INTRODUCTION TO MINING

MNE - 201 (ESO1)

Lecture-18
6. Tunnel:
It is a horizontal opening which is driven from surface
to underground to reach the orebody, when deposit is in
the hill, and its both end is open to atmosphere
 Table -Modes of accessing a deposit
Parameters Decline/ramp Incline shaft / Incline Vertical shaft
Opening inclination limit Up to 8° Up to 20° >20° degrees to
vertical
Depth limitations Not exceeding 300m Not exceeding 200 m Depth exceeding
~100 m
Usual rock type through Mostly in waste rock Mostly in waste rock Mostly in waste rock
which an entry driven or black rock or in orebody or black rock
Principal purpose Early access to the Early access to the Access to any deposit
shallow deposit to shallow deposit to and produce ore on a
develop and produce develop and produce regular basis. Usually
ore at the earliest ore at the earliest. serve as permanent
using trackless Also equipped with mine entry
equipment mine services and
serves as personnel
access
Position w.r.t. deposit Preferably in F/W Along deposit or in For flat deposits in
side of deposit F/W side in waste overlying strata but
rock. for steep deposits in
F/W
Driving rate Fast Faster Slow
Construction cost High Low Highest
Level:
The horizontal opening which is driven
along the strike direction within the ore
deposit
A typical underground mine has a
number of near horizontal levels at various
depths, spread out from the main mine
access to the orebody
The levels are designated as main, sub,
and haulage etc depending on the purpose
The main levels are in vertical separations at an average height of
30m, 60m, and 120 m based on the mining method
The sublevels are intermediate levels for stope drilling at 10m,
15m, and 30 m
The haulage levels are used for the transportation of ore to the
crushing chamber and ore bin for hoisting to the surface
Cross cut:
It is the horizontal opening
roadway driven from shaft or
level through country rock to
reach deposit
The size of a cross cut is
usually 2m x 2m to 4m x 3m
A connection from a shaft to
a vein
In general, any drift driven
across between any two
openings for any mining
purpose
Raise:
It is vertical opening
driven between two
main level, if
opening is driven
from lower level to
upper level is called
as Raise

Winze:
It is vertical opening which is driven two main level, if
opening driven from upper level to lower level is called
as Winze
Drift or Ore drive:
A horizontal or near-horizontal roadway which is
driven parallel to strike of the orebody (lode or vein)
It can be located in the country rock either on the
footwall side of the deposit or on the hangwall side
The drives are used for exploring the orebody over
the strike length from one end to the other, and serve
the transport route of ore and development waste from
the stopes
Ramp:
Ramp is a spiral shape
roadway driven between
two main level to
transport the blasted
material from upper level
to lower level by means
of gravity
Manway:
It is opening driven for the purpose of travelling of person
within the stope
Excavation Terms
Bell: Funnel-shaped excavation formed at the top of a raise to move bulk material
by gravity from a stope to a drawpoint.
Bleeder: Exhaust ventilation lateral.
Chute: Opening from a drawpoint, utilizing gravity flow to direct bulk material
from a bell or orepass to load a conveyance.
Drawpoint: Loading point beneath a stope, utilizing gravity to move bulk
material downward and into a conveyance, by a chute or loading machine; also
boxhole.
Finger raise: Vertical or near-vertical opening used to transfer bulk material from
a stope to a drawpoint; often an interconnected set of raises.
Grizzly: Coarse screening or scalping device that prevents oversized bulk
material from entering a material transfer system; constructed of rails, bars,
beams, etc.
Haulageway: Horizontal opening used primarily for materials handling.
Level: System of horizontal openings connected to a shaft; constitutes an
operating horizon of a mine.
Loading pocket: Transfer point at a shaft where bulk material is loaded by bin,
hopper, and chute into a skip.
Excavation Terms
Orepass: Vertical or near-vertical opening through which bulk material flows
by gravity.
Portal: Opening or connection to the surface from an underground excavation.
Room: Horizontal exploitation opening, usually in a bedded deposit.
Slope: Primary inclined opening, usually a shaft, connecting the surface with
underground workings.
Slot: Narrow vertical or inclined opening excavated in a deposit at the end of a
stope to provide a bench face.
Stope: Large exploitation opening, usually inclined or vertical, but may also be
horizontal.
Sublevel: Secondary or intermediate level between main levels or horizons,
usually close to the exploitation area.
Transfer point: Location in the materials-handling system, either haulage or
hoisting, where bulk material is transferred between conveyances.
Undercut: Low horizontal opening excavated under a portion of a deposit,
usually a stope, to induce breakage and caving of the deposit; also a narrow
kerf cut in the face of a mineral deposit to facilitate breakage.
Excavation Terms
Pillar: Unmined portion of the deposit, providing support to the roof or
hanging wall.
Crown pillar: Portion of the deposit overlying an excavation and left in
place as a pillar.
Sill pillar: Portion of the deposit underlying an excavation and left in place
as a pillar.
Barrier pillar: a pillar designed to withstand major loads.
Yield pillar: a pillar designed to yield, but not fail under heavy loads.

