Tarlac State University

College of Education
Bachelor of Early Childhood Education
Lucinda Campus
Tarlac City, Tarlac

PLANNING FOR THE MIND:

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ACTION

ECED 3

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LEARNING OUTCOMES……………………………………………………………3

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION: MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVE………..….4

COGNITIVE SKILLS………………………………………………………………...8

EFFECTIVE APPROACHES FOR CURRICULUM………………………………..11

SPECIAL TOPIC: TECHNOLOGY AND MEDIA……………………………….....24

SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………..…34

KEY TERMS…………………………………………………………………………35

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PLANNING FOR THE MIND: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN

ACTION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Students will be able to DEFINE how one activity can enhance cognitive development

throughout the curriculum.

• Students will be able to ANALYZE how teacher’s use of language to helps children think

and develop cognitive skills.

• At the end of the lesson, students will be familiar with technology and media in classroom.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION: MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVE WHAT

IS COGNITION?

• Cognition refers to the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through

thought, experience, and senses. By using conscious thought and memory, children think

about themselves, the world, and others.

• Cognition is related not only to the developing mind but also to all areas of the child’s

growth.

• Cognitive development encompasses what humans do, says, and feel. In other words,

everything uses the brain. Understanding how children learn through cognitive experiences

includes many perspective. The theories of Piaget and Vygotsky help make sense of

cognition and to plan for its development in early childhood programs.

LEARNING THROUGH COGNITIVE EXPERIENCES

• Of self - a baby plays with his hands and feet for hours and rolls over just the sake of doing

it.

• Of things everywhere - a toddler invades the kitchen cabinet to see what treasures can be

found.

• Of people - a preschooler learns the teacher’s names and makes a first “friend.”

• Of faraway places - a second-grader packs for the first “sleepover.”

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COGNITION AND LANGUAGE

• Cognition can occur without the language to express it. For example, an infant’s laughter
during a game of peek-a-boo indicates the child’s knowledge that the hidden face will

appear.

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• The use of language can occur without cognition (i.e., without knowing the meaning). A

child’s counting from 1 to 20 (“…11, 12, 13, 17, 20!”) is a case in point.

A PIAGETIAN PERSPECTIVE

• Developmental Psychology, particular through the works of jean Piaget, has provided a

deeper understanding of cognitive development. Piaget’s view of cognition is twofold.

• First, learning is process of discovery, of finding out what one needs to know to solve a

particular problem.

• Second, knowledge results from active thought, from making mental connections among

objects, from constructing a meaningful reality for understanding.

Piaget divided knowledge into three types:

1. Physical knowledge

Physical knowledge is what children learn about different physical objects and how they feel,

taste, smell, move, and soon. For example, by touching magnets to paper clips, puzzles, and

paper dolls, children learn firsthand about magnetism. They learn to discriminate between

objects that "stick" to the magnet and those that do not.

2. Logical mathematical knowledge

Logical mathematical knowledge thinking is the kind of thinking children use to make

connections about what they see. If a child deliberately takes a magnet to metal drawer pulls

and metal climbing bars, we can see the logical knowledge used in making the inference that

it is the metal things that "stick" on the magnet.

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3. Social knowledge

Social knowledge comes from our culture-the rules of the game, the right vocabulary, and the

moral codes. Value-laden and often arbitrary, it can rarely be constructed logically. With the

aforementioned magnets, social knowledge would need to be used to decide who gets to play

with the magnets.

In developing cognitive curriculum, teachers plan experiences that enhance those type of

knowledge. They can teach using different form of knowledge.

• Rote knowledge. Rote knowledge is information given with no particular meaning to the

learner-that which could be learned meaningfully but is not. A teacher talking about magnets

or telling children what attracts or repels gives children rote knowledge.

• Meaningful knowledge. Meaningful knowledge is what children learn gradually and within

the context of what they already know and want to find out --- like the example of letting the

children handle the magnets themselves if they choose and answering their questions as they

arise.

GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

The overall framework involves four steps:

• Introduction: Introduce children to a range of learning areas

• Identification: Identify each child's strengths

• Nurturance: Nurture those strengths

• Bridging: Bridge their strengths to other subject areas

The Multiple intelligences approach: Sample Early Learning Activities

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 Learning Center Sample activity Intelligences area

Blocks/manipulative Making wire design Spatial

Discovery/science Tools for biologists Naturalistic

Music Sound cylinders match-up Musical

Movement Statue game Body-kinesthetic

Math Weight and measures Logical

Social studies Making silhouettes Interpersonal

Language “Reporting the news” Linguistic

Visual arts Making an art portfolio Intrapersonal

Self-studies “Why are we in the world?” Existential

BRAIN RESEARCH

“The human brain is the most fascinatingly organized three pounds of matter on this planet"

(Schiller, 2008).

