
t,aper
son‘
shouse,wher
ehel
i
veswi
thhi
sfami
l
y,i
shi
s‗cast
le‘
;i
tishi
s
r
ampar
tagai
nstencr
oachmentonhi
sper
sonal
li
ber
ty‖
.
Just
iceK.
S.Put
taswamy
(Ret
d.)
…v.Uni
onOfI
ndi
aS.
C.2017(
Const
it
uti
onalBench)The
Ri
ghtt
oPr
ivacyi
spr
otect
edaspar
tofRi
ghtt
oli
feandper
sonall
i
ber
tyunderAr
ti
cle21
andaspar
tpar
toff
reedomsguar
ant
eedbyPar
tII
Ioft
heConst
it
uti
on

Di
scl
osur
eofDr
eadf
ulDi
seases:

I
n Mr
.X v
.Hospi
talZ t
he quest
ion bef
oret
he Supr
eme Cour
twas whet
hert
he
di
scl
osur
ebyt
hedoct
ort
hathi
spat
ient
,whowast
ogetmar
ri
edhadt
est
edHI
Vposi
ti
ve,
woul
dbev
iol
ati
veoft
hepat
ient
‘sr
ightt
opr
ivacy
.TheSupr
emeCour
trul
edt
hatt
he
r
ightt
opr
ivacywasnotabsol
uteandmi
ghtbel
awf
ull
yrest
ri
ctedf
ort
hepr
event
ionof
cr
ime,di
sor
derorpr
otect
ionofheal
thormor
alsorpr
otect
ionofr
ight
sandf
reedom of
ot
her
s.Thecour
texpl
ainedt
hatt
her
ightt
oli
feofal
adywi
thwhom t
hepat
ientwast
o
mar
rywoul
dposi
ti
vel
yincl
udet
her
ightt
obet
oldt
hataper
son,wi
thwhom shewas
pr
oposed t
o bemar
ri
ed,wast
hev
ict
im ofa deadl
ydi
sease,whi
ch wassexual
l
y
communi
cabl
e.Si
ncet
her
ightt
oli
fei
ncl
udedr
ightt
oheal
thyl
i
fesoast
oenj
oyal
lthe
f
aci
l
iti
esoft
hehumanbodyi
nthepr
imecondi
ti
oni
twashel
dthatt
hedoct
orshadnot
v
iol
atedt
her
ightt
opr
ivacy
.

Ri
ghtt
ogoabr
oad:

I
nSat
wantSi
nghSawhneyv
.Assi
stantPasspor
tOf
fi
cer
,NewDel
hi,t
heSupr
emeCour
t
hasi
ncl
udedRi
ghtt
otr
avelabr
oadcont
ainedi
nbyt
heexpr
essi
on―per
sonall
i
ber
ty‖
wi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
ti
cle21.

40
I
nManekaGandhiv
.Uni
onofI
ndi
aval
i
dit
yofSec.10(
3)(
c)oft
hepasspor
tAct1967,
whi
chempower
edgov
ernmentt
oimpoundt
hepasspor
tofaper
son,i
nthei
nter
estof
gener
alpubl
i
cwaschal
l
engedbef
oret
hesev
en-
judgeBenchoft
heSupr
emeCour
t.
I
twascont
endedt
hat
,ri
ghtt
otr
avel
abr
oadbei
ngapar
tofr
ightt
o―per
sonal
li
ber
ty‖t
he
i
mpugnedsect
iondi
dn‘
tpr
escr
ibeanypr
ocedur
etodepr
iveherofherl
i
ber
tyandhence
i
twasv
iol
ati
veofAr
t.21.
Thecour
thel
dthatt
hepr
ocedur
econt
empl
atedmustst
andt
het
estofr
easonabl
eness
i
nor
dert
oconf
ormt
oAr
t.
21ot
herf
undament
alr
ight
s.I
twasf
urt
herhel
dthatast
he
r
ightt
otr
avelabr
oadf
all
sunderAr
t.21,
nat
uralj
ust
icemustbeappl
i
edwhi
l
eexer
cisi
ng
t
hepowerofi
mpoundi
ngpasspor
tundert
hePasspor
tAct
.BHAGWATI
,J.
,obser
ved:
Thepr
inci
pleofr
easonabl
eness,
whi
chl
egal
l
yaswel
lasphi
l
osophi
cal
l
y,i
sanessent
ial
el
ement of equal
i
ty or non-
arbi
tr
ari
ness per
vades Ar
ti
cle 14 l
i
ke a br
oodi
ng
omni
presenceandt
hatI
tmustbe―‗
rightandj
ustandf
air
‖andnotar
bit
rar
y,f
anci
fulor
oppr
essi
ve;ot
her
wise,
itwoul
dbenopr
ocedur
eatal
landt
her
equi
rementofAr
ti
cle21
woul
dnotbesat
isf
ied.
Ri
ghtagai
nstI
ll
egal
Det
ent
ion:
I
nJogi
nderKumarv
.St
ateofUt
tarPr
adesh,t
hepet
it
ionerwasdet
ainedbyt
hepol
i
ce
of
fi
cer
sandhi
swher
eabout
swer
enott
oldt
ohi
sfami
l
ymember
sforaper
iodoff
ive
day
s.Taki
ngt
heser
ousnot
eoft
hepol
i
cehi
ghheadednessandi
l
legaldet
ent
ionofa
f
reeci
ti
zen,t
heSupr
emeCour
tlai
ddownt
hegui
del
i
nesgov
erni
ngar
restofaper
son
dur
ingi
nvest
igat
ion:
Anar
rest
edper
sonbei
nghel
dincust
odyi
sent
it
led,i
fhesor
equest
stohav
eaf
ri
end,
r
elat
iveorot
herper
sont
oldasf
arasi
spr
act
icabl
ethathehasbeenar
rest
edandwher
e
hei
sbei
ngdet
ained.Thepol
i
ceof
fi
cershal
linf
ormt
hear
rest
edper
sonwhenhei
s
br
oughtt
othepol
i
cest
ati
onoft
hisr
ight
.Anent
ryshal
lber
equi
redt
obemadei
nthe
di
aryast
owhowasi
nfor
medoft
hear
rest
.
I
nthecaseofD.
K.Basuv
.St
ateofWestBengal,
theSupr
emeCour
tlai
ddowndet
ail
ed
gui
del
i
nest
obef
oll
owedbyt
hecent
ralandst
atei
nvest
igat
ingagenci
esi
nal
lcasesof
ar
restanddet
ent
iont
il
ll
egalpr
ovi
sionsar
emadei
nthatbehal
faspr
event
ivemeasur
es
andhel
dthatanyf
orm oft
ort
ureorcr
ueli
nhumanordegr
adi
ngt
reat
ment
,whet
heri
t
occur
sdur
ingi
nter
rogat
ion,i
nvest
igat
ionorot
her
wise,f
all
swi
thi
ntheambi
tofAr
ti
cle
21.
Ar
ti
cle21&Pr
isoner
‘sRi
ght
s:
41
Thepr
otect
ionofAr
ti
cle21i
sav
ail
abl
eev
ent
oconv
ict
sinj
ail
.Theconv
ict
sar
enotby
mer
ereason oft
hei
rconv
ict
ion depr
ived ofal
lthei
rfundament
alr
ight
sthatt
hey
ot
her
wisepossess.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heconv
ict
ionofaconv
icti
sputi
ntoaj
ailhemaybe
depr
ivedoff
undament
alf
reedomsl
i
ket
her
ightt
omov
efr
eel
ythr
oughoutt
het
err
it
ory
ofI
ndi
a.Butaconv
icti
sent
it
ledt
othepr
eci
ousr
ightguar
ant
eedunderAr
ti
cle21andhe
shal
lnotbedepr
ivedofhi
sli
feandper
sonall
i
ber
tyexceptbyapr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shed
byl
aw.
I
nManekaGandhiv
.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,t
heSupr
emeCour
tgav
eanewdi
mensi
ont
oAr
ti
cle
21.TheCour
thasi
nter
pret
edAr
ti
cle21soast
ohav
ewi
destpossi
bleampl
i
tude.On
bei
ngconv
ict
edofcr
imeanddepr
ivedoft
hei
rli
ber
tyi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ocedur
e
est
abl
i
shed by l
aw.Ar
ti
cle 21,has l
aid down a new const
it
uti
onaland pr
ison
j
uri
spr
udence.Ther
ight
sandpr
otect
ionsr
ecogni
zedt
obegi
veni
nthet
opi
cst
ofol
l
ow:
Ri
ghtt
oFr
eeLegal
Aid&Ri
ghtt
oAppeal
:
I
nM.
H.Hoskotv
.St
ateofMahar
asht
ra,
theSupr
emeCour
tsai
dwhi
l
ehol
dingf
reel
egal
ai
dasani
ntegr
alpar
toff
airpr
ocedur
etheCour
texpl
ainedt
hat― t
het
woi
mpor
tant
i
ngr
edi
ent
soft
her
ightofappealar
e;f
ir
stl
y,ser
viceofacopyofaj
udgementt
othe
pr
isoneri
nti
met
oenabl
ehi
mtof
il
eanappealandsecondl
y,pr
ovi
sionoff
reel
egal
ser
vicet
othepr
isonerwho i
sindi
gentorot
her
wisedi
sabl
ed f
rom secur
ing l
egal
assi
stance.Thi
sri
ghtt
ofr
eel
egalai
dist
hedut
yoft
hegov
ernmentandi
sani
mpl
i
cit
aspectofAr
ti
cl
e21i
nensur
ingf
air
nessandr
easonabl
eness;t
hiscannotbet
ermedas
gov
ernmentchar
it
y.
I
n ot
herwor
ds,an accused per
son atl
ease wher
ethe char
ge i
s ofan of
fence
puni
shabl
ewi
thi
mpr
isonmenti
sent
it
ledt
obeof
fer
edl
egalai
d,i
fhei
stoopoort
o
af
for
dcounsel
.Counself
ort
heaccusedmustbegi
vensuf
fi
cientt
imeandf
aci
l
ityf
or
pr
epar
inghi
sdef
ence.Br
eachoft
hesesaf
eguar
dsoff
airt
ri
alwoul
dinv
ali
dat
ethet
ri
al
andconv
ict
ion.
Ri
ghtt
oSpeedyTr
ial
:
I
nHussai
nar
aKhat
oonv
.HomeSecr
etar
y,St
ateofBi
hari
twasbr
oughtt
othenot
iceof
t
heSupr
emeCour
tthatanal
armi
ngnumberofmen,womenandchi
l
drenwer
ekepti
n
pr
isonsf
ory
ear
sawai
ti
ngt
ri
ali
ncour
tsofl
aw.TheCour
ttookaser
iousnot
eoft
he
si
tuat
ion and obser
ved t
hati
twascar
ryi
ng a shame on t
he j
udi
cialsy
stem t
hat
per
mit
tedi
ncar
cer
ati
onofmenandwomenf
orsuchl
ongper
iodsoft
imewi
thoutt
ri
als.

42
TheCour
thel
dthatdet
ent
ionofunder
-t
ri
alpr
isoner
s,i
njai
lforper
iodl
ongert
hanwhat
t
heywoul
dhav
ebeensent
encedi
fconv
ict
ed,wasi
l
legalasbei
ngi
nvi
olat
ionofAr
ti
cle
of21.TheCour
t,t
hus,or
der
edt
her
eleasef
rom j
ailofal
lthoseunder
-t
ri
alpr
isoner
s,
whohadbeeni
njai
lforl
ongerper
iodt
hanwhatt
heycoul
dhav
ebeensent
encedhad
t
heybeenconv
ict
ed
I
nA.
R.Ant
ulayv
.R.
S.Nay
a,aConst
it
uti
onBenchoff
ivej
udgesoft
heSupr
emeCour
t
deal
twi
tht
hequest
ionandl
aiddowncer
tai
ngui
del
i
nesf
orensur
ingspeedyt
ri
alof
of
fencessomeoft
hem hav
ebeenl
i
stedbel
ow:
Fai
r,j
ustandr
easonabl
epr
ocedur
eimpl
i
citi
nAr
ti
cle21cr
eat
esar
ighti
ntheaccused
t
obet
ri
edspeedi
l
y.
Ri
ghtt
ospeedyt
ri
alf
lowi
ngf
rom Ar
ti
cle21encompassesal
lthest
ages,namel
ythe
st
ageofi
nvest
igat
ion,
inqui
ry,
appeal
,rev
isi
onandr
etr
ial
.
Theconcer
nsunder
lyi
ngt
her
ightofspeedyt
ri
alf
rom t
hepoi
ntofv
iewoft
he
accusedar
e:Theper
iodofr
emandandpr
e-conv
ict
iondet
ent
ionshoul
dbeas
shor
taspossi
ble.
Thewor
ry,
anxi
ety
,expenseanddi
stur
bancet
ohi
svocat
ionandpeace,
resul
ti
ngf
rom
anundul
ypr
olongedi
nvest
igat
ion,
enqui
ryort
ri
alshoul
dbemi
nimal
;and
Unduedel
aymaywel
lresul
tini
mpai
rmentoft
heabi
l
ityoft
heaccusedt
odef
endhi
m.
Whi
l
edet
ermi
ningwhet
herunduedel
ayhasoccur
red,onemusthav
eregar
dtoal
lthe
at
tendantci
rcumst
ances,i
ncl
udi
ng nat
ure of of
fence,number of accused and
wi
tnesses,t
he wor
kload oft
he cour
tconcer
ned.Each and ev
erydel
aydoes not
necessar
il
ypr
ejudi
cet
heaccused.Anaccuser
‘spl
eaofdeni
alofspeedyt
ri
alcannotbe
def
eat
edbysay
ingt
hatt
heaccuseddi
datnot
imedemandaspeedyt
ri
al
I
nthecaseofAni
lRaiv
.St
ateofBi
har
,theSupr
emeCour
tdi
rect
edt
heJudgesoft
he
Hi
ghCour
tst
ogi
vequi
ckj
udgement
sandi
ncer
tai
nci
rcumst
ancest
hepar
ti
esar
eto
submi
tappl
i
cat
iont
otheChi
efJust
icet
omov
ecaset
oot
herbenchort
odot
heneedf
ul
athi
sdi
scr
eti
on.

Ri
ghtt
oFai
rTr
ial
:
Fr
eeandf
airt
ri
alhasbeensai
dtobet
hesi
nequanonofAr
ti
cle21.TheSupr
emeCour
t
i
nZahi
raHabi
bul
l
ahShei
khv
.St
ateofGuj
aratsai
dthatr
ightt
ofr
eeandf
airt
ri
alnot
onl
ytot
heaccusedbutal
sot
othev
ict
ims,t
hei
rfami
l
ymember
sandr
elat
ives,and
soci
etyatl
arge.
43
Ri
ghtt
oBai
l
:
TheSupr
emeCour
thasdi
agnosedt
her
ootcausef
orl
ongpr
e-t
ri
ali
ncar
cer
ati
ont
o
bat
hepr
esent
-dayunsat
isf
act
oryandi
rr
ati
onalr
ulesf
orbai
l
,whi
chi
nsi
stsmer
elyon
f
inanci
alsecur
it
yfr
om t
heaccusedandt
hei
rsur
eti
es.Manyoft
heundert
ri
alsbei
ng
poorandi
ndi
gentar
eunabl
etopr
ovi
deanyf
inanci
alsecur
it
y.Consequent
lyt
heyhav
e
t
olangui
shi
npr
isonsawai
ti
ngt
hei
rtr
ial
s.Buti
ncar
cer
ati
onofper
sonschar
gedwi
th
non-
bai
l
abl
eof
fencesdur
ingpendencyoft
ri
alcannotbequest
ionedasv
iol
ati
veof
Ar
ti
cle21si
ncet
hesamei
saut
hor
isedbyl
aw.I
nthecaseofBabuSi
ngh
v
.St
ateofUt
tarPr
adesh,t
heCour
thel
dthatr
ightt
obai
lwasi
ncl
udedi
ntheper
sonal
l
i
ber
tyunderAr
ti
cle21andi
tsr
efusal
woul
dbedepr
ivat
ionoft
hatl
i
ber
tywhi
chcoul
dbe
aut
hor
isedi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw.

