1

NATURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

(Definition, Scopeand Development)

1.1 DEFINITION
principles of earth sciences selected with a view to

Physical geography is one of the two branches of include primarily the environmental influe nces that

geography viz. vary from place to place over the earth surface'
physic al geography and human
geography. In fact, the study of physical aspectsof the
(Arthur Holmes, 1960).
earth represents the core of spatial science i.e. It may be pointed out that presently physical

geography. Most of geographers have pleaded for geography is not only the agglomeration and unification
bifurcation of geography into physical and human ofearth sciences as referred to abovebut it also studies
geography but it is rather unwise to ingnore biotic aspect the patterns of interactions betweenhuman activities
of the biospheric ecosystem of the earth and hence there and physical environment. As a distinct branch of
should be trifurcation of geography into physical geography physical geography studies the spatial
geography, human geographyand biogeography. patterns and spatial relationships of environmental
Physical geography in terms of its meaning and components of the globe in regional context, it also
definition, scope (subject-matter) and methods ofstudy studies the causes of regional
patterns of such spatial
has undergone seachange in the past few decades. In relationships, simultane ously it
incorporates the
the beginning, physical geography was defined as the explanation of spatial and temporal
changes of
study of only physical environment (namely reliefs, environmental components and causes
thereof. It is
airand water) of the earth e.g. 'the study of physical evident that the focus of
the study of physical
environment by itself is physical geog raphy which geography is the biosphere (life
layer) comprising the
includes consideration of surface relief of the globe envelope of land, air and water
around the globe which
(geomorphology), of the seas and the oceans supports the life of all biota
(plants and animals) on
(oceanography) and of the air (meteorology and the earth surface.

climatology)' (Arthur Holmes). Thus, we include the study of

all such
elements and factors in physical
Physical geography was considered as the physical geography
agglomerationof different branches of earth sciences provide suitable habitats which
for the living
the biosphere (plants organisms of
or natural sciences viz. sciences of atmosphere
and animals including
may be mentioned that the man). It
(meteorology and climatology); science of seas and
quality of biosphere is
ans(oceanography);science of solid earth (geology); determined by the physical
of which in itself environment, the quality
SCienceofsoil (pedology); science of plants (botany) is determined by the
and science of landforms (geomorphology). between endogenetic interactions
Arthur forces (comingfrom
Holmes further remarked that 'physical earth) and exogenetic within the
geography is forces (originating
Simply the study of unification of a number of earth atmosphere i.e. from the
denudational processes which
SCiences which give us a general insight into the nature the processes of include
erosion and
J man's environment. Not initselfa distinct branch The solid earth's weathering).

J science physical geography surface (crust)

is a body of basic different types of habitats provides
to living
organisms of the
2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The characteristics, origin and distribution of

biospheric ecosystem. Different reliefs (tectonically
constructional reliefs namely mountains, folds
originated) are created (like mountains and hills,
faults,

plateaus, lakes, plains etc.) on the earth's surface by etc. are thoroughly investigated. The distribution,
in the characteristics and origin of vulcanicity and landforms
endogenetic forces which introduce diversity
habitats. The outer solid crustal surface also provides resulting there from are studied as physical features
nutrients to the biosphere. On the other hand, and natural hazards which adversely affect both human

provides essential elements (namely being and plants and animals.

atmosphere
carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen, nitrogen etc.) to the The of features resulting from the
study
biosphere and gives birth to different types of climate interactions between endogenetic and exogenetic
on the earth's surface. The exogenetic processes forces involves the discussion of mode of denudational
termed
originating from the atmosphere on one hand help in processes (weathering and erosion), hetherto
the circulation and exchange of heat between the as geomorphic processes, their mechanism of
atmosphere and the earth's surface,on the other hand operation (machanismof erosion, transportation and

deposition by running water-river, groundwater,

sea
they create different types of landforms through their
denudational works and these landforms in turn further waves, wind, glacier and periglacial agent) and
resultant landforms.
introduce diversity in the habitats produced by
endogenetic forces. Thus, physical environment The study of hydrospheric componentinvolves
forms (plants and animals) of the biosphere
affects life the consideration of reliefs of the ocean basins
while man also modifies and changes physical (continentalshelves, submarine canyons, continental

environmental conditions through his economic slope, deep sea plains, ocean deeps etc.); thermal
activities. characteristics of ocean water; salinity (composition
of seawater, sources and distribution of oceanic
1.2 SCOPE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ;
salinity)ocean deposits; ocean tides; ocean currents

It is evident from the foregoing discussion on and coral reefs and atolls (their distribution and origin,

the nature of physical geography that the detailed coral bleaching etc.).