The principal task of the brain in early childhood is the connection of brain cells. A child's brain

is two-and-a-half times as active as an adult's. During the first three years of life, an infant's brain

creates an estimated one trillion synapses. "Babies are designed to learn-and this evolutionary

story would say children are for learning, that's what they're for-we might expect that they would

have really powerful learning mechanisms. And in fact, the baby's brain seems to be the most

powerful learning computer on the planet" (Gopnik, 2011).

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Birth to age [Link] for healthy sensory stimulation. This means all the senses need to be

included in a child's exploration of the world. Very young children should live in an enriched

environment-visual, auditory, language, and soon because the executive circuits that are

responsible for language, number, and emotional and social functioning come "on line" in the

first years of life (Galinsky, 2010).

Age 4 to [Link] brain is eagerly searching for stimulation; it is most flexible, or plastic, early in

life to accommodate a wide range of environments and interactions, but its capacity for change

decreases with age (NSC, 2008).

Children's brains are far more plastic at all ages than previously thought and the speed by which

experience and behavior can shape the brain is greater than almost anyone imagined, according

to neuroscientists. Develop curriculum that provides for children's well-being and support them

in making smart choices about how they use their brains. (Diamond & Amso, 2008)

COGNITIVE SKILLS

A basic skill is defined by two fundamental qualities:

A skill is basic if it is TRANSCURRICULAR: that is, if the child can use it in a variety of

situations and activities throughout the school day. For example, children who can express their

curiosity and opinions clearly-who can let adults know when they are having difficulties or want

to know more-have acquired a skill that is useful anywhere.

A skill is also basic if it has DYNAMIC CONSEQUENCES: that is, if it leads to other

worthwhile responses. For instance, children who are articulate tend to -1:-"more verbal

responses from adults. Consequently they are exposed to more verbal stimulation, which in turn

strengthens their verbal abilities, and so on. Thus, having this skill leads to major dynamic,

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consequences in a favorable direction, whereas not having the skill leads to dynamic

consequences in an unfavorable direction.

SKILLS OF INQUIRY

Young children are curious, watching the world carefully. Through exploration and examination,

they increase their attention span. Inquisitive children begin to organize what they see, analyzing

and identifying confusions or obstacles for themselves. All the senses function a birth, and both

sensation and perception are used to make sense of the world.

KNOWLEDGE OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD

• How do children learn about the physical world? First, they use objects, spending plenty of

time exploring, manipulating, choosing, and using toys and natural materials.

KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIAL WORLD

• To Gardner, this kind of knowledge requires both intrapersonal (access to one’s own feelings

and a range of emotions) and interpersonal (the ability to notice others, making distinctions

among individuals, particularly their moods and motivations) intelligence.

CLASSIFICATION

• Knowledge of the physical world teaches children to have difference responses to different

objects. Classification is the ability to group like objects in sets by a specific characteristics.

SERIATION

• Seriation is the ability to put an object or group of objects in a logical series based on a

property of those objects. By size, color, weight, and numbers.

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• For instance, the pyramid tower is ordered from largest piece to smallest as it built. Boxes are

nested, one inside the other, by their graduated size or volume.

NUMBERS

Understanding the concept of number means learning about quantity: understanding amount,

degree, and position. Mathematical knowledge is an emergent understanding of concepts. Once

infants develop an understanding of object permanence they are ready to learn about quantity.

SYMBOLS

A symbol stands for something else; it is not what it appears to be! Young children have to think

hard and long to symbolize. It is a task of some skill to imitate or use one object to represent

something else. Making sounds to represent the objects (“choo-choo” is a train, for example).

Descriptive words: “it is round and red and you eat it. What is it?” “(An apple)”

TIME

Understanding time is a complicated affair because time is composed of at least three

dimensions: time as the present, time as a continuum, and time as a sequence of events. Children

must learn each of these to fully understand the concept of time.

COGNITIVE SKILLS INTO THE CURRICULUM

Cognitive skills Sample activity Age

Inquiry: senses, perception, Play with water: What can Toddler, preschool
attention, memory you find out?

Knowledge of the physical Take on outdoor sound walk Toddler, preschool

world

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 Knowledge of the social Make a wheel of feelings; Preschool, school age
world
Read Aliki’s Feelings book

Classification Collections: put together, Preschool, school age

identify describe, and classify
a nature collection

Seriation Yeast grows : see which School age

expands most, with Flour,
sugar, salt, juice

Numbers Play “five’s” game with School age

playing cards numbered 1-4

Symbols Making shapes: Bodies and Preschool, school age

shapes card

Spatial relationship Geoboards Preschool, school age

Time Play “stop and go” With Preschool, school age

music

EFFECTIVE APPROACHES FOR CURRICULUM

Planning a cognitive curriculum requires educators to keep several key points in mind, such as

knowing how children learn and how the various contexts “play out” in individual children and

the group. Taking into account the setting, schedule, and skill levels of children allow a better

match between the themes or activities presented and what teachers want children to learn.