Nor
ightt
oAnt
ici
pat
oryBai
l
:
Ant
ici
pat
orybai
lisast
atut
oryr
ightandi
tdoesnotar
iseoutofAr
ti
cle21.Ant
ici
pat
ory
bai
lcannotbegr
ant
edasamat
terofr
ightasi
tcannotbegr
ant
edasamat
terofr
ight
asi
tcannotbeconsi
der
edasanessent
ial
ingr
edi
entofAr
ti
cle21.

Ri
ghtagai
nstHandcuf
fi
ng:
Handcuf
fi
nghasbeenhel
dtobepr
imaf
aci
einhumanandt
her
efor
eunr
easonabl
e,ov
er-
har
shandatf
ir
stf
lush,ar
bit
rar
y.I
thasbeenhel
dtobeunwar
rant
edandv
iol
ati
veof
Ar
ti
cle21.
I
nPr
em Shankarv
.Del
hiAdmi
nist
rat
ion,
theSupr
emeCour
tst
ruckdownt
heRul
est
hat
pr
ovi
dedt
hatev
eryunder
-t
ri
alwhowasaccusedofanon-
bai
l
abl
eof
fencepuni
shabl
e
wi
thmor
ethant
hreey
ear
spr
isont
erm woul
dber
out
inel
yhandcuf
fed.TheCour
trul
ed
t
hathandcuf
fi
ngshoul
dber
esor
tedt
oonl
ywhent
her
ewas―cl
earandpr
esentdanger
ofescape‖oft
heaccusedunder-
tr
ial
,br
eaki
ngoutofpol
i
cecont
rol
.

Ri
ghtagai
nstSol
i
tar
yConf
inement
:
I
thasbeenhel
dthataconv
icti
snotwhol
l
ydenudedofhi
sfundament
alr
ight
sandhi
s
conv
ict
iondoesnotr
educet
ohi
mint
oanon–per
sonwhoser
ight
sar
esubj
ect
edt
othe
whi
msoft
hepr
ison

44
admi
nist
rat
ion.Ther
efor
e,t
hei
mposi
ti
onofanymaj
orpuni
shmentwi
thi
nthepr
ison
sy
stem i
scondi
ti
onal
upont
heobser
vanceofpr
ocedur
alsaf
eguar
d.

InSunilBatrav.DelhiAdmi nistrati
on, t
hepet i
ti
onerwassent encedt odeat hbyt heDelhisession
courtandhi sappealagainstt hedeci si
onwaspendi ngbef orethehi ghcour t
.Hewasdet ainedin
TiharJailduri
ngthependencyoft heappeal .Hecompl ainedt hatsincet hedat eofconv i
cti
onbyt he
sessioncour t
,hewaskepti nsol i
taryconfinement.Itwascont endedt hatSect i
on30ofPr i
soners
Actdoesnotaut horizejai
laut hor i
ti
est osendhimt osol i
taryconfinement ,whi chbyitsel
fwasa
substanti
vepunishmentunderSect ions73and74oft heI ndianPenal Code, 1860andcoul dbe
i
mposedbyacour toflawandi tcouldnotbel eftt
ot hewhi m andcapr i
ceoft heprisonauthorit
ies.
TheSupr emeCour tacceptedt hear gumentoft hepet i
tionerandhel dthatimposi t
ionofsol i
tary
confinementont hepetiti
onerwasv iol
ati
veofAr ti
cle21.

Ri
ghtagai
nstCust
odi
alVi
olence:
Thei
nci
dent
sofbr
utalpol
i
cebehav
iourt
owar
dsper
sonsdet
ainedonsuspi
cionof
hav
ingcommi
tt
edcr
imesar
ear
out
inemat
ter
.Ther
ehasbeenal
otofpubl
i
cout
cry
f
rom t
imet
oti
meagai
nstcust
odi
aldeat
hs.
TheSupr
emeCour
thast
akenav
eryposi
ti
vest
andagai
nstt
heat
roci
ti
es,i
nti
midat
ion,
har
assmentanduseoft
hir
d-degr
eemet
hodst
oext
ortconf
essi
ons.TheCour
thas
cl
assi
fi
edt
heseasbei
ngagai
nsthumandi
gni
ty.Ther
ight
sunderAr
ti
cle21secur
eli
fe
wi
thhumandi
gni
tyandt
hesamear
eav
ail
abl
eagai
nstt
ort
ure.

Deat
hbyHangi
ngnotVi
olat
iveofAr
ti
cle21:
I
nDeenav
.Uni
onofI
ndi
a,t
heconst
it
uti
onalv
ali
dit
yoft
hedeat
hsent
encebyhangi
ng
waschal
l
engedasbei
ng―bar
bar
ous,i
nhuman,anddegr
adi
ng‖andt
her
efor
evi
olat
ive
ofAr
ti
cle21.Ref
err
ingt
otheRepor
toft
heUKRoy
alCommi
ssi
on,1949;t
heopi
nionof
t
heDi
rect
orGener
alofHeal
thSer
vicesofI
ndi
a,t
he35t
hRepor
toft
heLawCommi
ssi
on;
andt
heopi
nionoft
hePr
isonAdv
iser
sandFor
ensi
cMedi
cineExper
ts,t
heCour
thel
d
t
hatdeat
hbyhangi
ngwast
hebestandl
eastpai
nfulmet
hodofcar
ryi
ngoutt
hedeat
h
penal
ty,
andt
husnotv
iol
ati
veofAr
ti
cle21.

45
.
Ri
ghtagai
nstDel
ayedExecut
ion:
I
nT.
V.Vat
heeswar
am v
.St
ateofTami
lNai
dut
heSupr
emeCour
thel
dthatdel
ayi
n
execut
ionofdeat
hsent
enceexceedi
ng2y
ear
swoul
dbesuf
fi
cientgr
oundt
oinv
oke
pr
otect
ion underAr
ti
cle 21 and t
he deat
h sent
ence woul
d be commut
ed t
oli
fe
i
mpr
isonment
.Thecauseoft
hedel
ayi
simmat
eri
al,t
heaccusedhi
msel
fmaybet
he
causeoft
hedel
ay.
I
nSherSi
nghv
.St
ateofPunj
ab,t
heSupr
emeCour
tsai
dthatpr
olongedwai
tfor
execut
ionofasent
enceofdeat
hisanunj
ust
,unf
airandunr
easonabl
epr
ocedur
eand
t
heonl
ywayt
oundot
hati
sthr
oughAr
ti
cle21.Butt
heCour
thel
dthatt
hiscannotbe
t
akenast
her
uleofl
aw andappl
i
edt
oeachcaseandeachcaseshoul
dbedeci
ded
uponi
tsownf
aces.

Ri
ghtagai
nstBarFet
ter
s:
I
nSuni
lBat
rav
.Del
hiAdmi
nist
rat
ion,
theSupr
emeCour
tgav
eRi
ghtagai
nstBarFet
ter
s
andhel
dthatt
reat
mentt
hatof
fendedhumandi
gni
tyandr
educedmant
oal
evelof
beastwoul
dcer
tai
nlybear
bit
rar
yandcoul
dbequest
ionedunderAr
ti
cle21,
butt
her
ight
i
snotabsol
ute.

PROCEDUREESTABLI
SHEDBYLAW:
The expr
essi
on ―pr
ocedur
e est
abl
i
shed by l
aw‖ has been subj
ect mat
ter of
i
nter
pret
ati
oni
nacat
enaofcases.Asur
veyoft
hesecasesr
eveal
sthatcour
tsi
nthe
pr
ocessofj
udi
ci
ali
nter
pret
ati
on hav
eenl
arged t
hescopeoft
heexpr
essi
on.The
Supr
emeCour
ttookt
hev
iewt
hat―pr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw‖i
nAr
ti
cle21means
pr
ocedur
epr
escr
ibedbyl
awasenact
edbyt
hest
ateandr
eject
edt
oequat
eitwi
tht
he
Amer
ican―duepr
ocessofl
aw.
‖But
,inManekaGandhivUni
onofI
ndi
atheSupr
eme
Cour
tobser
vedt
hatt
hepr
ocedur
epr
escr
ibedbyl
aw f
ordepr
ivi
ngaper
sonofhi
sli
fe
andper
sonall
i
ber
tymustbe―r
ight
,justandf
air
‖andnot―ar
bit
rar
y,f
anci
fuland
oppr
essi
ve,
‖ot
her
wisei
twoul
dbenopr
ocedur
eatal
landt
her
equi
rementofAr
ti
cle21
woul
dnotbesat
isf
ied.Thus,t
he―pr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw‖hasacqui
redt
he
samesi
gni
fi
cancei
nIndi
aast
he―duepr
ocessofl
aw‖cl
ausei
nAmer
ica.Just
iceV.R.
Kr
ishnaI
yer
,speaki
ngi
nSuni
lBat
ravDel
hiAdmi
nist
rat
ionhassai
dthatt
hough―our
Const
it
uti
onhasnoduepr
ocesscl
ause‖butaf
ter
46
ManekaGandhi
‘
scase―t
heconsequencei
sthesame,
andasmuchassuchAr
ti
cle21
maybet
reat
edascount
erpar
toft
heduepr
ocesscl
ausei
nAmer
icanConst
it
uti
on.
‖
Recent
lyt
heSupr
emeCour
thasdeal
twi
thani
ncr
easi
ngnumberofpeopl
esent
encedt
o
deathf
or
―br
ide-
bur
ning‖
.InDecember1985t
heRaj
ast
hanHi
ghCour
tsent
encedaman,
Jagdi
sh
Kumar
,andawoman,
LichmaDev
i,t
odeat
hfort
wosepar
atecasesofki
l
li
ngt
woy
oung
womanbyset
ti
ngt
hem onf
ir
e.I
nanunpr
ecedent
edmov
ethecour
tor
der
edbot
h
pr
isoner
stobepubl
i
clyexecut
ed.I
nar
esponset
oar
evi
ew pet
it
ionbyt
heAt
tor
ney
Gener
alagai
nstt
hisj
udgmentt
heSupr
emeCour
tinDecember1985st
ayedt
hepubl
i
c
hangi
ngs,obser
vingt
hat―abar
bar
iccr
imedoesnothav
etobemetwi
thabar
bar
ic
penal
ty.
‖TheCour
tobser
vedt
hatt
heexecut
ionofdeat
hsent
encebypubl
i
changi
ngi
s
v
iol
ati
onofar
ti
cl
e21,whi
chmandat
est
heobser
vanceofaj
ust
,fai
randr
easonabl
e
pr
ocedur
e.Thus,
anor
derpassedbyt
heHi
ghCour
tofRaj
ast
hanf
orpubl
i
changi
ngwas
setasi
debyt
heSupr
emeCour
tont
hegr
oundi
nteral
i
a,t
hati
twasv
iol
ati
veofar
ti
cle21.
I
nSherSi
nghvSt
ateofPunj
abt
heSupr
emeCour
thel
dthatunj
ust
if
iabl
edel
ayi
n
execut
ionofdeat
hsent
encev
iol
atesar
t21.
TheSupr
emeCour
thast
akent
hev
iew t
hatt
hisar
ti
cler
eadasawhol
eisconcer
ned
wi
tht
hef
ull
estdev
elopmentofani
ndi
vi
dualandensur
inghi
sdi
gni
tyt
hrought
her
uleof
l
aw.Ev
erypr
ocedur
emustseem t
obe‗
reasonabl
e,f
airandj
ust
.‘Ther
ightt
oli
feand
per
sonall
i
ber
tyhasbeeni
nter
pret
edwi
del
ytoi
ncl
udet
her
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood,heal
th,
educat
ion,env
ironmentandal
lthosemat
ter
sthatcont
ri
but
edt
oli
fewi
thdi
gni
ty.The
t
estofpr
ocedur
alf
air
nesshasbeendeemedt
o beonet
hati
scommensur
atet
o
pr
otect
ingsuchr
ight
s.Thus,wher
ewor
ker
shav
ebeendeemedt
ohav
ether
ightt
o
publ
i
cempl
oymentandi
tsconcomi
tantr
ightt
oli
vel
i
hood,
ahi
re-
fi
recl
ausei
nfav
ourof
t
heSt
atei
snotr
easonabl
e,f
airandj
ustev
ent
hought
heSt
atecannotaf
fi
rmat
ivel
y
pr
ovi
del
i
vel
i
hoodf
oral
l
.Undert
hisdoct
ri
net
heCour
twi
l
lnotj
ustexami
newhet
hert
he
pr
ocedur
eit
sel
fisr
easonabl
e,f
airandj
ust
,butal
sowhet
heri
thasbeenoper
atedi
na
f
air
,justandr
easonabl
emanner
.Thi
shasmeant
,forexampl
ether
ightt
ospeedyt
ri
al
andl
egalai
dispar
tofanyr
easonabl
e,f
airandj
ustpr
ocedur
e.Thepr
ocesscl
ausei
s
compr
ehensi
veandappl
i
cabl
einal
lar
easofSt
ateact
ioncov
eri
ngci
vi
l,cr
imi
naland
admi
nist
rat
iveact
ion.
TheSupr
emeCour
tofI
ndi
ainoneoft
hel
andmar
kdeci
sioni
nthecaseofMur
liS.
Deor
av.Uni
onofI
ndi
aobser
vedt
hat
,thef
undament
alr
ightguar
ant
eedunderAr
ti
cle21

47
oft
heConst
it
uti
onof

48
I
ndi
apr
ovi
dest
hatnoneshal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
sli
fewi
thoutduepr
ocessofl
aw.The
Cour
tobser
vedt
hatsmoki
ngi
npubl
i
cpl
acesi
sani
ndi
rectdepr
ivat
ionofl
i
feofnon-
smoker
swi
thoutanypr
ocessofl
aw.Taki
ngi
ntoconsi
der
ati
ont
headv
erseef
fectof
smoki
ngonsmoker
sandpassi
vesmoker
s,t
heSupr
emeCour
tdi
rect
edpr
ohi
bit
ionof
smoki
ngi
npubl
i
cpl
aces.I
tissueddi
rect
ionst
otheUni
onofI
ndi
a,St
ateGov
ernment
s
andt
heUni
onTer
ri
tor
iest
otakeef
fect
ivest
epst
oensur
epr
ohi
bit
ionofsmoki
ngi
n
publ
i
cpl
acessuchasaudi
tor
iums,hospi
talbui
l
dings,heal
thi
nst
it
uti
onset
c.I
nthi
s
mannert
heSupr
emeCour
tgav
eal
i
ber
ali
nter
pret
ati
ont
oAr
ti
cle21oft
heConst
it
uti
on
andexpandedi
tshor
izont
oincl
udet
her
ight
sofnon-
smoker
s.
Fur
ther
,whent
her
eisi
nor
dinat
edel
ayi
nthei
nvest
igat
ion–i
taf
fect
sther
ightoft
he
accused,ashei
skepti
ntent
erhooksandsuspenseaboutt
heout
comeoft
hecase.I
f
t
hei
nvest
igat
ingaut
hor
it
ypur
suest
hei
nvest
igat
ionaspert
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heCode,
t
her
ecanbenocauseofact
ion.But
,ift
hecasei
skeptal
i
vewi
thoutanypr
ogr
essi
nany
i
nvest
igat
ion,t
hent
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
ti
cle21ar
eat
tr
act
edandt
her
ighti
snotonl
y
agai
nstact
ualpr
oceedi
ngsi
ncour
tbutal
soagai
nstpol
i
cei
nvest
igat
ion.TheSupr
eme
Cour
thaswi
dent
hescopeof‗
procedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw‘andhel
dthatmer
elya
pr
ocedur
ehasbeenest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw aper
soncannotbedepr
ivedofhi
sli
feand
l
i
ber
tyunl
esst
hepr
ocedur
eisj
ust
,fai
randr
easonabl
e.I
tist
husnowwel
lest
abl
i
shed
t
hatt
he
―pr
ocedur
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw‖t
odepr
iveaper
sonofhi
sli
feandper
sonall
i
ber
ty,
must
bej
ust
,fai
randr
easonabl
eandt
hati
tmustnotbear
bit
rar
y,f
anci
fuloroppr
essi
ve,
that
t
hepr
ocedur
etobev
ali
dmustcompl
ywi
tht
hepr
inci
plesofnat
ural
just
ice.