consideration of four components of the earth viz. The study of atmospheric component includes
lithosphere,atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, the discussion of composition and structure of
are included in physical geography wherein atmosphere,elements of weather and climate,
characteristic features of these components are studied insolation and heat balance, terrestrial radiation balance
spatially and temporally. and anthropogenic factors causing imbalance, air

First, the origin, age and structure of the interior temperature, air pressure and winds (permanent or

of the earth, isostasy and evolution of continents and planetay winds, seasonal and local winds),
ocean basins are studied inorder to understand the characteristics and origin of monsoon,humidity and
characteristic features of the aforesaid four precipitation, airmasses, frontogenesis, cyclones and
components. The study of forces or movements of anticyclones, world climate etc.

the earth, both endogenetic (originatingfrom within The study of biospheric component involves the
the earth) and exogenetic (originating from the considerationof components of biosphere (both abiotic
atmosphere) becomes significant to understand the and biotic), soil system, ecological production and
interactions between these two forces and resultant energy flow in the biospheric ecosystem, circulation

features. In fact, endogenetic forces (termed as of elements in the ecosystem, biogeochemical cycles,

constructive forces) coming from within the earth, evolution,

dispesal andextinction plants and animals,
of
create reliefs of varying dimensions on the earth's biomes and man, ecosystem stability and man, man
surface (e.g. mountains, folds, faults, volcanic cones and atmospheric environment (globalradiation balance,
etc.) which provide habitats for living ozone depletion, greenhouse effects and global
organisms of
the biospheric ecosystem on the one hand, and present warming), man and environmental processes, main
initial
induced soil erosion and sedimentation, environmental
reliefs for the interplay of exogenetic forces
degradation and pollution, extreme events,hazards and
originating from the atmosphere, termed as destructive
forces (denudational processes disaster, environmental planning and management.
e.g. fluvial, marine,
global environmental problems and international co
glacial, aeolian, periglacial etc. processes and
operations.
weathering agents) on the other hand. The study of
evolution of continents and ocean basins and their It isevident from the aforementioned discussion

drifting (continental drift as evidenced by plate that the scope of physical geography includes the

tectonics) helps in the understanding of evolution and consideration of systematic study of physical
tispersal of plants and animals. environment as well as the study of interactions
NATURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 3
between man and physical environment. Major 1. Geomorphology
changes have taken place in the subject matter and
of
methodology of physical geography due to following Geomorphology is a significant branch
factors : physical geography. The tern of geomorphology stems
from three Greek words í.e., ge (meaning earth),
(1) Universal desire to makephysicalgeography
morphe (meaning form) and logos (meaning discourse).

more meaningful and applicable for human welfare and 'Geomophology may be defined as the scientific
study
to integrate it more intimately with human geography of surface features of the carth's surface involving
inorder to redefine and to keep the discipline of interpretative description of landforms, their origin
geography íntact and tomake it more relevant to society,. and developrnent and nature and mechanism
of

(2)More attention of man towards natural processes which evolve the

geomorphological
hazards and disaster and greater emphasis on the landforms' (Savindra Singh, 1998).

evaluation of adverse impacts of human activities on The subject matter of geomorphology is

and scale of
physical environment and en vironmental problems organized on the bases of (i) dímension
resulting therefrom and remedial measures therefor. relief features (landforms), (i1) processes that shape
the landforms, and (ií) the approachesto the
(3)Greater emphasis on instrumentation and
measurement of operation of different geomorphíc geomorphic studies. The systematic study of
landformns requires some fundamental knowledge of
processes and mathematical analysis of data derived
geology as the genesis and development of all types
through field and laboratory studies.
of landforms primarilydepend on the materials of the
(4)More attention towards the study of certain
carth's crust (rocks)and partly on the forces coming
aspects of physical geography e.g. ecosystem and fromwithin the earth. Certain principles of structural

ecological stability and instability, hydrology, plate and dynamic geology are included in geomorphic
tectonics etc. studies.

(5) Recent trends of increasing emphasis on Theoretical geology helps in understanding the
micro-temporal scale (i.e, graded and steady state time nature of landforms and, therefore, the origin of
scale) in place of macro-temporal scale (i.e, cyclic different types of reliefs like mountains. plateaus,
time involving geological time i.e., millions of years) faults, folds, continents and ocean basins cannot be

and on shorter microspatial scale (10to

100km) in properlyunderstood because it helps in understanding
the denudational landforms which develop on them.
place of large or macro-spatial scale (mega
scale,

millions of square kilometres) in the study of Endogenetic forces particularly diastrophic and sudden
to make such (vulcanicity and seismic events) should be taken note
geomorphic and environmental processes
to solve of as these introduce irregularities on the earth's
study more relevant to society inorder
problems. surface which generate variety in landforms. First
immediate environmental
order relief features include continents and ocean