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CONSIDERATION

When considering children’s intellectual development, teachers should keep the following in

mind:

• Education is exploration. The process of education is more than its product. Teachers

enhance learning by allowing children to interact with the environment. The teacher is a

source of information and support rather than one who gives answer or commands. A project

approach based on the belief that children’s mind should be engaged in ways that deepen

their understanding of their experiences and environment, may be used. Consisting of

exploring a theme or topic (such as shadows, houses, building a table) over a period of

weeks, this approach reflects Dewey’s progressive education and the British Open Schools

(see chapter 1) and is implemented regularly in the Reggio Emilia Schools. The goal is to

have a children ask their own questions and create their own challenges.

• Children do not think like adults. Children think and perceive in their own ways, as Piaget

believed. They think in sensory and concrete terms and come to conclusions based on what

they see and touch.

• Children’s thinking is legitimate and should be valued. Their thought processes and

perceptions are as valid as those of adults. Teachers support those processes by asking

questions to stimulate further thought and by providing materials for exploration.

• The language of the teacher should support cognitive development. Throughout their

interactions with children, teachers help children use words, terms, and concepts correctly.

Mariko (at water table): I need that suck up

Teacher: The baster really does suck up water, doesn’t it?

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 Their questions are open-ended to help children think and often leave the child with

something to ponder:

Teacher: I wonder why the turtle’s head went back in its shell when you put your

finger close?

Teacher: if you want to play with Jose, how can you let him know?

Teacher: what do you need from the wood-working shelf to make a spaceship?

The teacher must match the child’s cognitive capacity with the instruction. Childcentered,

self-initiated learning is a great motivator, so observing children’s intensity with materials and

asking questions to extend their thinking is recommended. Use conversation, document

children’s thinking, use drawing, and incorporate problem solving.

The teacher must, include, and plan for children with learning disabilities and other

varied learning “styles.” Each type of learning disability has its own description and treatment.

Teachers must develop a wide range of techniques to address such disabilities. After the

identification and assessment phases, teachers and families need to work with specialists and

devise options (an individualized education plan, or IEP) that include the child and establish

reasonable learning goals.

Figure 12-4 shows further how teachers’ use of language helps children think and
develop cognitive skills as part of their early childhood experience
Skill Teachers Can

Inquiry Ask questions so children make statements about their

conversations.

Try to be more specific if such questions seem overwhelming

or if they elicit little response.

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 Ask how children arrive at their answers.

Social knowledge Try not to respond to unstated needs.

Help children define what they want or need, so that they
learn how to ask for it.

Classification Ask questions that will help children focus on objects and see
differences and details,

Spatial relationships Ask for the precise location of an object the child asks for or
is interested in.

Concept of time Use accurate time sequences with children.

CURRICULUM PLANNING FOR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

IN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD SETTING

Teachers plan cognitive curriculum for their children much as they do for each of the

development domains. Consider the setting, both indoors and out and the daily schedule. Each

activity center and time slot can be used to encourage intellectual development with a variety of

curriculum materials and methods. Another way to plan curriculum is to focus on a specific

cognitive skill and prepare activities or to use a theme throughout the environment or schedule.

Keep in mind:

• Children ages birth to 2 have a limited attention span and can be over stimulated unless the

environment is kept simple.

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 Three to five-year-olds can absorb more information and finer detail as they have more

developed motor and perceptual skills.

• Older preschoolers and kindergartners learn best trying to solve real problems that are

right in front of them, such as making a river in the sandbox or building and connecting

castles in the block area

• Compared with preschoolers and kindergartens, school age children are more logical and

flexible in their thinking, have more knowledge of the world, have improved memory, and

can better sustain their attention.

Figure 12-5 shows how one activity (which can be done with nearly all ages) contributes the

development of children’s thought processes.

COOKING AS A COGNITIVE ACTIVITY

FIGURE 12-5. Each activity, such as cooking, can enhance cognitive development throughout

the curriculum. A trip to the market can be an experience in classification and calculation.

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Teachers can create high activity, low stress, brain compatible learning environments. An

optimal environment has several learning center to choose from so that the brain is stimulated to

be attentive, to absorb new information, and to store this information in long-term memory.

Teachers should aim to create a balance between meaningful experiences and optimal

stimulation of the brain in their classrooms. “Such an environment offers children experiences

with real-life, hands-on, theme-based activities oriented to solving problems, such as children

counting out play money when shopping at the store in the dramatic center” (Rushton, 2001)

INDOOR AREAS Indoors areas provide the basic ingredients of a stimulating cognitive

environment, with simplifications for younger children and elaborations for older ones:

• Art. Include a “help yourself” shelf for children-chosen projects. A variety of paper, drawing

implements, and tools encourage children to re-create their own reality, using

representational art forms that show how children see the physical and social worlds.