ARTI
CLE21ANDTHEEMERGENCY:

A.
D.M.Jabal
purv
.S.Shukl
aPopul
arl
yknownashabeascor
puscase,t
hesupr
eme
cour
thel
dthatar
ti
cl
e21wast
hesol
ereposi
tor
yoft
her
ightt
oli
feandper
sonall
i
ber
ty
andt
her
efor
e,i
fther
ightt
omov
eanycour
tfort
heenf
orcementoft
hatr
ightwas
suspendedbyt
hepr
esi
dent
ialor
derunderar
ti
cle359,t
hedet
unewoul
dhav
enol
ocus
st
andi
toawr
itpet
it
ionf
orchal
l
engi
ngt
hel
egal
i
tyofhi
sdet
ent
ion.
Suchawi
derconnot
ati
ongi
vent
oar
ti
cle359,r
esul
tedi
nthedeni
aloft
hecher
ished
r
ightt
oper
sonall
i
ber
tyguar
ant
eedt
otheci
ti
zens.Exper
ienceest
abl
i
shedt
hatdur
ing
emer
genceof1975,
49
t
hef
undament
alf
reedom oft
hepeopl
ehadl
ostal
lmeani
ngs.

I
nor
dert
hati
tmustnotoccuragai
n,t
heconst
it
uti
onact
,1978,
amendedar
ti
cle359t
o
t
heef
fectt
hatdur
ingt
heoper
ati
onofpr
ocl
amat
ionofemer
gency
,ther
emedyf
ort
he
enf
orcementoft
hef
undament
alr
ightguar
ant
eedbyar
ti
cle21woul
dnotbesuspended
underapr
esi
dent
ial
order
.
I
nvi
ew oft
he 44t
h amendment
,1978,t
he obser
vat
ion made i
nthe abov
e ci
ted
j
udgment
sar
elef
tmer
elyofacademi
cimpor
tance.

FUNDAMENTALDUTI
ES
NeedofFundament
alDut
ies:
The Fundament
alDut
ies ofci
ti
zens wer
e added t
othe Const
it
uti
on byt
he 42nd
Amendmenti
n1976,upont
her
ecommendat
ionsoft
heSwar
anSi
nghy
ear
.Or
igi
nal
l
y
t
eni
nnumber
,theFundament
alDut
ieswer
eincr
easedt
oel
evenbyt
he86t
hin2002,
whi
chaddedadut
yonev
erypar
entorguar
diant
oensur
ethatt
hei
rchi
l
dorwar
dwas
pr
ovi
ded oppor
tuni
ti
esf
oreducat
ion bet
ween t
heagesofsi
xand f
our
teen y
ear
s.
Obl
i
gat
eal
lci
ti
zenst
orespectt
henat
ionalsy
mbol
sofI
ndi
a,i
ncl
udi
ngt
heConst
it
uti
on,
t
ocher
ishi
tspr
eser
vei
tscomposi
tecul
tur
eandassi
sti
nit
scommonbr
other
hood,
pr
otectt
heenv
ironmentandpubl
i
cpr
oper
ty,
dev
elopandst
ri
vet
owar
dsexcel
l
encei
nal
l
spher
esofl
i
feper
for
mthesedut
ies.Howev
er,l
i
ket
heDi
rect
ivePr
inci
ples,t
hesear
e
non sanct
ion i
n caseoft
hei
rvi
olat
ion ornon i
nst
rument
ssuch ast
heUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanPol
i
tical
Right
s,andAr
ti
cle51Abr
ingsi
ntheI
ndi
a.

Fundament
alRi
ght
sAndHumanRi
ght
s:

Fundament
alDut
iesandHumanRi
ght
sPar
tIV(
A)oft
heConst
it
uti
onembodi
est
he
El
evenFundament
alDut
iesofev
eryI
ndi
anci
ti
zen(
Art
icl
e51-
A).Thesear
ethedut
iest
o
r
espectt
heConst
it
uti
onandi
tinst
it
uti
ons,t
oli
vebyt
henobl
eideal
soft
hef
reedom
st
ruggl
e,t
opr
otectt
hesov
erei
gnt
yandi
ntegr
it
yofI
ndi
a,t
odef
endt
hecount
ry,t
opr
o
mot
ecommunalhar
mony
,tor
enouncepr
act
icesder
ogat
oryt
othedi
gni
tyofwomen,
to
pr
eser
vet
hecul
tur
alher
it
age,t
opr
otectandi
mpr
ovet
henat
uralenv
ironment
,tohav
e
compassi
onf
orl
i
vingcr
eat
ures,
todev
elopt
he

50
sci
ent
ict
emper
,tosaf
eguar
dpubl
i
cpr
oper
tyandabj
urev
iol
enceandt
ost
ri
vet
owar
ds
excel
l
ence i
n al
lspher
es ofi
ndi
vi
dualand col
l
ect
ive act
ivi
ty.The Ei
ght
y si
xth
Const
it
uti
onalAmendment2002i
nser
tedanewcl
ause(
k)i
nAr
ti
cle51(
A)i
nst
ruct
ing"
a
par
entorguar
diant
opr
ovi
deoppor
tuni
ti
esf
oreducat
iont
ohi
schi
l
dorast
hecasemay
be,
war
dbet
weent
heagesof6and14y
ear
s."I
twoul
dappeart
hatpar
tsI
II
,IVandI
V(a)
oft
he Const
it
uti
on heav
il
ydepend upon t
he j
udi
ciar
yfort
hei
rint
erpr
etat
ion and
appl
i
cat
ion.Thev
ari
ous'
reasonabl
erest
ri
cti
ons'cl
ausesi
nPar
tIl
l
,Ar
ti
cle21,andt
he
sel
dom-
usedPar
tIV-
Ahav
egi
vent
hej
udi
ciar
yampl
escopef
ort
heJudi
cialRev
iewof
admi
nist
rat
iveandl
egi
slat
iveact
ion.I
ndeed,Ar
ti
cle21hasal
l
owedi
tto actasa
cat
aly
sti
npr
oddi
ngt
heSt
atet
oimpl
ementt
hedi
rect
ivepr
inci
plesi
nsof
arast
hey
di
rect
lybearupon"
li
feandper
sonal
li
ber
ty.
"

ENFORCEABI
LITYOFFUNDAMENTALDUTI
ES:
I
tist
ruet
hatt
her
eisnol
egalsanct
ionpr
ovi
dedf
orv
iol
ati
onornon-
per
for
manceof
Fundament
alDut
ies.Ther
eis nei
therspeci
fi
c pr
ovi
sion f
orenf
orceabi
l
itynorany
speci
fi
c pr
ohi
bit
ion.Howev
er,Fundament
alDut
ies hav
e an i
nher
entel
ementof
compul
sionr
egar
dingcompl
i
ance.I
tissai
dthatbyt
hei
rnat
ure,i
tisnotpr
act
icabl
eto
enf
orce t
he Fundament
alDut
ies butcan be enf
orced bysui
tabl
elegi
slat
ion and
depar
tment
alr
ulesofconduct
.Appr
opr
iat
esanct
ionscanbepr
ovi
dedf
orl
apsei
n
r
espectofeachFundament
alDut
iesandi
tisqui
tepr
act
icabl
etoenf
orcet
hesanct
ion
agai
nstev
eryci
ti
zenhol
dingapubl
i
cof
fi
ce;f
ori
nst
ance,depar
tment
alpr
omot
ionscan
bedef
err
ed,i
ncr
ement
scanbewi
thhel
det
c.,I
fanof
fi
cert
akespar
tinast
ri
keorst
all
s
t
hepr
oceedi
ngsoft
hei
nst
it
uti
onhecanbemadet
ofor
got
hesal
aryf
ort
hatday
.
Li
kewi
se,sanct
ionscanbepr
ovi
dedf
orpr
ofessi
onalbodi
essuchast
heBarCounci
lof
I
ndi
a,t
heMedi
calCounci
lofI
ndi
a,t
heI
nst
it
uteofChar
ter
edAccount
ant
s&t
heI
nst
it
ute
ofEngi
neer
set
c.,I
tisnol
ongercor
rectt
osayt
hatFundament
alDut
iesenshr
inedi
n
Ar
ti
cle51-
Aar
enotenf
orceabl
etoensur
ethei
rimpl
ement
ati
onandar
eamer
eremi
nder
.
Fundament
alDut
ieshav
etheel
ementofcompul
sionr
egar
dingcompl
i
ance.Whati
s
neededi
stoenactsui
tabl
elegi
slat
ionwher
evernecessar
ytor
equi
reobedi
enceoft
he
dut
iesbyt
heci
ti
zens,wi
thl
egalsanct
ions.Ther
eisneedf
orcompr
ehensi
vel
egi
sl
ati
on
i
nthi
sar
eat
oensur
eaf
ait
hful
andef
fect
ivei
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
heFundament
alDut
ies.
Anumberofj
udi
ci
aldeci
sionsar
eav
ail
abl
etowar
dst
heenf
orcementof

51
cer
tai
ncl
ausesunderAr
ti
cle51-
A.Compr
ehensi
vel
egi
slat
ioni
sneededf
orcl
auses(
a),
(c)
,
(d)
,
(
g)and(
i)
.Ther
emai
ning6cl
auses,
whi
char
eexhor
tat
ionofbasi
chumanv
alues,
hav
e
t
o be dev
eloped amongstci
ti
zens t
hrough t
he educat
ion f
rom pr
imar
ylev
elof
educat
iont
othehi
gherandpr
ofessi
onal
lev
els.

JUDI
CIALPRONOUNCEMENTSTOWARDENFORCI
NGFUNDAMENTALDUTI
ES:
I
nChandr
aBhav
anBoar
ding&Lodgi
ng,
Bangal
oreVsSt
ateofMy
sor
e(1969)8SCC84,
t
heCour
thel
d;―I
tisaf
all
acyt
othi
nkt
hatunderourConst
it
uti
ont
her
ear
eonl
yri
ght
s
andnodut
ies.Whi
l
eri
ght
sconf
err
edunderpar
tII
Iar
efundament
al,
thedi
rect
ivesgi
ven
underpar
tIVar
efundament
ali
nthegov
ernancei
nthecount
ry.Weseenoconf
li
cton
t
he whol
e bet
ween t
he pr
ovi
sions cont
ained i
n par
tII
Iand Par
tIV.They ar
e
compl
ement
aryandsuppl
ement
aryt
oeachot
her
.Thepr
ovi
sionsofpar
tIVenabl
ethe
l
egi
slat
ures and t
he Gov
ernmentt
oimpose v
ari
ous dut
ies on t
he ci
ti
zens.The
pr
ovi
sionst
her
einar
edel
i
ber
atel
ymadeel
ast
icbecauset
hedut
iest
obei
mposedon
t
heci
ti
zensdependont
heext
entt
owhi
cht
hedi
rect
ivepr
inci
plesar
eimpl
ement
ed.The
mandat
eoft
heConst
it
uti
oni
stobui
l
dawel
far
esoci
etyi
nwhi
chj
ust
ice– soci
al,
economi
candpol
i
tical
,shal
linf
orm al
linst
it
uti
onsofournat
ionall
i
fe.Thehopesand
aspi
rat
ionsar
ousedbyt
heConst
it
uti
onwi
l
lbebel
i
edi
fthemi
nimum needsoft
he
l
owestofourci
ti
zensar
enotmet
‖.Of
fi
cer
sinAl
lIndi
aSer
vices(
Admi
nist
rat
ive,
For
est
,
Pol
i
ceet
c.,
)wer
enott
aki
ngt
het
rai
ningser
iousl
yresul
ti
ngi
ndet
eri
orat
ionoft
he
ser
vices.Ser
vicer
uleswer
eamendedsoast
ogi
vewei
ght
aget
othet
rai
ningand
penal
i
zet
hef
ail
ure.Onachal
l
engebei
ngl
aidt
otheconst
it
uti
onal
i
tyoft
heamendment
i
ntheRul
esi
nMohanKumarSi
nghani
a&ot
her
sVsUni
onofI
ndi
a(1992)Supp.1SCC
594,i
nor
dert
o uphol
dthev
ali
dit
yoft
heamendment
,Rat
nav
elPandi
an,J.dr
ew
st
rengt
hfr
om Ar
ti
cl
e51-
A.Ref
err
ingt
ocl
ause(
j)
,whi
chcommandsev
eryci
ti
zenof
I
ndi
atost
ri
vet
owar
dsexcel
l
encei
nal
lspher
esofi
ndi
vi
dualandcol
l
ect
iveact
ivi
tyso
t
hatt
henat
ionconst
ant
lyr
isest
ohi
gherl
evel
sofendeav
ourandachi
evement
,itwas
hel
dthatt
heef
for
ttakenbyt
heGov
ernmenti
ngi
vi
ngut
mosti
mpor
tancet
othet
rai
ning
pr
ogr
ammeoft
hesel
ect
ors,sot
hatt
hishi
gherci
vi
lser
vicebei
ngt
het
opmostser
vice
oft
hecount
ryi
snotwast
edanddoesnotbecomef
rui
tl
essdur
ingt
het
rai
ningper
iodi
s
i
n consonance wi
tht
he pr
ovi
sions ofAr
ti
cle 51-
A(j
).The const
it
uti
onal
i
tyoft
he
amendmentwas,
thusuphel
d.