Capping: Waste rock overlying the mineral deposit.

Rib: Side wall of an excavation.
Gob: Broken, caved, and mined-out portion of the deposit. Often, mined out
areas will begin to cave, and this is a normal part of the process. The caved
area is known as the gob, or in some parts of the world, the goaf.
Excavation Terms
Top: Overlying surface of an underground excavation.
Bottom: Floor or underlying surface of an underground excavation.
Roof: Top or overlying surface of an underground excavation.
Floor: Bottom or underlying surface of an underground excavation.
Back: Roof, top, or overlying surface of an underground excavation.
Country rock: Waste rock adjacent to a mineral deposit; and sometimes
called host rock.
Wall rock: Country rock boundary adjacent to a deposit.
Footwall: Wall rock under the deposit.
Hanging wall: Wall rock above a deposit.

Inby: Toward the working face, away from the mine entrance.
Outby: Away from the working face, toward the entrance.
Overhand: Advancing in an upward direction.
Underhand: Advancing in a downward direction.
 BOX-CUT
Mode of Entry in a Surface Mine
Box Cut:
It is the initial/first cut that is placed on or out side the
mineral bearing zone in order to develop the benches
(both waste and ore mineral) subsequently
It is first step toward the physical development of a
surface mine
First a trench is cut (like a box without lid)
This cut generally looks like a top open box having
an inclined floor and walls on three sides (front wall and
two side walls)
The main objectives of box cut are :
To reach the ore body/coal seam for its subsequent
extraction
To provide a smooth entry into the pit
To provide space for the development of working/
production benches
 Types of Box cut:
1.Internal Box cut
2.External Box cut

1. Internal Box cut:

 When the box cut is placed
(established) partially or
fully on the ore bearing
zone, it is called an internal
box cut
 This box cut is applicable to
any type of deposit
2. External Box cut:
 When the box cut is
placed (established) to
fully out side the ore
bearing zone, it is called
an external box cut
 Generally, this type of box
cut is applicable for flat –
shallow bedded deposit
Box cut parameters:
H - Height
L – Plan length
L’ – Inclined length
W – Width at the floor
W’ – Width at the surface level
β – Front slope angle
ϴ - Side slope angle
α - Longitudinal slope angle
Box cut parameters:
Height (H):
The height of the box cut is generally equal to the
planed bench height
W (Width at the floor level):
W H
W  3  Width of the largest size of the dumper
W  Width of the largest machine +2m for clearance through box cut

Width of the floor of the box cut should such that the movement of the
machinery is smooth. If shovel – dumper combination is used for the box
cut, then there should be sufficient space for the shovel movement for
excavation & loading and the width should be at least three times the width
of the dumper being used
 Longitudinal slope angle (α):
tanα should be less than or equal to 1 in 16
Box cut at a later stage forms a part of main haul
road
α: will depends on the type of
machine deployed
 High angle conveyor 1 in 3
 Crawler mounted machine
1in 6 to 1 in 7
 Dumper 1 in 14