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• Blocks. Have paper models of each block shape on storage shelves to help children with

classification by shape and size. Be sure you put a priority on having enough space unit

blocks (a 600-piece set for a preschool class of 16) and provide enough space (40-80 square feet

per group) with a firm carpet that supports balancing towers and controls noise. Accessories,

such as animals and homemade trees and lakes, help children symbolize. As they experiment

with blocks, they learn about physical laws and reality and have experiences in cooperative

learning and living, all of which are cognitive tasks. Counting blocks which builds on one to

one correspondence rather than rote memorization, contributes to genuine understanding.

Building structures with young children inspires them as young mathematicians and

scientists (Reifel et al., 2010).

Discovery/science. Rotate a display of “touch me” materials. This gives children firsthand

experience with plants, seeds, animals, magnets, seashells, foods and so on. Have a "Fix It"

or "Take Apart Shop" with non-working appliances and radios, equipped with plenty of

screwdrivers, pliers, and containers for small parts. School-age children can find out which

plants grow in saltwater or freshwater by setting up plants in each environment and watching

daily ("Today something has changed!" wrote a 7 year old. "The duckweed is not really

green anymore. A second root is hanging"). If you can, have a computer or other technology

such as touchpads (see special topic later in the chapter) available with developmentally

appropriate software.

• Dramatic play. Stock this area with materials for role playing, puppet making, and acting

out adult activities. Have anatomically correct boy and girl dolls of a variety of races and

some with disabilities. Include clothing for all types of work, equipment for carrying things,

and babies that reflect the homes of all the children in the group but also extend the play to in

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 dude new ways of dressing, eating, and playing. When several prekindergarten children got

haircuts, the class developed a "Hairy Heads" theme, transforming this area into a hair salon

with brushes, barrettes, and wigs. The dolls got plenty of shampoos that month!

• Language/library. Choose books that focus on both the physical and social worlds.

Children's interests in numbers, symbols, and time can also be extended by selecting

literature that reflects their level of understanding. Look for the message in children's books

and choose good stories that reflect diversity, such as Helping Out (Ancona) and George the

Baby sitter (Hughes). Be sure to listen to the group's interests, and make a point to place

books that respond to those interests in the library.

• Manipulatives (table toys). The manipulatives area is an ideal place for materials that

encourage cognitive development; highlight this area with both favorites (Legos or (Construx

or sewing cards). Counting cubes aid in Crystal Climbers) and new items classification and

seriation, whereas puzzles or nesting blocks focus on spatial processing theory emphasizes

the importance spatial relationships. Information of experiences that develop children's

working memory and familiarity. Manipulative materials and games give children hands-on

experiences with counting, sorting, and organizing that are both meaningful and socially

natural. Homemade lotto games or puzzles with the children's photos encourage self-esteem

and group identity as well as cognitive and motor development.

OUTDOOR AREAS. Outdoor areas provide opportunities for children to plan and organize

their own thoughts. Offer your yard as a place for discovery, with both structured and wilder

places. Remember that cognitive toys include sticks and dirt.

Toddlers can classify what they find as they look for balls, sand buckets, and toy trucks hidden

around the yard. Preschoolers in the sand pit predict how water affects the sand, using their

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growing knowledge of the physical world. Children learn to classify water table and wheel toys

and learn seriation when they select sand buckets by size. Counting shovels to see that there are

enough to go around; building with large, hollow blocks; and watching the seasonal changes are

all cognitive skills children gain as they play outside.

Physical and logical mathematical activities are easily incorporated into the curriculum outdoors.

Piaget's methode clinique (see Chapter 4) inspires experimenting and reasoning: "I wonder

why?" or "What would happen if...?" are common teacher inquiries. The water table outdoors

could have a large block of ice; a variety of materials such as wood, cotton balls, straws, and

cardboard; or containers of colored water and eyedroppers. Balancing activities might mean

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hollow blocks, milk cartons, or beanbags (or all three). A hillside or long plank can become a site

for predicting and trying out rolling, using different sizes of balls or even bodies.

DAILY SCHEDULE

Teachers plan environments, activities, and grouping of children to give the class experience in

cognitive challenges. Teachers use signs, their words, and helpful tips that illuminate for children

what is happening, what is expected of them, and how they can express themselves in all

segments of the day. Groups, transitions, and routines are more structured times and all play a

part in developing children's knowledge of the social world. As children learn to conduct

themselves in school, they learn:

• To enter the room and start to play (transition).

• To take care of their own belongings and those of their school (routines).

• To concentrate on an activity with others around (group times).

• To interact with others while at the same time paying attention to a leader or task (group

times).

• To end an activity, an interaction, a school day (transition).

Moreover, many routine activities offer wonderful opportunities for cognitive learning. For

example consider the snack table. Incorporating math concepts into snack time engenders

enthusiasm and skill development. Whether as part of free choice time or a time period on its

own, snacks time becomes “think time” as children:

• Fill out and use menu cards (“What are we eating today?”).

• Learn the concepts of sets (“Everyone needs five of everything”).