52
I
nsev
eralcases,t
heSupr
emeCour
thasuphel
dthev
ali
dit
yofl
awsr
elat
ingt
oecol
ogy
andenv
ironmentandhasmadedi
rect
ionsbi
ndi
ngt
heci
ti
zensandt
heSt
atef
indi
ngt
he
sour
ceofpowert
odosoi
nAr
ti
cle51-
A.I
nRur
alLi
ti
gat
ionandEnt
it
lementKendr
a&
Ot
her
sVsSt
ateofU.
P.& ot
her
s(1986)Supp.
SCC 517,Ranganat
haMi
sra.J,hel
d
―Pr
eser
vat
ionoft
heenv
ironmentandkeepi
ngt
heecol
ogi
calbal
anceunaf
fect
edi
s
t
askwhi
chnotonl
ygov
ernment
sbutal
soev
eryci
ti
zenmustunder
take.I
tisasoci
al
obl
i
gat
ionandl
etusr
emi
ndev
eryci
ti
zent
hati
tishi
sFundament
aldut
yasenshr
inedi
n
Ar
ti
cle51-
A(g)oft
heConst
it
uti
on.I
nSachi
danandPandey&Anot
herVsSt
ateofWest
Bengal&ot
her
s(1987)2SCC295,t
hecour
texpr
essedi
nunmi
stakabl
eter
mst
hat
whenev
erapr
obl
em ofecol
ogyi
sbr
oughtbef
oret
hecour
tthecour
tisboundt
obeari
n
mi
ndAr
ti
cl
e48Aoft
heConst
it
uti
on&Ar
ti
cle51-
A(g)whi
chpr
ocl
aimst
heFundament
al
dut
yofev
eryci
ti
zenofI
ndi
atopr
otectandi
mpr
ovet
henat
uralenv
ironmenti
ncl
udi
ng
f
orest
s,l
akes,r
iver
sandwi
l
dli
fe,andt
ohav
eacompassi
onf
orl
i
vingcr
eat
ures.Pol
i
cy
deci
si
onst
akenbySt
atear
enotor
dinar
il
ytobei
nter
fer
edwi
tht
hecour
ts.Buti
fiti
sthe
quest
ionofgi
vi
ngef
fectt
otheDi
rect
ivePr
inci
plesandFundament
alDut
ies,
theCour
tis
nott
oshr
ugi
tsshoul
der
sandsayt
hatpr
ior
it
iesar
eamat
terofpol
i
cynott
obet
ouched
by cour
t,t
he cour
t may al
way
s gi
ve necessar
y di
rect
ions so as t
o secur
e
i
mpl
ement
ati
onofDi
rect
ivePr
inci
plesandFundament
alDut
ies.I
nSt
ateofPunj
ab&
ot
her
sVsG.
S.Gi
l
landAnot
her(
1997)6SCC129,
kindl
i
ngt
hespi
ri
tofcl
auses(
e)&
(
j)ofAr
ti
cle51-
A&Di
rect
ivePr
inci
plescont
ainedi
nAr
ti
cle38(
1),
thecour
tremi
ndedt
he
admi
nist
rat
orsoft
heGov
ernmentt
hatt
heyt
ooar
epr
imar
il
ytheci
ti
zensandt
her
efor
e,
t
hei
rvi
sionshoul
dbenat
ionali
nter
est
.―Thepr
imar
yresponsi
bil
i
tyofanadmi
nist
rat
or
i
stoper
for
m hi
sfunct
ionsi
ntheser
vicesoft
henat
ionasanenl
i
ght
enedci
ti
zent
o
st
rengt
henanewdemocr
ati
cst
ate.Thepubl
i
cadmi
nist
rat
orshoul
dgetr
idofal
lment
al
r
eser
vat
ionsonnar
row consi
der
ati
onsofcast
e,r
eli
gionorr
egi
onal
.Heshoul
dhav
ea
wi
derconcer
nforsoci
etyasawhol
e.Ot
her
wisehei
snotwor
thyt
obeanadmi
nist
rat
or‖
.
I
nshor
t,t
hecour
thel
dthatt
heFundament
alDut
iesobl
i
get
headmi
nist
rat
orsoft
he
Gov
ernmentt
obegoodadmi
nist
rat
ors.
St
ateofUPVsYamunaShankarMi
shr
a&Anot
her(
1997)4SCC7,
isani
nter
est
ingcase
wher
etheobj
ectofwr
it
ingt
heconf
ident
ialr
epor
tsandmaki
ngent
ri
esi
ntheChar
act
er
Rol
l
swer
ereadi
nthel
i
ghtofAr
ti
cle51-
A(j
)asgi
vi
nganoppor
tuni
tyt
oapubl
i
cser
vant
t
oimpr
oveexcel
l
ence.Thenetoft
heFundament
alDut
ieswasspr
eadsowi
debyt
he
cour
tsoast
ospel
loutt
heet
ernal
val
ues
53
ofhonest
y,i
ntegr
it
y,goodconductandef
fi
ciencyget
ti
ngi
mpr
ovedi
ntheper
for
mance
ofpubl
i
cdut
iesandst
andar
dofexcel
l
encei
nser
vicesconst
ant
lyr
isi
ngt
ohi
gherl
evel
soast
obesuccessf
ult
oolt
omanaget
heser
viceswi
thof
fi
cer
sofi
ntegr
it
y,honest
y,
ef
fi
ciencyanddev
oti
on.I
nVi
shaka&ot
her
sVsSt
ateofRaj
ast
hanAI
R1997SC3011,
t
hecour
tfoundi
tnecessar
yandexpedi
entf
orempl
oyer
sinwor
kpl
acesaswel
las
ot
herr
esponsi
bleper
sonsori
nst
it
uti
onst
oobser
vecer
tai
ngui
del
i
nest
oensur
ethe
pr
event
ionofsexualhar
assmentofwomenandsetancl
assi
calexampl
eofi
tsl
aw
maki
ngpowerunderAr
ti
cle141oft
heConst
it
uti
on.Andt
hesegui
del
i
neswer
ethemost
ef
fect
ive measur
es f
orenf
orcementoft
he Fundament
alDut
ies;i
n par
ti
cul
art
o
r
enouncepr
act
icesder
ogat
oryt
othedi
gni
tyofwomen–aFundament
aldut
yenshr
ined
i
ncl
ause(
e)ofAr
t51-
Aint
heef
fect
uat
ionoft
hatdut
y.

CONCLUSI
ON:
Ther
eisnopr
ovi
sioni
ntheConst
it
uti
onf
ordi
rectenf
orcementoft
hese
dut
ies.Ther
eisnosanct
iont
opr
eventt
hei
rvi
olat
ion.TheseDut
iesal
ongwi
tht
he
except
ionsofFundament
alr
ight
s,l
i
mitt
heoper
ati
onofFundament
alr
ight
s,ev
en
t
hought
heyar
enotj
ust
ici
abl
e.Thei
rincl
usi
onhasbeenj
ust
if
iedont
hebasi
sthatt
hey
woul
dhel
ptost
rengt
henourdemocr
acy
.Howev
er,
anawar
enessofandadher
encet
o
t
hesedut
iescanhar
dlybebr
oughtaboutbywr
it
ingdowni
ntheConst
it
uti
on.I
tisonl
y
t
hrougheducat
ion&enl
i
ght
enedpubl
i
copi
niont
hataf
eel
i
ngofpr
ide&r
esponsi
bil
i
ty
t
owar
dst
heseConst
it
uti
onal
dut
iest
othenat
ioncanbei
ncul
cat
edi
ntheci
ti
zens.

EUROPEANCONVENTI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTS
HI
STORY:
The Eur
opean Conv
ent
ion on Human Ri
ght
s has pl
ayed an i
mpor
tantr
olei
nthe
dev
elopmentandawar
enessofHumanRi
ght
sinEur
ope.Thedev
elopmentofar
egi
onal
sy
stem ofhumanr
ight
spr
otect
ionoper
ati
ngacr
ossEur
opecanbeseenasadi
rect
r
esponset
otwi
nconcer
ns.Fi
rst
,int
he

54
af
ter
mat
hoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
,theconv
ent
ion,dr
awi
ngont
hei
nspi
rat
ionoft
he
Uni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
scanbeseenaspar
tofawi
derr
esponseoft
he
Al
l
iedPower
sindel
i
ver
ingahumanr
ight
sagendat
hroughwhi
chi
twasbel
i
evedt
hat
t
hemostser
ioushumanr
ight
svi
olat
ionswhi
chhadoccur
reddur
ingt
heSecondWor
ld
Warcoul
dbeav
oidedi
nthef
utur
e.Second,t
heConv
ent
ionwasar
esponset
othe
gr
owt
hofCommuni
sm i
nCent
ralandEast
ernEur
opeanddesi
gnedt
opr
otectt
he
memberst
atesoft
heCounci
lofEur
opef
rom communi
stsubv
ersi
on.Thi
s,i
npar
t,
expl
ainst
heconst
antr
efer
encest
oval
uesandpr
inci
plest
hatar
e"necessar
yina
democr
ati
csoci
ety
"thr
oughoutt
heConv
ent
ion,
despi
tet
hef
actt
hatsuchpr
inci
plesar
e
noti
nanywaydef
inedwi
thi
ntheconv
ent
ioni
tsel
f.
Fr
om 7t
o10May1948wi
tht
heat
tendanceofpol
i
tici
ans(
suchasWi
nst
onChur
chi
l
l,
Fr
ançoi
sMi
tt
err
andandKonr
adAdenauer
),ci
vi
lsoci
etyr
epr
esent
ati
ves,academi
cs,
busi
nessl
eader
s,t
rade uni
oni
stand r
eli
giousl
eaderwasor
gani
zed gat
her
ing-
The
"
Congr
essofEur
ope"i
nHague.Att
heendofCongr
esst
hedecl
arat
ionandf
oll
owi
ng
pl
edgewasi
ssuedwhi
chdemonst
rat
edt
hei
nit
ialseedsofmoder
nEur
opeani
nst
it
utes,
i
ncl
udi
ngECHR.Thesecondandt
hir
dAr
ti
clesofPl
edgest
ated:Wedesi
reaChar
terof
HumanRi
ght
sguar
ant
eei
ngl
i
ber
tyoft
hought
,assembl
yandexpr
essi
onaswel
lasr
ight
t
ofor
m apol
i
ticalopposi
ti
on.Wedesi
reaCour
tofJust
icewi
thadequat
esanct
ionsf
or
t
hei
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
hisChar
ter
.
TheConv
ent
ionwasdr
aft
edbyt
heCounci
lofEur
opeaf
tert
heSecondWor
ldWari
n
r
esponset
oacal
lissuedbyEur
opeansf
rom al
lwal
ksofl
i
fewhohadgat
her
edatt
he
HagueCongr
ess.Ov
er100par
li
ament
ari
ansf
rom t
het
wel
vememberst
atesoft
he
Counci
lofEur
opegat
her
edi
nSt
rasbour
gint
hesummerof1949f
ort
hef
ir
stev
er
meet
ingoft
heCounci
l
'sConsul
tat
iveAssembl
ytodr
afta"
char
terofhumanr
ight
s"and
t
oest
abl
i
shacour
ttoenf
orcei
t.Br
it
ishMPandl
awy
erSi
rDav
idMaxwel
l
-Fy
fe,
theChai
r
oft
heAssembl
y'
sCommi
tt
eeonLegalandAdmi
nist
rat
iveQuest
ions,wasoneofi
ts
l
eadi
ngmember
sandgui
dedt
hedr
aft
ingoft
heConv
ent
ion.Asapr
osecut
oratt
he
Nur
ember
gTr
ial
s,hehadseenf
ir
st-
handhowi
nter
nat
ionalj
ust
icecoul
dbeef
fect
ivel
y
appl
i
ed.Wi
thhi
shel
p,t
heFr
enchf
ormermi
nist
erandResi
stancef
ight
erPi
err
e-Henr
i
Tei
tgensubmi
tt
edar
epor
ttot
heAssembl
ypr
oposi
ngal
i
stofr
ight
stobepr
otect
ed,
sel
ect
inganumberf
rom t
heUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
sjustagr
eedt
oin
New Yor
k,anddef
ini
nghow t
heenf
orci
ngj
udi
cialmechani
sm mi
ghtoper
ate.Af
ter
ext
ensi
ve
55
debat
es,t
heAssembl
ysenti
tsf
inalpr
oposat
otheCounci
l
'sCommi
tt
eeofMi
nist
ers,
whi
chconv
enedagr
oupofexper
tst
odr
aftt
heConv
ent
ioni
tsel
f.
TheConv
ent
ionwasdesi
gnedt
oincor
por
ateat
radi
ti
onalci
vi
lli
ber
ti
esappr
oacht
o
secur
ing"
eff
ect
ivepol
i
ticaldemocr
acy
",f
rom t
hest
rongestt
radi
ti
onsi
ntheUni
ted
Ki
ngdom,
Franceandot
hermemberst
atesoft
hef
ledgl
i
ngCounci
lofEur
ope,
assai
dby
Gui
doRai
mondi
,Pr
esi
dentofEur
opeanCour
tofHumanRi
ght
s:
The Eur
opean sy
stem ofpr
otect
ion ofhuman r
ight
s wi
thi
ts Cour
twoul
d be
i
nconcei
vabl
eunt
iedf
rom democr
acy
.Inf
actwehav
eabondt
hati
snotonl
yregi
onal
or
geogr
aphi
c:aSt
atecannotbepar
tyt
otheEur
opeanConv
ent
iononHumanRi
ght
sifi
tis
notamemberoft
heCounci
lofEur
ope;i
tcannotbeamemberSt
ateoft
heCounci
lof
Eur
opei
fitdoesnotr
espectpl
ural
i
stdemocr
acy
,ther
uleofl
awandhumanr
ight
s.Soa
non-
democr
ati
cSt
atecoul
d notpar
ti
cipat
eint
heECHR sy
stem:t
hepr
otect
ionof
democr
acygoeshandi
nhandwi
tht
hepr
otect
ionofr
ight
s.
TheConv
ent
ionwasopenedf
orsi
gnat
ureon4Nov
ember1950i
nRome.I
twasr
ati
fi
ed
andent
eredi
ntof
orceon3Sept
ember1953.I
tisov
erseenandenf
orcedbyt
he
Eur
opean Cour
tofHuman Ri
ght
sin St
rasbour
g,and t
heCounci
lofEur
ope.Unt
il
pr
ocedur
alr
efor
msi
nthel
ate1990s,t
heConv
ent
ionwasal
soov
erseenbyaEur
opean
Commi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
s.
Dr
aft
ing:
TheConv
ent
ioni
sdr
aft
edi
nbr
oadt
erms,i
nasi
mil
ar(
albei
tmor
emoder
n)mannert
o
t
heEngl
i
shBi
l
lofRi
ght
s,t
heU.
S.Bi
l
lofRi
ght
s,t
heFr
enchDecl
arat
ionoft
heRi
ght
sof
Manort
hef
ir
stpar
toft
heGer
manBasi
claw.St
atement
sofpr
inci
plear
e,f
rom al
egal
poi
ntofv
iew,notdet
ermi
nat
iveandr
equi
reext
ensi
vei
nter
pret
ati
onbycour
tst
obr
ing
outmeani
ngi
npar
ti
cul
arf
act
ual
sit
uat
ions.

EUROPEANCOMMI
SSI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTS:
Eur
opeanCour
tofHumanRi
ght
s(ECHR)
,judi
cialor
ganest
abl
i
shedi
n1959t
hati
s
char
gedwi
thsuper
visi
ngt
heenf
orcementoft
heConv
ent
ionf
ort
hePr
otect
ionof
HumanRi
ght
sandFundament
alFr
eedoms(
1950;commonl
yknownast
heEur
opean
Conv
ent
iononHumanRi
ght
s),whi
chwasdr
awnupbyt
heCounci
lofEur
ope.The
conv
ent
ion obl
i
gat
essi
gnat
ori
est
o guar
ant
ee v
ari
ousci
vi
land pol
i
ticalf
reedoms,
i
ncl
udi
ngt
hef
reedom ofexpr
essi
onandr
eli
gionandt
her
ightt
oaf
airt
ri
al.I
tis
headquar
ter
edi
nSt
rasbour
g,Fr
ance.
56
I
ndi
vi
dual
swhobel
i
evet
hei
rhumanr
ight
shav
ebeenv
iol
atedandwhoar
eunabl
eto
r
emedyt
hei
rcl
aimt
hrought
hei
rnat
ionall
egalsy
stem maypet
it
iont
heECHRt
ohear
t
hecaseandr
enderav
erdi
ct.Thecour
t,whi
chal
socanhearcasesbr
oughtbyst
ates,
mayawar
dfi
nanci
alcompensat
ion,andi
tsdeci
sionsof
tenr
equi
rechangesi
nnat
ional
l
aw.Consi
sti
ngofmor
ethan40j
udgesel
ect
edf
ornon-
renewabl
eni
ne-
yeart
erms,t
he
ECHRnor
mal
l
ywor
ksi
nsev
en-
judgechamber
s.Judgesdonotr
epr
esentt
hei
rcount
ri
es,
andt
her
eisnol
i
mitt
othenumberofj
udgesasi
ngl
ecount
rymaycont
ri
but
e.Thecour
t
i
sal
sodi
vi
dedi
ntof
oursect
ions,
thej
udgesofwhi
chr
epr
esentabal
anceofgenderand
geogr
aphyandt
akeaccountoft
hev
ari
ousl
egalsy
stems.A Gr
andChamberof17
j
udgesi
ssomet
imesusedi
ncaseswher
ethesev
en-
judgepaneldet
ermi
nest
hata
ser
iousi
ssueofi
nter
pret
ati
oni
sinv
olv
edort
hatt
hedeci
sionoft
hepanelmi
ght
cont
rav
eneexi
sti
ngcasel
aw.
I
nor
dert
ohandl
ethegr
owi
ngnumberofcasesmor
eef
fi
cient
ly,
theEur
opeanCour
tof
HumanRi
ght
sandt
heEur
opeanCommi
ssi
onofHumanRi
ght
s,whi
chwasest
abl
i
shed
i
n1954,wer
emer
gedi
n1998i
ntoar
econst
it
utedcour
tandenabl
edt
oheari
ndi
vi
dual
caseswi
thoutt
hepr
iorassentoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
‘
snat
ionalgov
ernment
.Despi
tet
hese
changest
heECHR‘
sbackl
ogcont
inuedt
ogr
ow,pr
ompt
ingt
headopt
ioni
n2010of
addi
ti
onalst
reaml
i
ningmeasur
es,whi
chi
ncl
udedpr
ohi
bit
ingt
hecour
tfr
om hear
ing
i
ndi
vi
dualcasesi
nwhi
cht
heappl
i
canthasnotsuf
fer
eda―si
gni
fi
cantdi
sadv
ant
age.
‖
Thecour
t‘
sdeci
si
onsar
ebi
ndi
ngonal
lsi
gnat
ori
es.