Longitudinal inclination of the floor (α) of the box cut depends on the intended
use of it at later dates. If it is planned that the box cut will form a part of the haul
road ramp, then the cut is generally made with an inclination less than 1 in 16
 H
sin  
L'
L '  H .cos ec
L
cos  
L'
L  L '.cos 
L  H .cos ec .cos 
L  H cot 
H
tan    1 in 16
L
 Width at the surface level (W’ ):
If at any section, height of the Box
cut /Trench/Bench is H, then
H
tan  
X
X  H cot 
W '  W  2 H cot 

Front slope angle (β) and side slope angles (ϴ) are generally
dependent on the rock-mass properties (physico-
mechanical) and the pore pressure condition at the cut site,
and the maximum height of the cut. The front slope angle is
generally steeper than the side slope angles. The side slope
angles are generally same, but under certain conditions they
may be different
Front slope angle (β):
Generally, it is very steep (80o – 85o ) –
Since it is the moving face or front face
Generally, Front slope angle (β) will be steeper
than Side slope angle (ϴ)
β > ϴ
Side slope angle (ϴ) will be a function of
physico-mechanical properties of rock, structural
properties and ground water properties
In competent rocks (in which an unsupported
opening can be made) ϴ varies from 60o – 80o
Stronger the rock, steeper will be the
angle
Method:
Backhoe:
For low bench height, we use hydraulic back hoe
Adv: Machine can just sit on the top and extract
below it
Dragline:
For flat bedded deposit (coal), we use Dragline (Flat
less than 1 in 20)
Backhoe
Dragline
Conventions: For Face
Formation of benches by extending the existing box cut:

In this case, the first bench (I – Bench) is developed by extending the initial box-
cut. Proper working face is established and the bench of designed height and slope
is advanced sufficiently (figures i to iii). This is followed by establishing the next
cut (second cut) by extending the first cut after widening the same so as to leave
sufficient gap/space to allow unrestricted movement of dumpers between the first
bench and the surface. The second cut effectively becomes as an extension of the
first cut. Once the second cut is established fully, the development of the second
bench of designed height and slope starts; and the same process continues for
development of subsequent benches.
 Formation of benches by establishing additional cut:

In this method, the first bench (I – Bench) is developed by extending the initial
box-cut. Proper working face is established and the bench of designed height and
slope is advanced sufficiently. This is followed by establishing the next cut (second
cut), a separate one from the first cut, leaving sufficient gap/space between the two
cuts to allow unrestricted movement of dumpers between the first bench and the
surface. The second cut is generally established oblique to the first cut. Once the
second cut is established fully, the development of the second bench of designed
height and slope starts; and the same process continues for development of
subsequent benches.
Choice of location of box cut:
1. Accessibility of the location:
Some area maybe easily accessible will be given priority
w.r.t. difficulty accessible
2. Requirement of handling of waste to reach the ore body:
The site with less required or required of less handling of
waste/overburden to reach the ore body will be more
preferable
3. Availability of dumping space sites nearby:
The spaces/sites which will have sufficient space nearby
needed for dumping the overburden/waste rock those are
excavated during the formation of cut and excavating the
initial bench development will be more preferable
4. Geological Disturbances:
The sites which are free from geological disturbances are
more preferable. Lesser the geological disturbances ,
more will be preferable
5. Problems do to accumulation of water:
Sites which are comparatively free from accumulation of
water that is both surface and underground will be more
preferable
6. Stability of the ground:
Sites having more stability of ground conditions will be
more preferable
7. Relation with the overall plan of the mine:
The location must match suitably with the overall mine
plan that is it must not create any hindrance in future
mine development and also optimizes the overall waste
for the ore as well as the waste transport out of pit

Optimum location of the box cut will be

decided/chosen -
Considering all the above factors/ aspects so that
overall cost is minimized that is it should be
most economic