• Work with the concept of uniform units (“Are the ham and cheese pieces the same”).

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• Understand the concepts of equal, less, and more (“How will it be fair for everyone”). Learn

how to count "wet stuff" and to count by the spoonful or handful. See geometry and fractions

at work (circles for raisins, triangles for sandwiches, break the graham cracker in the right

number of pieces).

FOCUS ON SKILL

How can teachers help children develop specific cognitive skills? After observing the children

carefully, teachers identify a particular skill and then list those processes, concepts and

vocabulary involved. For instance, the skill of inquiry can be encouraged in every part of the

curriculum by asking questions (see figure 12-6).

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Figure 12-6 Teachers encourage children’s thinking when they ask questions. Posted in the

classroom or given to students and parents, this chart serves as a reminder that to TEACH is to

ASK more often than TELL.

Teachers model curiosity by observing and asking questions about what they see and what

children may be thinking. This stimulates children to look, wonder, and interact:

Teacher: I wonder which piece of wood you will choose to glue on your board next.

Teacher: what part do you want to play in our grocery store?

Teacher: How can we find out how long your road of blocks is?

The processes of mathematical literacy involve using representation, performing

manipulations, making sense in math reasoning, and problem solving.

Help children as they use markers to "stand for" people or animals or dolls in place of real

babies this representational thinking is a hallmark of the preschool period, and fantasy play

can help in math ematical thinking if the teacher makes children aware.

• Use manipulatives to help children add and subtract; it makes such operations

understandable.

• Guessing games can be a fun way to elicit reasoning; ask "How did you know that?" once the

child has made a guess. Remember that children have limited knowledge and need to be

encouraged to keep guessing, while you stimulate them to offer, justify, and question their

ideas. Develop math games based on children's literature to invite new math experiences,

such as using Ormerod's Joe Can Count or McMillan's Eating Fractions with a small group

and have circle time follow through.

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 Problem solving is mentioned in early childhood education circles, in social and artistic

contexts as well as for cognitive development. For this to be successful, two issues must be

addressed: Problem posing and making investigations.

• Problem posing is difficult for many children, and children need guidance so that the

problem is clear before the group or individual launches into looking for a solution.

• Investigations are authentic problem solving situations in which children work as

mathematicians or engineers.

For example, a group of 7 to 8 year olds were asked how to make a bridge. The teacher

worked with their answers and eventually drew a trestle on the board. Then each child was given

a box of Legos and flat sticks to start their part. The teacher observed, participated to scaffold

their individual work, and then helped them put their parts together to make a bridge at the end of

the session.

Outdoors, inquisitive children explore their environment. Children ask questions: "Can we

turn on the water? What if we bury all the toy bears in the gravel? Could we use the ladder to see

over the fence? Let's all hide from the teacher!" The way teachers handle inquiries from children

about what they want to do sends a message that supports—or discourages—this cognitive skill.

When there is no harm in asking (though the answer may be "No"), children are encouraged to

develop further the skill of inquiry (see Figure 12-7).

Problem Solving: An Intellectual Pursuit

The Concepts:
Selecting a course of action
Making educated guesses
Making and revising a plan
Risking and evaluating the results

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The Vocabulary:
Guess
Plan
Problem
Solution/ solve
What? Why? How?
The Process:
Activity area Process question

Art How many ways can you use the brush (pen, squirt bottle) to make a
mark on the paper? Why is it dripping? How can you stop it when
you're ready?
Bathrooms/cubbies You found Paul's sweater...How can you find where it goes? Where
did the water come from? How can you clean it up?

Blocks What makes the tower of blocks fall over? How can a block be used to
connect two others?
Cooking How do we mix these ingredients together? What will happen when it
is put in the oven?

Discovery/science Why did the magnet pick up the nail and not the pen? What is the
difference between the rabbit and the guinea pig? How are they alike?
Dramatic play Who will be the dad? What happens when these other children want to
play? How can you get to wear the costume you want?
Language/library What happens next in the story? Why do you think so? Why did the
child feel unhappy at first? Then what happened?

Large group Why can't you see/hear the leader? At can you do about feeling too
crowded? What can you do when your friend keeps whispering to you
during story time?
Gross-motor How do you jump rope? What do you use to pump yourself on a swing?
How will you find a ball?
Manipulatives How do you figure out what puzzle piece fits? Do you see a pattern on
the peg board? What is it?
Sensory How do you get the water from the large pitcher to the small cup?
How will you get the wet sand through the funnel?

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USE OF THEMES

A specific theme can be chosen for cognitive development. Themes that emerge from the

children’s interest engage their thinking more than those imposed by the teachers. Units based on

things in the physical world (season changes, pets, the garden), on unexpected or current events

(a new load of sand, a community fair, road work nearby), or on the special interests of the

children (sharing the African masks, swimsuits, or dinosaurs) are all appealing. Current events

must be chosen carefully because young children may have only passing knowledge or interest in

most of them. Meaningful events might be a space shuttle mission or a solar eclipse. More likely,

the event is a local one, such as the discovery of ants on the playground or someone's new baby

(see Teaching with Intention Box).