EUROPEANCOURTOFHUMANRI
GHTS:
Hi
stor
y
TheEur
opeanCour
tofHumanRi
ght
s(ECHR)i
sar
egi
onalhumanr
ight
sjudi
cialbody
basedi
nSt
rasbour
g,Fr
ance.TheCour
tbeganoper
ati
ngi
n1959andhasdel
i
ver
edmor
e
t
han10,
000j
udgment
sregar
dingal
l
egedv
iol
ati
onsoft
heEur
opeanConv
ent
ionon
HumanRi
ght
s.
I
n1998,t
heEur
opeanhumanr
ight
ssy
stem wasr
efor
medt
oel
i
minat
etheEur
opean
Commi
ssi
onofHumanRi
ght
s,whi
chpr
evi
ousl
ydeci
dedt
headmi
ssi
bil
i
tyofcompl
aint
s,
ov
ersaw f
ri
endl
yset
tl
ement
s,andr
efer
redsomecasest
otheCour
t– i
namanner
si
mil
art
othecur
rentI
nter
-Amer
icanSy
stem.Now,i
ndi
vi
dualv
ict
imsmaysubmi
tthei
r
compl
aint
sdi
rect
lyt
otheEur
opeanCour
tofHumanRi
ght
s.

57
The Eur
opean Cour
t,or ―St
rasbour
g Cour
t‖ as i
tis of
ten cal
l
ed,ser
ves a
compl
ement
aryr
olet
othatoft
heEur
opeanCommi
tt
eeofSoci
alRi
ght
s,whi
chov
ersees
Eur
opeanSt
ates‘
respectf
orsoci
alandeconomi
cri
ght
s.
Jur
isdi
cti
on
The Cour
thas j
uri
sdi
cti
on t
o deci
de compl
aint
s(―appl
i
cat
ions‖
) submi
tt
ed by
i
ndi
vi
dual
sandSt
atesconcer
ningv
iol
ati
onsoft
heEur
opeanConv
ent
iononHuman
Ri
ght
s,whi
chpr
inci
pal
l
yconcer
nsci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
s.I
tcannott
akeupacaseon
i
ts own i
nit
iat
ive.Not
abl
y,t
he per
son,gr
oup ornon-
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ion
submi
tt
ingt
hecompl
aint(
―theappl
i
cant
‖)doesnothav
etobeaci
ti
zenofaSt
atepar
ty.
Howev
er,
compl
aint
ssubmi
tt
edt
otheCour
tmustconcer
nvi
olat
ionsoft
heConv
ent
ion
al
l
egedl
y commi
tt
ed by a St
ate par
tyt
othe Conv
ent
ion and t
hatdi
rect
ly and
si
gni
fi
cant
lyaf
fect
ed t
he appl
i
cant
.As ofApr
il2018,47 St
ates hav
erat
if
ied t
he
Conv
ent
ion.Someoft
heseSt
ateshav
eal
sor
ati
fi
edoneormor
eoft
heAddi
ti
onal
Pr
otocol
stot
heConv
ent
ion,
whi
chpr
otectaddi
ti
onalr
ight
s.St
art
ingonAugust1,
2018,
t
heCour
twi
l
lal
so hav
eadv
isor
yjur
isdi
cti
on.UnderPr
otocol16 t
otheEur
opean
Conv
ent
ion,whi
chwi
l
lent
eri
ntof
orceonAugust1,t
hehi
ghestdomest
iccour
tsi
nthe
St
atest
hatar
eapar
tyt
othePr
otocolwi
l
lbeabl
etor
equestEur
opeanCour
tadv
isor
y
opi
nionsonquest
ionsofi
nter
pret
ati
onoft
heEur
opeanConv
ent
ionandi
tspr
otocol
s.
Thequest
ionsmustar
iseoutofcasespendi
ngbef
oret
hedomest
iccour
t.
St
ruct
ure
I
nor
dert
oresol
vemanycasessi
mul
taneousl
y,t
heECHRi
sor
gani
zedi
ntof
ivesect
ions,
oradmi
nist
rat
iveent
it
ies,whi
cheachhav
eaj
udi
cialchamber
.Eachsect
ionhasa
Pr
esi
dent
,Vi
cePr
esi
dent
,andanumberofj
udges.TheCour
t‘
s47j
udgesar
esel
ect
ed
byt
hePar
li
ament
aryAssembl
yoft
heCounci
lofEur
opef
rom al
i
stofappl
i
cant
s
pr
oposedbyt
heMemberSt
ates.
Wi
thi
nthe Cour
t,t
he j
udges wor
kinf
ourdi
ff
erentki
nds ofgr
oups,or―j
udi
cial
f
ormat
ions.
‖Appl
i
cat
ionsr
ecei
ved byt
heCour
twi
l
lbeal
l
ocat
ed t
o oneoft
hese
f
ormat
ions:
1.
Singl
e Judge:onl
yrul
es on t
he admi
ssi
bil
i
ty ofappl
i
cat
ions t
hatar
e cl
ear
ly
i
nadmi
ssi
blebasedont
hemat
eri
alsubmi
tt
edbyt
heappl
i
cant
.

58
2.
Commi
tt
ee:composedof3j
udges,commi
tt
eesr
uleont
headmi
ssi
bil
i
tyofcasesas
wel
last
hemer
it
swhent
hecaseconcer
nsani
ssuecov
eredbywel
l
-dev
elopedcasel
aw
(
thedeci
sionmustbeunani
mous)
.
3.
Chamber
:composedof7j
udges,
chamber
spr
imar
il
yrul
eonadmi
ssi
bil
i
tyandmer
it
s
f
orcasest
hatr
aisei
ssuest
hathav
enotbeenr
uledonr
epeat
edl
y(adeci
sionmaybe
madebyamaj
ori
ty)
.Eachchamberi
ncl
udest
heSect
ionPr
esi
dentandt
he―nat
ional
j
udge‖(
thej
udgewi
tht
henat
ional
i
tyoft
heSt
ateagai
nstwhi
cht
heappl
i
cat
ioni
s
l
odged)
.
4.
GrandChamber
:composedof17j
udges,t
heGr
andChamberhear
sasmal
l
,sel
ect
numberofcasest
hathav
ebeenei
therr
efer
redt
oit(
onappealf
rom aChamber
deci
si
on)orr
eli
nqui
shedbyaChamber
,usual
l
ywhent
hecasei
nvol
vesani
mpor
tantor
nov
elquest
ion.Appl
i
cat
ions nev
ergo di
rect
lyt
othe Gr
and Chamber
.The Gr
and
Chamberal
way
sincl
udest
hePr
esi
dentand Vi
ce-Pr
esi
dentoft
heCour
t,t
hef
ive
Sect
ionpr
esi
dent
s,andt
henat
ional
judge.
Submi
tt
inganAppl
i
cat
ion:
Appl
i
cat
ions t
othe Eur
opean Cour
t of Human Ri
ght
s must compl
y wi
tht
he
r
equi
rement
sdescr
ibedi
nAr
ti
cle47oft
heRul
esofCour
t.Appl
i
cant
sshoul
dbeawar
e
t
hatt
heCour
tper
iodi
cal
l
ymodi
fi
esi
tsr
ulesandpr
ocedur
es;i
n2014,i
tbeganappl
yi
ng
st
ri
cterr
equi
rement
sfori
ndi
vi
dual
appl
i
cat
ions.
Tosubmi
tanappl
i
cat
ion,
appl
i
cant
sshoul
duset
heappl
i
cat
ionf
orm,
whi
chi
sav
ail
abl
e
onl
i
neandmustbef
il
ledouti
nit
sent
ir
ety
.Copi
esofal
lrel
evantdocument
smustbe
i
ncl
udedal
ongwi
tht
heappl
i
cat
ion,
whi
chmustbesubmi
tt
edbypost
almai
l
.
Asubst
ant
ialmaj
ori
tyoft
heappl
i
cat
ionssubmi
tt
edt
otheCour
tar
est
ruckf
rom t
hel
i
st
ordecl
aredi
nadmi
ssi
blebecauset
heyf
ailt
omeetoneormor
eoft
headmi
ssi
bil
i
ty
cr
it
eri
a.
Addi
ti
onal
l
y,t
heECHRhaspubl
i
shedashor
tvi
deot
utor
ialon―Thecor
rectwayt
o
l
odgeanappl
i
cat
ionwi
tht
heCour
t.
‖
Pr
oceedi
ngsbef
oret
heCour
t
Pr
oceedi
ngsbef
oret
heCour
tar
econduct
edpr
imar
il
yinwr
it
ing;
publ
i
chear
ingsar
erar
e.
Ther
eisnocostassoci
atedwi
thsubmi
tt
inganappl
i
cat
ionandt
heappl
i
cantmayappl
y
f
orl
egal
aidt
ocov
erexpensest
hatar
isel
ateri
nthepr
oceedi
ng.

59
Whi
l
eal
awy
eri
s notnecessar
ytol
odge a compl
aint
,appl
i
cant
s shoul
d hav
e
r
epr
esent
ati
onaf
tert
hecasei
sdecl
aredadmi
ssi
ble,andmustber
epr
esent
edbya
l
awy
eri
nanyhear
ingbef
oret
heCour
t.
Appl
i
cat
ionst
otheECHRgot
hrought
wophases:admi
ssi
bil
i
tyandmer
it
s.Thespeci
fi
c
nat
ureoft
hecasewi
l
ldi
ctat
ethespeedandcour
seoft
hepr
oceedi
ngs.Howev
er,
itmay
bemont
hsory
ear
sbef
oreanappl
i
cantr
ecei
vesadeci
sionorj
udgment
.
Admi
ssi
bil
i
ty
Whent
heCour
trecei
vesanappl
i
cat
ion,t
heCour
tmustdet
ermi
nei
fitmeet
sal
loft
he
admi
ssi
bil
i
tyr
equi
rement
s.Anadmi
ssi
bil
i
tydeci
sionmaybemadebyasi
ngl
ejudge,a
t
hree-
judge commi
tt
ee,ora sev
en-
judge chamber
.To be decl
ared admi
ssi
ble,an
appl
i
cat
ionmustmeett
hef
oll
owi
ngcr
it
eri
a:
1.
Exhaust
ionofdomest
icr
emedi
es
2.
Six-
mont
happl
i
cat
iondeadl
i
ne(
from t
hef
inal
domest
icj
udi
cial
deci
sion)
3.
Compl
aintagai
nstaSt
atepar
tyt
otheEur
opeanConv
ent
iononHumanRi
ght
s
4.
Appl
i
cantsuf
fer
edasi
gni
fi
cantdi
sadv
ant
age
I
fanappl
i
cat
ionf
ail
stomeetanyoft
heser
equi
rement
s,i
twi
l
lbedecl
aredi
nadmi
ssi
ble
andcannotpr
oceedanyf
urt
her
.Ther
eisnoappeal
from adeci
sionofi
nadmi
ssi
bil
i
ty.
Appl
i
cant
smayuset
heECHR‘
sOnl
i
neAdmi
ssi
bil
i
tyCheckl
i
stt
odet
ermi
nei
fthei
r
compl
aintsat
isf
iest
her
equi
rement
s.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,t
heCour
thascr
eat
edashor
tvi
deo
onAdmi
ssi
bil
i
tyCondi
ti
ons.
Mer
it
s
I
fanappl
i
cat
ioni
snotst
ruckf
rom t
hel
i
stordecl
aredi
nadmi
ssi
bleatanear
li
erst
age,
it
wi
l
lbeassi
gnedt
ooneoft
heECHR‘
sfi
vesect
ionsandt
heSt
atewi
l
lbenot
if
iedoft
he
compl
aint
.Att
hist
ime,
bot
hpar
ti
eswi
l
lhav
etheoppor
tuni
tyt
osubmi
tobser
vat
ionst
o
t
he Cour
t.These obser
vat
ionsmaycont
ain speci
fi
cinf
ormat
ion r
equest
ed byt
he
ChamberorPr
esi
dentoft
heSect
ion,oranyot
hermat
eri
alt
hatt
hepar
ti
esdeci
dei
s
r
elev
ant
.TheChamberhast
heopt
iont
oconsi
deradmi
ssi
bil
i
tyandmer
it
ssepar
atel
yor
concur
rent
ly,
buti
tmustnot
if
ythepar
ti
esi
fitpl
anst
oconsi
deradmi
ssi
bil
i
tyandmer
it
s
t
oget
her
.

60
WhenaChamberi
ssuesaj
udgmentont
hemer
it
s,t
her
eisat
hree-
mont
hper
iodbef
ore
t
hedeci
sionbecomesf
inal
.Dur
ingt
hisper
iod,
eit
herorbot
hoft
hepar
ti
esmayr
equest
t
hatt
heappl
i
cat
ionber
efer
redt
otheGr
andChamber
.Howev
er,t
heGr
andChamber
onl
yhear
sal
i
mit
ednumberofexcept
ional
cases.
I
ftheCour
tul
ti
mat
elydeci
desacasei
nfav
oroft
heappl
i
cant
,itmayawar
djust
sat
isf
act
ion(
monet
arycompensat
ionf
ort
hedamagessuf
fer
ed)andr
equi
ret
heSt
ate
t
ocov
ert
hecostofbr
ingi
ngt
hecase.I
ftheCour
tfi
ndst
hatt
her
ehasbeennov
iol
ati
on,
t
hent
heappl
i
canti
snotl
i
abl
efort
heSt
ate‘
slegal
expenses.
TheCommi
tt
eeofMi
nist
ersoft
heCounci
lofEur
opei
sresponsi
blef
orenf
orci
ngt
he
Cour
t‘
sjudgment
s.St
atesar
eboundbyt
hedeci
sionsoft
heCour
tandmustexecut
e
t
hem accor
dingl
y.Of
tent
hismeansamendi
ngl
egi
slat
iont
oensur
ethatt
hev
iol
ati
on
doesnotcont
inuet
ooccur
.Howev
er,
theCour
tdoesnothav
etheaut
hor
it
ytoov
err
ulea
nat
ional
deci
si
onorannul
nat
ional
laws.
Fr
iendl
ySet
tl
ement
Pr
iort
oadeci
si
onont
hemer
it
s,t
heCour
twi
l
ltr
ytof
aci
l
itat
ethear
rangementofa
f
ri
endl
yset
tl
ement
.Ifaf
ri
endl
yset
tl
ementcannotber
eached,
theCour
twi
l
lthendel
i
ver
aj
udgmentont
hemer
it
s.I
ninst
anceswher
etheChamberhear
ingt
hecasedeci
dest
o
i
ssueanadmi
ssi
bil
i
tydeci
sioni
nconj
unct
ionwi
thaj
udgmentont
hemer
it
s,t
hepar
ti
es
mayi
ncl
udei
nfor
mat
ionaboutf
ri
endl
yset
tl
ement
sint
heobser
vat
iont
heysubmi
tto
t
heCour
t.
I
nter
im Measur
es
I
nexcept
ionalcases,t
heCour
tmaygr
antappl
i
cant
s―i
nter
im measur
es,
‖whi
char
e
desi
gnedt
opr
otectt
heappl
i
cantf
rom f
urt
herhar
m whi
l
ethecasepr
oceedsbef
oret
he
Cour
t.Request
sfori
nter
im measur
esar
eonl
ygr
ant
edwhent
her
eisani
mmi
nentr
isk
ofi
rr
epar
abl
ehar
m suchasdeat
hort
ort
ure.Theyar
emostof
tengr
ant
edi
next
radi
ti
on
anddepor
tat
ioncases.

61
AMERI
CANCONVENTI
ONONHUMANRI
GHTS

TheAmer
icanConv
ent
iononHumanRi
ght
s,al
soknownast
hePactofSanJosé,i
san
i
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
sinst
rument
.Itwasadopt
edbymanycount
ri
esi
ntheWest
ern
Hemi
spher
einSanJosé,
Cost
aRi
ca,
on22Nov
ember1969.I
tcamei
ntof
orceaf
tert
he
el
event
hinst
rumentofr
ati
fi
cat
ion(
thatofGr
enada)wasdeposi
tedon18Jul
y1978.
The
bodi
es r
esponsi
blef
orov
erseei
ng compl
i
ance wi
tht
he Conv
ent
ion ar
ethe I
nter
-
Amer
icanCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
sandt
heI
nter
-Amer
icanCour
tofHumanRi
ght
s,
bot
hofwhi
char
eor
gansoft
heOr
gani
zat
ionofAmer
icanSt
ates(
OAS)
.
Cont
entandpur
pose
Accor
dingt
oit
spr
eambl
e,t
hepur
poseoft
heConv
ent
ioni
s"t
oconsol
i
dat
eint
his
hemi
spher
e,wi
thi
nthef
ramewor
kofdemocr
ati
cinst
it
uti
ons,asy
stem ofper
sonal
l
i
ber
tyandsoci
alj
ust
icebasedonr
espectf
ort
heessent
ial
right
sofman.
"
Chapt
erIest
abl
i
shest
hegener
alobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atespar
ti
est
ouphol
dther
ight
sset
f
ort
hint
he Conv
ent
ion t
o al
lper
sonsundert
hei
rjur
isdi
cti
on,and t
o adaptt
hei
r
domest
icl
awst
obr
ingt
hem i
ntol
i
newi
tht
heConv
ent
ion.The23ar
ti
clesofChapt
erI
I
gi
veal
i
stofi
ndi
vi
dualci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
sduet
oal
lper
sons,i
ncl
udi
ngt
her
ightt
o
l
i
fe"
ingener
al,f
rom t
hemomentofconcept
ion"
,tohumanet
reat
ment
,toaf
airt
ri
al,t
o
pr
ivacy
,tof
reedom ofconsci
ence,f
reedom ofassembl
y,f
reedom ofmov
ement
,et
c.
TheAr
ti
cle15pr
ohi
bit
s"anypr
opagandaf
orwarandanyadv
ocacyofnat
ional
,raci
al,
or
r
eli
gioushat
redt
hatconst
it
utei
nci
tementt
olawl
essv
iol
enceort
oanyot
hersi
mil
ar
act
ionagai
nstanyper
sononanygr
oundsi
ncl
udi
ng t
hoseofr
ace,col
or,r
eli
gion,
l
anguage,ornat
ionalor
igi
n"t
o beconsi
der
ed asof
fencepuni
shabl
ebyl
aw.Thi
s
pr
ovi
sioni
sest
abl
i
shedunderi
nfl
uenceoft
heAr
ti
cle20oft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enant
ofCi
vi
landPol
i
ticalRi
ght
s.Thesi
ngl
ear
ti
clei
nChapt
erI
IIdeal
swi
theconomi
c,soci
al,
andcul
tur
alr
ight
s.Thesomewhatcur
sor
ytr
eat
mentgi
vent
othi
sissueher
ewas
expandedsomet
eny
ear
slat
erwi
tht
hePr
otocol
ofSanSal
vador(
seebel
ow)
.
Chapt
erI
Vdescr
ibest
hoseci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
chcer
tai
nri
ght
scanbet
empor
ari
l
y
suspended,suchasdur
ingst
atesofemer
gency
,andt
hef
ormal
i
tiest
obef
oll
owedf
or
suchsuspensi
ont
obev
ali
d.Howev
er,
itdoesnotaut
hor
izeanysuspensi
onofAr
ti
cle3
(
ri
ghtt
ojur
idi
cal
per
sonal
i
ty)
,

62
Ar
ti
cle4(
ri
ghtt
oli
fe)
,Ar
ti
cle5(
ri
ghtt
ohumanet
reat
ment
),Ar
ti
cle6(
freedom f
rom
sl
aver
y),
Art
icl
e9(
freedom f
rom expostf
act
olaws)
,Ar
ti
cle12(
freedom ofconsci
ence
andr
eli
gion)
,Ar
ti
cl
e17(
ri
ghtt
ofami
l
y),Ar
ti
cle18(
ri
ghtt
othename)
,Ar
ti
cle19(
ri
ght
s
oft
he chi
l
d),Ar
ti
cl
e 20 (
ri
ghtt
o nat
ional
i
ty)
,orAr
ti
cle 23 (
ri
ghtt
o par
ti
cipat
ein
gov
ernment
).
Chapt
erV,wi
thanodt
othebal
ancebet
weenr
ight
sanddut
iesenshr
inedi
ntheear
li
er
Amer
icanDecl
arat
ionoft
heRi
ght
sandDut
iesofMan,poi
ntsoutt
hati
ndi
vi
dual
shav
e
r
esponsi
bil
i
tiesaswel
lasr
ight
s.
Chapt
ersVI
,VI
I,VI
II
,andI
Xcont
ainpr
ovi
sionsf
ort
hecr
eat
ionandoper
ati
onoft
het
wo
bodi
esr
esponsi
blef
orov
erseei
ngcompl
i
ancewi
tht
heConv
ent
ion:t
heI
nter
-Amer
ican
Commi
ssi
on,basedi
nWashi
ngt
on,D.
C.,Uni
tedSt
ates,andt
heI
nter
-Amer
icanCour
t,
headquar
ter
edi
nSanJosé,
Cost
aRi
ca.
Chapt
erXdeal
swi
thmechani
smsf
orr
ati
fyi
ngt
heConv
ent
ion,amendi
ngi
torpl
aci
ng
r
eser
vat
ionsi
nit
,ordenounci
ngi
t.Var
ioust
ransi
tor
ypr
ovi
sionsar
esetf
ort
hinChapt
er
XI
.

PROTECTI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTSI
NINDI
A
I
ndi
aist
hel
argestdemocr
acyi
nthewor
ld.Bei
ngademocr
ati
cnat
iononeoft
hemaj
or
obj
ect
ivesi
sthepr
otect
ionoft
hebasi
cri
ght
soft
hepubl
i
c.Gov
ernmentofI
ndi
ahas
speci
fi
eddueconsi
der
ati
ont
otheacknowl
edgementandpr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
s.
TheConst
it
uti
onofI
ndi
aident
if
iest
heser
ight
soft
hepeopl
eanddemonst
rat
esdeep
concer
nconcer
ningt
hem.TheUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
scov
erspubl
i
c,
pol
i
tical
,fi
nanci
al,communalandsoci
alr
ight
s.Const
it
uti
onassur
esmaxi
mum oft
he
humanr
ight
sli
mit
ed i
nUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s.Chapt
erI
IIoft
he
const
it
uti
ont
alksabout
,whi
l
epubl
i
c,pol
i
tical
,fi
nanci
al,soci
alandcul
tur
alr
ight
shav
e
beeni
ncl
udedi
nchapt
erI
Voft
heConst
it
uti
on.Al
lthel
awshav
etobei
nagr
eementof
t
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heConst
it
uti
on.

Thev
iewpoi
ntandobj
ect
iveoft
heConst
it
uti
onofI
ndi
aispr
otect
edi
nthepr
eambl
e
whi
chcont
aint
hepr
otect
ionoft
hesel
f-
est
eem ofani
ndi
vi
dual
.Fort
hef
ulf
il
mentof
t
hisobj
ect
ive,
chapt
erI
IIoft
heconst
it
uti
onguar
ant
eesf
undament
alr
ight
stoi
ndi
vi
dual
whi
char
eimpor
tantf
ort
hegr
owt
hofansepar
ateper
sonal
i
ty,
theser
ight
scov
ers:
-

63
TheRi
ghtt
o
Equal
i
tyTheRi
ght
t
oFr
eedom
TheRi
ghtagai
nst
Expl
oit
ati
onTher
ightt
o
f
reedom ofr
eli
gion
Thecul
tur
alandeducat
ional
right
sandt
her
ightt
oconst
it
uti
onal
remedi
es.
I
tist
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
hecent
ral
aswel
lasst
ateGov
ernment
stomakeav
ail
abl
e
sat
isf
act
oryci
rcumst
ancest
oeachi
ndi
vi
dual
toenj
oyt
hei
rhumanr
ight
s.

THEPROTECTI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTS,
ACT1993

ThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sAct
,1993camei
ntof
orceon28t
hJanuar
y,1993.
HumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
onBi
l
l,1993waspr
esent
edi
ntheLokSabhaon14.
05.
93and
wasment
ionedt
othest
andi
ngcommi
tt
eeofPar
li
amentonHomeAf
fai
rs.
Inopi
nionof
ur
gencyoft
hemat
ter
,Pr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sor
dinance,1993waspr
esent
edon
28.
09.
93byt
hePr
esi
dentofI
ndi
a.On8.
01.
94,
thePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sActwas
passedwhi
chcov
ersEnt
ir
eIndi
a.

Pr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
shav
ebecomepr
ior
it
yforgov
ernmentacr
osst
hewor
ld.
Theser
ight
shav
eal
sobecomepi
vot
ali
nli
vesofhumanbei
ngsaswi
thoutt
hesebasi
c
r
ight
sonecannott
hinkt
oleadr
espect
fulanddi
gni
fi
edl
i
fe.Atgl
oball
evel
,bunchof
Agr
eement
s,Announcement
sandTr
eat
iseshav
ebeenf
ramedt
oof
fersat
isf
act
ory
gui
dancet
oassoci
atest
atest
osanct
ionl
awsi
nthei
rindi
vi
dualNat
ionst
opr
otect
humanr
ight
s.Hav
ingmot
ivat
edf
rom gl
obalmandat
eonmat
ter
sofhumanr
ight
sand
t
hei
rgr
owi
ngv
iol
ati
onsi
nter
nat
ionalv
is-
à-v
isi
nIndi
a,t
heGov
ernmentofI
ndi
ahasal
so
passedaspeci
fi
claw knownasThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sAct
,1993.Thi
slaw
suggest
sfort
hef
ormat
ionofNat
ionalHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
onandSt
ateHuman
Ri
ght
sCommi
ssi
onsf
oreachSt
atet
opr
omot
ethegoalofpr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
s.
TheNHRChasbeenal
l
ocat
ednumer
ousr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesundert
heActt
opr
otecthuman
r
ight
s.

64
Thest
atemai
ntai
nsaf
ramewor
kofsoci
alor
derbyi
mpl
ement
ati
onofv
ari
ousl
aws
wi
thoutwhi
chwel
l
-or
der
edsoci
all
i
fewoul
dnotbepossi
ble.Pr
otect
ionofdi
gni
tyofan
i
ndi
vi
duali
sessent
ialf
orhar
monyi
nthesoci
ety
,asi
tvi
olat
ioncanhav
egr
avei
mpact
oni
ndi
vi
duali
npar
ti
cul
arandonsoci
etyi
ngener
al.Ev
eryi
ndi
vi
duali
sent
it
ledt
osome
r
ight
swhi
char
einher
entt
ohumanexi
stence.Ther
ight
smustnotbev
iol
atedont
he
basi
sofsex,
race,
backgr
ound,
soci
ety
,bel
i
efet
c.

Pr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
sisar
equi
rementf
ort
hegr
owt
handdev
elopmentofan
i
ndi
vi
dualper
sonal
i
ty,whi
chev
ent
ual
l
ydonat
esi
nthedev
elopmentasawhol
eint
he
nat
ion.I
tisani
nter
nat
ional
l
yrecogni
zedi
ssueandv
ari
ousi
nter
nat
ionali
nst
rument
s
hav
ebeenest
abl
i
shedf
ort
hepr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
s.Theconceptofhumanr
ighti
s
dy
nami
candadapt
stot
heneedsoft
henat
ionandi
tspeopl
e.Thedef
ini
ti
vepur
poseof
t
henat
ional
inaddi
ti
ont
ogl
obal
lawi
stopr
otectt
hehumanr
ight
soft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
s.

THEHI
STORI
CALBACKGROUNDOFTHEPROTECTI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTSACT,
1993

Thecount
ri
esi
nthewest
ernr
egi
on.Mai
nlyAmer
ica,cr
it
ici
sedl
ndi
aforv
iol
ati
onof
humanr
ight
sbyI
ndi
anar
medf
orcesandpar
a-mi
l
itar
yfor
ces,par
ti
cul
arl
y,i
ntheSt
ate
ofJammuandKashmi
r.I
near
ly90‘
sIndi
afel
tthenecessi
tyf
orcr
eat
ingacommi
ssi
on
asapr
ogr
essi
ver
epl
ytot
hecr
it
ici
smsoft
hef
orei
gnGov
ernment
sint
hef
ramewor
kof
pol
i
ticalconf
li
ctandv
iol
encei
nPunj
ab,JammuandKashmi
r,t
heNor
th-
East
ernst
ates
andAndhr
aPr
adesh.Howev
er,i
tisnowaday
sawel
l
-recogni
sedf
actt
hatt
err
ori
sm i
sa
ser
iousv
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
s.Amer
ica,notoncewast
edanoppor
tuni
tyt
ocr
it
ici
ze
l
ndi
a,whenev
erI
ndi
ansecur
it
yser
viceswant
edt
odeal
str
ict
lywi
thact
ivi
sts.

I
naddi
ti
onoft
hepr
essur
efr
om f
orei
gncount
ri
es,t
her
eisast
rongdemandf
rom t
he
nat
ional
frontaswel
lfort
hef
ormat
ionofaNat
ional
HumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
on.Al
lthi
s
l
ed t
he Gov
ernmentt
o pass a l
aw t
o cr
eat
e a Human Ri
ght
s Commi
ssi
on.The
Gov
ernment
‘sof
fert
ost
artt
heCommi
ssi
onwasofcour
seunexpect
edandwi
thoutdue
consi
der
ati
ons.OnSept
ember27,
1993

65
ThePr
esi
dentofI
ndi
a,ci
rcul
atedanOr
derf
ort
hef
ormat
ionofaNat
ional
HumanRi
ght
s
Commi
ssi
on.Just
ice Ranganat
h Mi
sha,t
he f
ormerChi
efJust
ice ofl
ndi
a,was
appoi
ntedt
heChai
rper
sonoft
heCommi
ssi
ononOct
ober12,
1993.