The critical point is to have a meaningful theme for children; rehashing the same old themes year

after year may be easy for adults but can crowd out other interests of each unique group. The

project approach (see Chapter 10) describes the use of themes in curriculum, making it accessible

so that the children can interact and "own" it. Infants and toddlers have less need for a theme;

curriculum ideas for them concentrate on cognitive stimulation at their particular level of

development.

SPECIAL TOPIC: TECHNOLOGY & MEDIA

"Advances in technology and interactive media rapidly are transforming how we communicate

and use information in our homes, offices, and early childhood settings" (NAEYC & FRC,

2012). Thus begins a Position Statement co-written by two well-known groups-the Nacional

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Association for the Education of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Center for Learning &

Children's Media (see chapter 15). A wide variety of organizations are attempting to address the

issue of young children and screen time, which affects both children and the environments of

school and home. Digital decisions must be made by educators (Simon & Nemeth, 2012);

choosing whether or not to include technology and media in the program and, if so, the right

technology tools is an important part of creating cognitive curriculum.

COMPUTERS IN THE CLASSROOM

A computer can be as nonthreatening as a watercolor brush. In the hands of a child, it can be a

tool for experiencing the world. Early childhood classrooms are arranged so that children learn

about the world directly by piling blocks, molding sand and clay, and bouncing a ball. Through

these experiences, children gradually form concepts about how the world works and how they

can affect in. As children touch the keys of a computer, they are challenged to explore and

discover in ways never before possible.

There are two reasons why every classroom or child care center should have a computer-children

love them and they can provide a positive learning experience for every child, even the most

difficult or contrary. NAEYC's Position Statement on Technology and Young Children for Ages

3-8 (2012) notes that computers will have the most positive impact when they provide concrete

experiences; children have free access; children and teachers learn together; peer tutoring is

encouraged; and children control the learning experiences.

AN INQUIRY-BASED PROJECT

Incorporating science into the curriculum is intimidating to many party educators who feel they

have an inadequate grasp of physical, life, or earth sciences. Yet "science is a wonderful gateway

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for children to discover more about world and their place in it. Extending our classrooms to

include the outdoors opens up new possibilities and opportunities for children to learn" (Jacobs

& Crowley 2010) and can meet the national science content standards (2008) at the same time.
Using the steps of the project approach (see Chapter 10), note how the topic of "rocks and sand"

takes an intentional teaching plan and engages children in scientific thinking (adapted from Ogu

& Schmidt, 2009).

ROCKS AND SAND: AN INQUIRY BASED PROJECT IN COGNITIVE CURRICULUM

An inquiry based project uses the discovery method to engage the children in scientific thinking

and is related directly to their own thinking (adapted from Ogu and Schmidt, 2009)

A topic emerges

Kindergarten cubbies and pockets have collections of rocks and pebbles in them.

We Investigate It

• Make a rock vocabulary list [boulders, crystals, fossils].

• Take a rock walk.

• Display our findings with a table and poster.

• Make a rock gift store that has job opportunities.

• Set up a trading game and its rules.

• Take photos for documentation boards and newsletters.

• Have a rock show and invite families.

Reflecting on the Journey

• Ask questions that invite constructive input and validate prior knowledge. ["What do you

know about rocks?"]

• Ask open-ended questions. [What do you notice? What might happen if . . . ?]

• Encourage children to wait a few seconds before giving an answer to allow time for making.

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 ["Close your eyes and think before you say your idea. "]
• Repeat or paraphrase what the children say without praising or criticizing. ["Joe thinks sand

comes from rocks, and Andrea says it is dirt from the ocean. What do you think?"]

DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE SOFTWARE

Along with blocks and paints, the computer can become an expressive medium that encourages

skills in a variety of ways. Once children have had many experiences with concrete items such as

paint, crayons, and markers, they are then ready to try their creative hand at computer graphics.

To use computers appropriately in the classroom, teachers must first be con portable with the

computer themselves.

1. Put the computer area in a quiet spot of the classroom (such as in or near the library/listening

spot) and against a wall to minimize damage to the equipment or cords.

2. To introduce the computer, show small groups of children the basic care and handling of the

computer.

3. The computer can be one of many choices offered during free play, or it can be a more

limited choice with a waiting list.

4. Interaction between children can be encouraged by including space for two or more at the

computer; assigning turns to a pair or small group of children, particularly if the computer

seems to be dominated by a few; and watching to ensure that no one becomes "stuck" at the

computer or any other area.