Ther
equi
rementf
ort
hepr
otect
ion ofhuman r
ight
smat
ter
sbot
h atnat
ionaland
i
nter
nat
ionall
evell
edt
other
epr
esent
ati
onofanActwhi
chpr
eci
sel
ydeal
swi
tht
he
pr
otect
ionofHumanr
ight
snamed
‗
ThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sAct
,1993‘
.Themai
nobj
ect
iveoft
heActi
stomake
av
ail
abl
eadmi
nist
rat
ivest
ruct
uref
orpr
otect
inghumanr
ight
s.TheActof
fer
sforHuman
Ri
ght
sCommi
ssi
onatnat
ionwi
del
evelaswel
lasatSt
atel
eveli
neachst
ateand
addi
ti
onalf
orar
rangementofHuman Ri
ght
s Cour
ts atdi
str
ictl
evelf
ori
mpr
oved
pr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
sandmat
ter
sassoci
atedt
her
ewi
th.TheActst
ateshuman
r
ight
sinSect
ion2(
d)as―t
her
ight
srel
ati
ngt
oli
fe,l
i
ber
ty,equal
i
tyanddi
gni
tyoft
he
i
ndi
vi
dualguar
ant
eedbyt
heConst
it
uti
onorembodi
edi
ntheI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enant
s
andenf
orceabl
ebycour
tsi
nIndi
a.‖Howev
er,boundst
hescopeoft
hewor
kingoft
he
Nat
ionalHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
on.Howev
er,I
ndi
asanct
ionedt
het
woCont
ract
s,
whi
char
eInt
ernat
ionalCov
enantonCi
vi
landPol
i
ticalRi
ght
sandt
heI
nter
nat
ional
Cov
enantonEconomi
c,Soci
alandCul
tur
alRi
ght
s.I
nter
nat
ionalcov
enant
sar
enot
admi
ssi
blebef
oret
hecour
ts,sot
her
emustbel
awsi
nthecount
rywhi
chi
stobewi
th
t
heconv
ent
ional
i
tyoft
heseagr
eement
s.Thus,t
hehumanr
ight
sguar
ant
eedi
nthe
Const
it
uti
onar
einconf
ormi
sm wi
tht
heseI
nter
nat
ional
Agr
eement
s.

ThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sAct
,1993wasenf
orcedon28t
hJanuar
y1993.Af
ter
hav
ingadel
i
ber
ateconv
ersat
ionont
hesubj
ectofHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
onBi
l
l,1993
wasi
ntr
oducedi
ntheLokSabhaon14.
05.
93andwasment
ionedt
othest
andi
ng
commi
tt
eeofPar
li
amentonHomeAf
fai
rs.

I
nopi
nionofur
gencyoft
hemat
ter
,Pr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sOr
der
,1993was
i
ntr
oducedbyt
hepr
esi
dentofI
ndi
aon28.
09.
93.On8.
01.
94,
theactwaspassedwhi
ch
ext
endedt
owhol
eofI
ndi
aandcamet
obeknownas―ThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
s
Act
,1993‖
.

66
THEMAI
NOBJECTI
VEOFPROTECTI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTSACT,
1993

Themai
nobj
ecti
spr
otect
inghumanbei
ngsf
rom v
iol
ati
ons.I
nabsenceofHuman
r
ight
sther
ewi
l
lbemeani
ngl
essl
i
fe.Ther
ight
sconcer
ningt
oli
fe,
freedom equal
i
tyand
di
gni
tyoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
asguar
ant
eedbyt
heconst
it
uti
onar
eal
soi
nvol
vedi
nthet
ypeof
―HumanRi
ght
s‖.HumanRi
ght
sar
ether
ight
sandf
reedomsgr
ant
edt
oal
lthehuman
bei
ngs.

Theper
sist
enceofsaf
eguar
dinghumanr
ight
sassuchi
stoof
fersaf
etyt
otheser
ight
s
cont
rar
ytot
he mi
suse ofpowercommi
tt
ed byt
he st
ruct
uresofst
atet
o cr
eat
e
or
gani
sat
ionf
ort
hedev
elopmentofexi
sti
ngcondi
ti
onbei
ngsandf
ort
hegr
owt
hof
t
hei
rper
sonal
i
tyand att
he si
mil
art
ime t
o of
feract
ualcor
rect
ive measur
es f
or
pr
ocur
ementr
edr
essi
ng t
heev
entofr
ight
swhi
char
evi
olat
ed.Theactof
fer
sfor
f
ormat
ionofNat
ionalHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
on,St
ateHumanr
ightCommi
ssi
onand
HumanRi
ght
sJudgeswhi
chseekst
oav
oidandpenal
i
zeanyunci
vi
li
zedv
iol
ati
onof
humanr
ight
s.

THEKEYPROVI
SIONSOFTHEPROTECTI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTSACT,
1993

I
nchapt
erI
Ioft
heAct
,theNat
ionalHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
oni
swel
l
-def
inedunder
sect
ion2(
c)andr
ecogni
sedundersect
ion3oft
heAct
.TheCommi
ssi
onshal
lbe
const
it
utedofmember
saspl
acedunderpr
ovi
si
onsofsect
ion3(
2),
whi
chl
ayt
hatt
her
e
wi
l
lbeaChai
rper
sonwhoshal
lbear
eti
redchi
efj
ust
iceofI
ndi
a,2member
swhohav
e
beenaj
udgei
ntheSupr
emeCour
tandot
hermembershal
lbechi
efJust
iceofaHi
gh
Cour
tapar
tfr
om t
hist
her
eshoul
dbet
woaddi
ti
onalmember
swhohav
ewor
kedi
nthe
ar
ea ofhuman r
ight
s.Apar
t,f
rom t
his Commi
ssi
on t
her
e shoul
d be a separ
ate
commi
ssi
on f
orNat
ionalCommi
ssi
on f
ormi
nor
it
iesand Nat
ionalCommi
ssi
on f
or
women.

Themember
sofCommi
ssi
on shoul
d beappoi
nted byt
hePr
esi
dentaf
terf
indi
ng
r
ecommendat
ions f
rom Pr
ime Mi
nist
erf
orappoi
ntmentofchai
rper
son and t
he
member
sshoul
dbenomi
nat
edi
nconv
ersat
ionwi
thSpeakeroft
heHouseoft
hePeopl
e,
Mi
nist
eri
n-char
geoft
heMi
nist
ryofHome
67
Af
fai
rs,
Leaderoft
heOpposi
ti
oni
ntheHouseoft
hePeopl
e,Leaderoft
heOpposi
ti
oni
n
t
heMeet
ingofSt
atesandDeput
yChai
rmanoft
heAssembl
yofSt
ates.TheChai
rper
son
shoul
dhol
dtheof
fi
cef
oraper
iodoff
ivey
ear
sorunt
ilhehasobt
ainedt
heageof
sev
ent
yyear
s,whi
chev
eri
sear
li
erandt
hemember
sshal
lbehol
dingt
heof
fi
cef
ort
erm
off
ivey
ear
sand shal
lbe qual
i
fied f
orr
eappoi
ntment
.The actal
so cont
rol
sthe
si
tuat
ionsofser
vices,
sal
ari
es,
pay
mentandsel
ect
ionofext
rast
aff
.

Chapt
erI
IIoft
heActdeal
swi
thpower
sandf
unct
ionsoft
heCommi
ssi
oni
nsect
ions12
t
o16.Thecommi
ssi
onshoul
dal
sot
akecer
tai
nact
ionsi
nthecasewher
ethev
ict
im has
f
il
edf
oranappl
i
cat
ionf
ort
hev
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
s.

Chapt
erI
Vdeal
swi
tht
hewayaf
teracompl
ainthascomei
ntonot
iceofCommi
ssi
on.
TheCommi
ssi
onaf
terget
ti
nganot
iceofv
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
sshoul
dinqui
rei
nto
t
hemat
ter
.

SALI
ENTFEATURESOFPROTECTI
ONOFHUMANRI
GHTSACT,
1993

TheHumanRi
ghtActwasf
ormedt
opr
otectt
heHumanRi
ghtoft
hepeopl
eofI
ndi
aand
t
ogi
vet
hem apl
atf
ormi
ncaseofv
iol
ati
onoft
hesame.Theactest
abl
i
shest
heHuman
Ri
ghtCommi
ssi
onsonbot
hNat
ionalaswel
lasSt
ateLev
el.UnderSect
ion3ofThe
Pr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sAct
,1993i
tlaydownt
heConst
it
uti
onoft
heNat
ional
HumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
on.

The Act
,al
so def
inest
he f
ormat
ion and t
he const
it
uti
on ofst
ate‘Human Ri
ght
s
commi
ssi
on.Sect
ion 30 oft
he Pr
otect
ion oft
he Human Ri
ght
s Actdet
ail
sthe
est
abl
i
shmentofHumanRi
ght
scour
tsf
orpr
ovi
dingspeedyTr
ialofOf
fensear
isi
ngout
oft
hev
iol
ati
onofHumanRi
ght
s.

THENATI
ONALHUMANRI
GHTSCOMMI
SION

68
Undert
he Pr
otect
ion ofHuman Ri
ght
s Act
,1993,The Nat
ionalHuman Ri
ght
s
Commi
ssi
onofI
ndi
awasf
oundi
nIndi
a.TheNat
ionalHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
onsar
e
uni
quei
ndependentor
gani
sat
ionandpl
aysasuppor
ti
veandsuppl
ement
aryr
olet
othe
cur
rentor
gani
sat
ion.

COMPOSI
TIONOFNHRC

NHRCi
sanaut
onomousor
gani
sat
ionconsi
sti
ngof
:
Appoi
ntachai
rper
sonwhohasser
vedasaChi
efJust
icei
nthe
Supr
emeCour
t.Anyonememberwhoi
sorwasaj
udgei
nthe
Supr
emeCour
t.
Anyonememberwhoi
sorhasbeent
heChi
efJust
icei
ntheHi
ghCour
t.
AnyTwomember
stobeappoi
ntedamongstper
sonshav
ingi
nfor
mat
ionofpr
act
ical
exper
iencei
nsubst
ancesi
nvol
vi
ngHumanRi
ght
s.

DI
VISI
ONOFNHRC

I
ntot
alt
her
ear
esi
xdi
vi
sionswi
thi
nNHRC,
theyhav
ebeenent
rust
edwi
thspeci
fi
ctask
andt
heyaddwor
kincl
oseconsul
tat
ionandcoor
dinat
ion,
thesi
xdi
vi
sionsar
e:-

TheAdmi
nist
rat
iveDi
vi
sion
TheLawdi
vi
sion
TheTr
aini
ngDi
vi
sion
Thepol
i
cy,
Resear
chandPr
oject
Di
vi
sionThei
nvest
igat
ionDi
vi
sion
TheI
nfor
mat
ionandPubl
i
cRel
ati
ons

Di
vi
sionsFUNCTI
ONSOFNHRC

Thepr
imar
il
yfunct
ionofNHRCi
stoconducti
nqui
ri
esi
ntov
iol
ati
onsofhumanr
ight
s.
NHRCconduct
sinqui
resf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
iesofVi
olat
ions:
-

69
Abuseofr
ightt
oli
fe,
li
ber
ty,
equal
i
tyanddi
gni
ty
Vi
olat
ionofI
nter
nat
ional
Treat
iest
owhi
chI
ndi
aisa
par
ty.HumanRi
ght
sabet
mentofv
iol
ati
onbya
publ
i
cser
vant
.
Pr
event
ionofhumanr
ight
svi
olat
ionduet
onegl
i
genceofpubl
i
c

ser
vant
.NHRCASADEFENDERANDPROTECTOROFHUMAN

RI
GHTS

Si
ncet
heest
abl
i
shmentofNHRC,i
tisdeal
i
ngwi
thmul
ti
plef
ormsofHumanRi
ght
s
Vi
olat
ion,i
tdoesn‘
tonl
yper
for
m sev
eralact
ivi
ti
est
opr
otectt
heHumanRi
ght
sinI
ndi
a,
butatsev
eraloccasi
oni
ssueddi
rect
iont
ogov
ernmentandt
hei
rinst
rument
ali
ti
est
o
r
especthumanr
ight
sofv
ulner
abl
esect
ionsoft
hesoci
ety
.

POWERSGI
VENTONHRC

Sect
ion13oft
heActgi
vest
hepower
stot
hecommi
ssi
on

Power
stoaci
vi
lcour
ttr
yingasui
tundert
heCodeofCi
vi
lpr
ocedur
e,1908
Toi
nvol
veanyper
sont
osuppl
yinf
ormat
iononopi
nionsormat
eri
alssubj
ectt
oany
pr
ivi
l
egewhi
chmaycanbecl
aimedt
hrought
hatper
sonunderanyl
aw f
ort
het
ime
bei
ngi
nfor
ce.
Ent
eri
ntoanybui
l
dingorpl
acewher
ethecommi
ssi
onhasr
easonst
obel
i
evet
hatany
documentr
elat
ingt
othesubj
ectmat
terori
nqui
rymaybef
oundandmaysei
zeany
documentmakecopi
esofsubj
ectt
othepr
ovi
sionsofsec100ofCr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
e
Code,
1973.

CONCLUSI
ON

ThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sAct
,1993camei
ntoact
ionwhent
heent
ir
enat
ionas
wel
last
hewor
ldwasobser
vingt
hegr
owi
ngcasesofv
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
sinway
s
70
di
ssi
mil
arandatt
imesunf
athomabl
e.Thet
oughoccur
renceofl
awsappl
yi
ngand
suppor
ti
nghumanl
awsar
e

71
si
gni
fi
cantast
heyhel
pcont
inui
ngandi
nspi
ri
ngt
hehumanenessoft
hecommonpeopl
e.
TheActcomeshandi
nhandwi
thv
ari
ousl
awst
hatr
elat
etot
henewpr
obl
emsofour
soci
ety
,act
ssuchasdowr
ydeat
hs,chi
l
dmar
ri
agesar
eunci
vi
li
zedv
iol
ati
onsofhuman
r
ight
s,t
her
efor
etheactdoesnotwal
kdownat
hinpat
hbutgr
ipsanal
l
-i
ncl
usi
veat
ti
tude.
Lawsi
nvol
vi
ngt
hesoci
etycannotaf
for
dtobest
il
l,ast
hesoci
etyi
scont
inuousl
y
changi
ng,
thesameappl
i
est
othi
sact
,ast
het
imechanges,
per
ti
nentchangesi
ntheact
woul
dbeneeded.

CONVENTI
ON ON THEELI
MINATI
ON OFALLFORMSOFDI
SCRI
MINATI
ON AGAI
NST
WOMEN(
CEDAW)

TheConv
ent
ionont
heEl
i
minat
ionofALLFor
msofDi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstWomen
(
CEDAW)i
sani
nter
nat
ional
treat
yadopt
edi
n1979byt
heUni
tedNat
ionsGener
al
Assembl
y.
Descr
ibedasani
nter
nat
ional
bil
lofr
ight
sforwomen,
Consi
sti
ngofapr
eambl
eand30
ar
ti
cles,
Itdef
ineswhatconst
it
utesdi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstwomenandSet
supan
agendaf
ornat
ional
act
iont
oendsuchdi
scr
imi
nat
ion.
I
twasi
nst
it
utedon3Sept
ember1981andhasbeenr
ati
fi
edby189st
ates.