Once the computer is a regular part of the environment, teachers can use it to develop

curriculum. Arleen Prairie has written extensively about the use of technology in the classroom,

and offers these key points (Prairie, 2010):

With technology a group of children can generate ideas and develop plans: While developing the

new topic about the study of earthworms, the group listed what they knew about earthworms as

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the teacher entered them on computer using-computer program. To add to the list, one child

announced, "They have eyes." Several children agreed. Others did not. The group posed several

questions they could explore to determine whether worms have eyes. This started a lengthy

investigation over several days, looking at them through the magnifying glass, looking at

diagrams, taking close-up photos and enlarging them using PhotoShop, and asking the worms if

they see their reflection in the mirror they held up to it.

It is in the area of software that teachers of young children have many choices. These choices

must be carefully made. Not every program intended for children is developmentally appropriate,

and teachers must pay thoughtful attention to the program and to what they know about their

own group of children. Computer children should:

1. Be age appropriate.

2. Allow children to control it (children setting the pace and being active participants)

3. Include clear instructions.

4. Have expanding complexity.

5. Support independent exploration.

6. Be "process oriented" (having the software program be so engaging that the product of using

it is secondary?

7. Include real world representation.

8. Have high quality technical features (colorful, uncluttered, and realistic).

9. Provide trial-and-error opportunities.

10. Have visible transformations (the ability to affect the software, for example, by transposing

objects).

Selecting software can become easier by using a website to help with software recommendations.

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THE INTERNET

Many centers use a computer simply with software; others, particularly thosewith primary-age

children, may be interested in using the Internet. The Internet has been less researched than

software, and its potential is untapped. There are a variety of learning opportunities using the

Internet; however, the sheer volume of Internet sites is overwhelming, and there has been no

screening.

There are four types of children's websites;

1. Information. Information sites are great reference resources; for instance, the National Zoo

from the Smithsonian ([Link] would be a wonderful introduction or follow

up to a field trip.

2. Communication. These sites connect children to experts to answer questions on projects,

such as "Ask an Astronaut" ([Link] for an outer space theme

3. Interaction. These work like software programs, only more slowly. The program "Name-

Jumping" asks children to jump around a floor-sized keyboard.

4. Publication. These sites can post children's work, such as Kid Pub

([Link]

Again, Prairie (2013) gives an example of appropriate use of the Internet:

With technology, teachers, along with the children, can find more information and view pictures

on practically any topic through accessing the Internet: When a small group of children found a

strange-looking tiny insect on the classroom wall, the teacher heard the children's attempt to

label it. "It's a-a-a ant" "A frog 'cause it has back legs." "I know. It's an ugly spider." Mr. Ed had

no idea what it was. They put the strange creature in a collection jar for the afternoon. With

children excitedly looking on, Mr. Ed downloaded photos and a large diagram of an ant, a frog, a

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spider, and an insect. They compared the pictures and the creature. They discussed the body parts

and counted legs. "You found out it was an insect. Let's search the Internet some more."

INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY INTO LEARNING

Specific methods have been devised for teaching young children to work successfully with

computers. For instances, a child must be able to maneuver a joystick or mouse, find the keys on

the keyboard, or even insert a DVD into the computer correctly. Because very young children

cannot read, they need help getting started. Teachers must be able to help children learn by

setting up their classrooms with a computer positioned in a safe yet accessible place, structuring

activities and the daily schedule to give children plenty of time to manipulate the machinery and

programs, and choosing specific hardware and software that work with the class.

One of the most exciting aspects of technology in the classroom is the ability to support other

learning Kindergartners can listen to a story by a teacher, read the same one on an iPad, then play

vocabulary games on the computer (Hand, 2012) teachers who use the computer effectively as an

educational tool integrate their program goals to use the computer with individual children. To

maximize the benefit computers can give children, teachers should attend to three components:

access, availability, and home collaboration. In the classroom, be sure the computer is open

regularly, enough so that the issue of crowding or frantic behavior around access is eliminated.

Pay close attention to who is using the computer: By the rime children are age 10, boys spend

more time at computers than do girls. Although this difference is not significant at preschool age,

teachers need to ensure that girls get access and that selected software is not catering to males

only. With careful scrutiny, teachers can use online resources to assist them in using technology

tools (see Helpful Websites).

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Recognize that many of your families may not have a computer at home, yet computer use can be

helpful to all children. One study found that a group of underperforming forming children whose

families were provided with computer and free Internet access had higher scores on standardized

reading tests after six months and higher grade point averages nearly one and a half years after

the start of the study than those who used one less (Jackson in Packard, 2007). Regardless of

your family population, be sure to communicate to parents about computer use and learning, and

be ready to offer ideas, when appropriate, about quality software, supervision, and using the

Internet. A final example from Prairie (2010):

With technology, teachers can communicate the ideas and learning of children with parents:

When the children returned from their short trip to visit "their class tree" in December, Renee

was particularly concerned about what she called "our dead tree" When Ms. Jones, her teacher,

sent a photo of the tree from this short trip via e-mail to parents, she also suggested that parents

and children together look at trees around their house. She added a note to Renee's mother about

her daughter's comment. Later that evening, Rence's mother viewed the e-mail and the photo

with her daughter. Together they looked out the window at trees and bushes nearby. Renee noted

the difference between the green of the "growing trees" (evergreens) and "dead trees." Outside

they found dead leaves and small branches from "dead" and "alive" trees. Back inside, Renee

looked at, smelled, and bent the deciduous branch. Later Renee thought aloud, "Maybe it's

sleeping in the cold."

Technology in the early childhood classroom can relate to children's learning in powerful ways.

Ferry-Perata (2012) lists 10 strategies to extend the learning process; we added examples that

make technology use an engaging cognitive activity:

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1. Help children see themselves as thinkers. What are you thinking about, Juan, when you

click on that button?

2. Respond to their curiosity. What do you notice, Elisa, on that screenshot?

3. Use mirror talk. I see you scrolling through the page, Sarita, and then you stopped on that

part.

4. Have conversations. So Sam drew the tree on the touch tablet, and Cassandra added a nest.

Ask Francisco what he wants to put in the tree.

5. Inspire imaginative play. Everyone wants a Cinderella dress. Could we find out how to

make them on the Internet?

6. Solve problems together. I have a basket of apples; how can we find out more about the

apples? Let's brainstorm-how many, their size, and favorites great ideas, now how can we

show it on the IWB [Interactive whiteboard]?

7. Use rich vocabulary. What media would work best for writing your story? A tape recorder

or a touch tablet? Would a PowerPoint presentation help? What about importing pictures?

8. Laugh with children. Ha! Tarek was the big bad wolf in that recording of the Three Pigs.

Wasn't he scary? And funny?

9. Ask questions. We will make a class book about our field trip to the park, sending it to

everybody at home and printing it for us. How did we get ready?

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10. Link the new to the familiar. If you second graders are going to make a presentation about

dinosaurs to your kindergarten buddies, what format will you use that will interest them and

teach them what you already know?

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SUMMARY

L01 Cognition is the ability to learn, remember, and think abstractly. The understanding of

cognitive development includes multiple perspectives, including theories of Piaget, Vygotsky,

and Gardner and current brain research.

L02 Cognitive skills include the nine categories of inquiry, knowledge of the physical world,

understanding of the social world, classification, seriation, numbers, symbols, spatial

relationships, and time.

LO3 Effective approaches to curriculum involve several teacher considerations and planning

curriculum for cognitive development. The teacher's role is to understand how cognition

develops in children and to put that knowledge to work in the classroom. While creating

curriculum, teachers keep certain attitudes and ideas in mind while planning by area, schedule,

skill, or theme.

LO4 A special topic in cognitive curriculum is computers in the classroom. Issues around

developmentally appropriate software, use of the Internet, and integrating technology into

learning are key considerations.

KEY TERMS

Cognition

Physical Knowledge

Discrimination

Logical Mathematical Knowledge

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Inference

Social Knowledge

Rote Knowledge

Meaningful Knowledge

Intelligence

Transcurricular

Dynamic

Inquiry

Classification

Seriation

Screen Time

Software

Interactive Media

1. Piaget divided knowledge into three types. Which one is correct?

A. Learning knowledge, Logical mathematical knowledge, and social knowledge

B. Physical knowledge. Rote knowledge, and Meaningful knowledge

C. Physical knowledge, logical mathematical knowledge, and social knowledge

D. None of the above

2. Which of the following three common style of teaching young children? A. Discovery

approach, Indirect instructions approach, and Guided approach

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 B. Discovery approach, Direct instruction approach, and Guided learning approach

C. Discovery approach, Descriptive approach, and Guided learning approach

D. All of the above

3. The ability to group like objects in sets by a specific characteristics.

A. Classification

B. Seriation

C. Time

D. Symbols

4. Which of the following is TRUE about human brain?

A. The human brain is not fascinating organized

B. The only unfinished organ at birth

C. The human brain does not continues to grow throughout the life cycle

D. All of the above

5. Have a limited attention span and can be over stimulated unless the environment is kept

simple.

A. School age children

B. Three to five-year-olds

C. Older preschoolers and kindergartners

D. Children ages birth to 2

6. Are more logical and flexible in their thinking, have more knowledge of the world, have

improved memory, and can better sustain their attention.

A. School age children

B. Three to five-year-olds

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 C. Older preschoolers and kindergartners

D. Children ages birth to 2

7. A variety of paper, drawing implements, and tools encourage children to re-create their own

and reality and have experiences in cooperative learning and living.

A. Blocks

B. Language/library

C. Art

D. Dramatic play

8. This is a type of children's websites that are great reference resources, example of this is the

National Zoo from Smithsonian.

A. Information

B. Communication

C. Interaction

D. Publication

9. Is a powerful tool for learning about the world around us

A. WiFi

B. Technology

C. Computer

D. Social Media

10. Which of the following is NOT a type of children's website

A. Information

B. Condition

C. Interaction

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D. Communication

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