TheConv
ent
ionont
heEl
i
minat
ionofal
lFor
msofDi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstWomen
def
inesdi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstwomenas―…anydi
sti
nct
ion,excl
usi
onorr
est
ri
cti
on
madeont
hebasi
sofsexwhi
chhast
heef
fectorpur
poseofi
mpai
ri
ngornul
l
ify
ingt
he
r
ecogni
ti
on,enj
oymentorexer
cisebywomen,i
rr
espect
iveoft
hei
rmar
it
alst
atus,ona
basi
sofequal
i
tyofmenandwomen,
ofhumanr
ight
sandf
undament
alf
reedomsi
nthe
pol
i
tical
,economi
c,soci
al,
cul
tur
al,
civ
iloranyot
herf
iel
d.―

Byaccept
ingt
heConv
ent
ion,
Stat
escommi
tthemsel
vest
ounder
takeaser
iesof
measur
est
oenddi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstwomeni
nal
lfor
ms,
incl
udi
ng:

t
oincor
por
atet
hepr
inci
pleofequal
i
tyofmenandwomeni
nthei
rlegal
syst
em,
abol
i
sh
al
ldi
scr
imi
nat
oryl
awsandadoptappr
opr
iat
eonespr
ohi
bit
ingdi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nst
women;

72
t
oest
abl
i
sht
ri
bunal
sandot
herpubl
i
cinst
it
uti
onst
oensur
etheef
fect
ivepr
otect
ionof
womenagai
nstdi
scr
imi
nat
ion;andt
oensur
eel
i
minat
ionofal
lact
sofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion
agai
nstwomenbyper
sons,
organi
zat
ionsorent
erpr
ises.

TheConv
ent
ioni
sst
ruct
uredi
nsi
xpar
tswi
th30ar
ti
clest
otal
.

Par
tI(
Art
icl
es1-
6)f
ocusesonnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion,
sexst
ereot
ypes,
andsext
raf
fi
cki
ng.
Par
tII(
Art
icl
es7-
9)out
li
neswomen‘
sri
ght
sint
hepubl
i
cspher
ewi
thanemphasi
son
pol
i
tical
li
fe,
repr
esent
ati
on,
andr
ight
stonat
ional
i
ty.
Par
tII
I(Ar
ti
cl
es10-
14)descr
ibest
heeconomi
candsoci
alr
ight
sofwomen,
par
ti
cul
arl
y
f
ocusi
ng on educat
ion,empl
oyment
,and heal
th.Par
tII
Ial
so i
ncl
udes speci
al
pr
otect
ionsf
orr
ural
womenandt
hepr
obl
emst
heyf
ace.
Par
tIV(
Art
icl
e15and16)out
li
neswomen‘
sri
ghtt
oequal
i
tyi
nmar
ri
ageandf
ami
l
yli
fe
al
ongwi
tht
her
ightt
oequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw.
Par
tV(
Art
icl
es17-
22)est
abl
i
shest
heCommi
tt
eeont
heEl
i
minat
ionofDi
scr
imi
nat
ion
agai
nstWomenaswel
last
hest
atespar
ti
es‘
repor
ti
ngpr
ocedur
e.
Par
tVI(
Art
icl
es23-
30)descr
ibest
heef
fect
soft
heConv
ent
iononot
hert
reat
ies,t
he
commi
tmentoft
hest
ate‘
spar
ti
esandt
headmi
nist
rat
ionoft
heConv
ent
ion.

I
ndi
a&Conv
ent
ionont
heEl
i
minat
ionofal
lFor
msofDi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstWomen

St
epsTakenbyI
ndi
a:-

Ar
ti
cle14oft
heI
ndi
anconst
it
uti
on,
Equal
i
tybef
oreLaw,
stat
es,
―theSt
ateshal
lnot
denyt
oanyper
sonequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
awort
heequal
prot
ect
ionoft
hel
awswi
thi
nthe
t
err
it
oryofI
ndi
a‖Ar
ti
cl
e15Pr
ohi
bit
sdi
scr
imi
nat
ionongr
oundsofr
eli
gion,
race,
cast
e,
sexorpl
aceofbi
rt
h(not
hingi
nthi
sar
ti
cleshal
lpr
eventt
heSt
atef
rom maki
ngany
speci
alpr
ovi
si
onf
orwomenandchi
l
dren)

73
I
n1994,I
ndi
arat
if
iedt
heConv
ent
ionoft
heEl
i
minat
ionofal
lfor
msofDi
scr
imi
nat
ion
agai
nstWomen(
CEDAW)t
reat
y.
The pur
pose,as out
li
ned i
n Ar
ti
cle 1 oft
he t
reat
y,i
stof
ocus on t
he f
orms of
di
scr
imi
nat
iont
hatwomenf
aceandt
ohel
pel
i
minat
edi
scr
imi
nat
iont
hatei
theri
ntends
t
o,orhast
heef
fectof
,li
mit
ingwomenf
rom par
ti
cipat
ingequal
l
yinpubl
i
cli
fe.
Tocont
rolf
emal
efet
ici
de,t
heGov
ernmentofI
ndi
aenact
edt
hePr
enat
alDi
agnost
ic
Techni
quesAct(
PNDT)i
n1994,whi
chr
est
ri
ctst
hedet
ermi
nat
ionandr
evel
ati
onof
genderoft
hef
oet
ust
hroughamni
ocent
esi
saswel
lasspeci
fi
est
hecodeofconductf
or
medi
cal
pract
it
ioner
s.
Undert
hePNDT Act
,an i
ndi
vi
dual
/inst
it
uti
on f
ound gui
l
tyofadv
ert
isi
ng pr
enat
al
det
ermi
nat
ionofgenderi
nanyf
ormi
ssubj
ectt
oimpr
isonmentand/
oraf
ine.
ThePNDTActwasamendedt
oPr
e-Concept
ionandPr
e-Nat
alDi
agnost
icTechni
ques
(
PCNDT)i
n2002and2003,owi
ngt
oinnov
ati
oni
ntechnol
ogi
esf
orsexdet
ermi
nat
ion
t
hroughul
tr
asoundst
hati
mpedet
hei
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
heAct
.
Sect
ion318i
nTheI
ndi
anPenalCode.Conceal
mentofbi
rt
hbysecr
etdi
sposalofdead
body.—
―Whoev
er,bysecr
etl
ybur
yingorot
her
wisedi
sposi
ngoft
hedeat
hbodyofachi
l
d
whet
hersuchchi
l
ddi
ebef
oreoraf
terordur
ingi
tsbi
rt
h,i
ntent
ional
l
yconceal
sor
endeav
our
stoconcealt
hebi
rt
hofsuchchi
l
d,shal
lbepuni
shedwi
thi
mpr
isonmentof
ei
therdescr
ipt
ionf
orat
erm whi
chmayext
endt
otwoy
ear
s,orwi
thf
ine,
orwi
thbot
h‖.
I
n1956I
ndi
apassedt
heI
mmor
alTr
aff
icki
ngPr
event
ionAct(
ITPA)whi
chhassev
ere
penal
ti
esr
angi
ngf
rom sev
eny
ear
s‘t
oli
fei
mpr
isonment
.
Fr
om anat
ionall
evel
,in1992,I
ndi
aest
abl
i
shedt
heNat
ionalCommi
ssi
onf
orWomen,
whi
chi
sthenat
ional
medi
atorf
orwomen.
I
n1997I
ndi
aest
abl
i
shedapar
li
ament
arycommi
tt
eeont
heempower
mentofwomen,
andi
nJanuar
y2001,I
ndi
aannouncedi
tscommi
tmentt
otheempower
mentofwomen
t
hrought
hel
aunchi
ngofanewNat
ional
Pol
i
cyonWomen‘
sEmpower
ment
.

74
TheConv
ent
ionpr
ovi
dest
hebasi
sforr
eal
i
zingequal
i
tybet
weenwomenandmen
t
hroughensur
ingwomen‘
sequalaccesst
o,andequaloppor
tuni
ti
esi
n,pol
i
ticaland
publ
i
cli
fe—i
ncl
udi
ngt
her
ightt
ovot
eandt
ost
andf
orel
ect
ion—aswel
laseducat
ion,
heal
thandempl
oyment
.St
atespar
ti
esagr
eet
otakeal
lappr
opr
iat
emeasur
es,
incl
udi
ng
l
egi
slat
ionandt
empor
aryspeci
almeasur
es,sot
hatwomencanenj
oyal
lthei
rhuman
r
ight
sandf
undament
alf
reedoms.

TheConv
ent
ioni
stheonl
yhumanr
ight
str
eat
ywhi
chaf
fi
rmst
her
epr
oduct
iver
ight
sof
womenandt
arget
scul
tur
eandt
radi
ti
onasi
nfl
uent
ialf
orcesshapi
nggenderr
olesand
f
ami
l
yrel
ati
ons.I
taf
fi
rmswomen‘
sri
ght
stoacqui
re,changeorr
etai
nthei
rnat
ional
i
ty
andt
henat
ional
i
tyoft
hei
rchi
l
dren.St
atespar
ti
esal
so agr
eet
otakeappr
opr
iat
e
measur
esagai
nstal
lfor
msoft
raf
fi
cinwomenandexpl
oit
ati
onofwomen.

Count
ri
est
hathav
erat
if
iedoraccededt
otheConv
ent
ionar
elegal
l
yboundt
oputi
ts
pr
ovi
sionsi
ntopr
act
ice.Theyar
eal
socommi
tt
edt
osubmi
tnat
ionalr
epor
ts,atl
east
ev
eryf
oury
ear
s,onmeasur
est
heyhav
etakent
ocompl
ywi
tht
hei
rtr
eat
yobl
i
gat
ions.

CONVENTI
ONONCHI
LDRI
GHTS

TheUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heRi
ght
soft
heChi
l
d(UNCRC)i
sahumanr
ight
s
t
reat
ywhi
chset
soutt
heci
vi
l,pol
i
tical
,economi
c,soci
al,heal
thandcul
tur
alr
ight
sof
chi
l
dren.TheConv
ent
iondef
inesachi
l
dasanyhumanbei
ngundert
heageofei
ght
een,
unl
esst
heageofmaj
ori
tyi
sat
tai
nedear
li
erunderast
ate‘
sowndomest
icl
egi
slat
ion.

TheUNCRCi
sahumanr
ight
str
eat
ythatset
sthepol
i
tical
,ci
vi
l,
economi
c,soci
al,
heal
th
andcul
tur
alr
ight
sofchi
l
dren.

I
tisani
nter
nat
ional
agr
eementt
hati
slegal
l
ybi
ndi
ngont
hemember
s.

75
I
tconsi
stsof54ar
ti
cl
est
hatspel
loutv
ari
ouschi
l
dren‘
sri
ght
sandal
sot
hemeasur
es
gov
ernment
sshoul
dtakei
nor
dert
omaket
heser
ight
sav
ail
abl
etochi
l
dren.
TheCRCwasadopt
edbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionsi
n1989.I
tent
eredi
ntof
orcei
n1990af
ter
r
ecei
vi
ngt
hemi
nimum of20r
ati
fi
cat
ions.
I
thasbeenr
ati
fi
edbyal
lmember
soft
heUNexceptf
ort
heUni
tedSt
ates.I
tist
he
mostwi
del
yrat
if
iedhumanr
ight
str
eat
yint
hehi
stor
yoft
hewor
ld.
Undert
hear
ti
cl
esoft
heconv
ent
ion,
all
par
ti
est
oitar
erequi
redt
oensur
ethat
chi
l
dren‘
sbasi
cneedsar
eful
fi
ll
edandt
heyar
eabl
etor
eacht
hei
rful
lpot
ent
ial
.

Ri
ght
soft
heChi
l
d

Theconv
ent
ioni
dent
if
iesachi
l
dasahumanbei
ngbel
ow t
heageof18.TheCRC
acknowl
edgest
hatev
erychi
l
disent
it
ledt
ofundament
alr
ight
s,andsomeoft
hemost
i
mpor
tantr
ight
sar
easf
oll
ows:

Ri
ghtt
oli
fe,
sur
viv
alanddev
elopment
.
Ri
ghtt
oeducat
iont
hatf
aci
l
itat
est
hem t
oreacht
hei
rful
l
pot
ent
ial
.Ri
ghtt
opr
otect
ionf
rom abuse,
viol
enceor
negl
ect
.
Ri
ghtt
oex
pressopi
nionsandbehear
d.
Ri
ghtt
ober
aisedbyorhav
ear
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
hei
rpar
ent
s.
Whatar
ethe4cor
epr
inci
plesoft
heConv
ent
ionont
heRi
ght
soft
heChi
l
d?
Non-
discr
imi
nat
ion
Ri
ghtt
oli
fe,
sur
viv
aland
dev
elopmentBesti
nter
est
soft
he
chi
l
d
Respectf
ort
hechi
l
d‘sv
iews
Br
iefTi
mel
i
neofChi
l
dRi
ght
sMov
ement
Thef
ir
stt
imei
nmoder
nhi
stor
ychi
l
dren‘
sri
ght
swasgi
veni
mpor
tancewaswhent
he
LeagueofNat
ionsadopt
edt
heGenev
aDecl
arat
ionont
heRi
ght
soft
heChi
l
din1924.
Thi
swasdr
aft
edbyt
heEgl
ant
yneJebb,
whof
oundedt
heSav
etheChi
l
drenFund.

76
UNI
CEFwasf
oundedi
n1946.
TheUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
spassedi
n1948byt
heUNGAi
nwhi
chan
ar
ti
clement
ionsmot
her
sandchi
l
dren.
TheDecl
arat
ionoft
heRi
ght
soft
heChi
l
dadopt
edbyt
heUNGAi
n1959.
TheI
LOadopt
saconv
ent
iont
hatset
sout18ast
hemi
nimum agef
orpeopl
eto
under
takehazar
douswor
k.
TheDecl
arat
ionont
hePr
otect
ionofWomenandChi
l
dreni
nEmer
gencyandAr
med
Conf
li
ctadopt
edi
n1974.
TheUNGAdecl
ares1979ast
heI
nter
nat
ional
Yearoft
he
Chi
l
d.I
n1989,
theUNCRCi
sadopt
ed.
CRCent
ersi
ntof
orcei
n1990.
Asof2015,
all
member
shav
erat
if
iedt
heconv
ent
ionexcept
ingf
or
t
heUS.Al
sor
eadaboutRepor
tsPubl
i
shedbyI
nter
nat
ional
Or
gani
zat
ions.

UNCRCOpt
ional
Prot
ocol
s
Thr
eeopt
ional
prot
ocol
shav
ebeenaddedt
otheconv
ent
ion.Theyar
ement
ionedbel
ow:

Pr
otocol
aski
nggov
ernment
snott
oenl
i
stchi
l
drenbel
owt
heageof18i
ntot
hear
med
f
orces(
2000)
.
Pr
otocol
aski
nggov
ernment
stopr
ohi
bitchi
l
dpor
nogr
aphy
,chi
l
dpr
ost
it
uti
on,
andt
he
sal
eofchi
l
dreni
ntosl
aver
y(2000)
.
Pr
otocol
thatenabl
eschi
l
drenwhof
acedv
iol
ati
onoft
hei
rri
ght
stocompl
aindi
rect
ly
t
otheUNCommi
tt
eeont
heRi
ght
soft
heChi
l
d(2011)
.
I
tist
hisCommi
tt
eet
hatmoni
tor
sthei
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
heconv
ent
ion.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,
UNI
CEFpl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
nthewor
kingoft
heUNCRC.

I
ndi
aandCRC

77
I
ndi
arat
if
iedt
heconv
ent
ioni
n1992agr
eei
ngi
npr
inci
ple,
allar
ti
clesexceptwi
thcer
tai
n
r
eser
vat
ionsoni
ssuesr
elat
ingt
ochi
l
dlabour
.InI
ndi
a,t
her
eisal
awt
hatchi
l
drenunder
t
heageof18shoul
dnotwor
k,butt
her
eisnoout
ri
ghtbanonchi
l
dlabour
,andt
he
pr
act
icei
sgener
all
yper
mit
tedi
nmosti
ndust
ri
esexceptt
hosedeemedhazar
dous.

78