1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL basins while mountains,plateaus, plains, faults, rift

GEOGRAPHY valleys etc. are included in relief features of the second

order. Micro-level landforms developed on second
evolved
The discipline of physical geography has
terms order relief features by exogenetic denudational
development in
through successive stages of its processes (botherosionaland depositionallandforms)
to study. After taking
of methodology and approaches e.g. running water, groundwater, sea waves, wind,
ideas and reports of ancient
its birth in the philosophical glacier and periglacial agents, are included in the
thinkers, philosophers and historians of the ancient categories of relief features third order.
Greece, Rome
of
seats of civilization and culture e.g.
physical environment
The rapidly evolving discipline of
and Egypt, the science of
status wherein different geomorphology has undergone seachange in
attained its present
from time to time. Previously methodology and approaches to the study of
components were added landforms and related processes since 1945 when
with only three
physical geography concerned R.E. Horton introduced quantitative methods for the
hydrosphere and
components L.e., lithosphere, added to analysis of morphometric characteristics of fluvially
has been recently
atmosphere but biosphere originated drainage basins" (Savindra Singh, 1998).
It is desirable that the historical
this discipline. The present statusof geomorphology is the result of
branches of physical
development of four
distinct
grandual but successive development of geomorphic
occanography,
geography e.g., geomorphology, should be discussed
thoughts postulated in different periods by
climatology and biogeography innumerable philosophers, experts and geoscientists
lithosphere, hydrosphere,
Separately dealing with in the subject and outside the
subject.

atmosphere and biosphere respectively.

 PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY

Charpentier, John
A.D.), Jean de
some ideas of landforms Agassiz (1807-1873 significant
n the ancient period Esmark etc. made
and historians of Playfair, Venetz, of glacial
presentd by philosophers in the development and Louis
(485 B.C. contributions
ce, Rome and
Egypt e.g. Herodotus Jean de Charpentier glacier
features the mouth
at geomorphology. of continental book
the concept
.C.,he named depositional postulated his
'Egypt is the Agassiz Geikie published
propounded that while James to him an
iver as delta and he and ice ages 1894. According
(384 B.C.-322 B.C., Ice Age' in
period is
of Nile' ), Aristotle The Great
developed on
limestones, origin
longer geological separated
ribed the features A.D., ice age involving periods
(54 B. C.-25 several glacial
comprised of and Bruckner
Strabbo distinct
brings and streams), depending on periods. A.
Penck
Ice
size of delta varies interglacial Pleistocene
ording to him the which the by warm periods during
through four glacial separated
nature of rocks
of the region which were
Riss,Wurm)
identified
development Sir Andrew
T makes itscourse)
etc. No significant Age(Gunz,Mindel, periods.
place during dark age warm interglacial
could take by three made significant
A.D.) as a A.D.)
lull
geomorphology (1833-1905 while J.
A.D. to 14th Century Ramsay
t Century of geographic
al
in marine
geomorphology aeolian
in the development contributions etc. developed
evailed empire. Passarge of
the fall ofRoman Walther, the concepts
pwledge with silence of 1400 W. Penckpostulated through his
academic geomorphology.
The long continued emergence of of erosion and
slope replacement
broken by the sudden
cycle
-ars was suddenly believed in the quick and 'morphologishe
analyse."
for making
which objects is credited
tastrophism
of all animate
and inanimate
of American School in the field of
igin and evolution thus new pages contributions
of time and maximum decades of 19th

n very
short
period
were added to the
Infact, the last two
fantastic concepts geomorphology. century (i.e.,
eculiar and and geographical first two
decades of 20th
century and as 'golden age
of geomorphological was dominated are considered
reasure from 1875 to 1920) also ofworld
The age of catastrophism
occurrence and evolution
of
geomorphologybut
not only of American
iterature. for
of sudden
concept was soon rejected this period when
oythe of features but this concept because it was
vnes geomorphology development
The emergence theory of landscape
advocates
s of uniformitarianism. the first time general analysis
in the outright Davis and landform
was propounded by W.M
by the resulted
of uniformitarianism and gradual concept of sequential
of age catastrophism its final shape. The
of the concept of by attained
scuccessive
reiection
earth's history
was postulated
changes of landforms through
Vclic nature of in the 18th century. of time based on
in terms
the
A.D.)
James Hutton (1726-1797 developmental phases
was based on the pendent concept
of Davisian
His concept of uniformitanrianism basic tenet of time-de the
the samegeological
processes which cycle of erosion became
basic tenet 'that the model of geographical guideline for
past and therefore and
operated in the core of landform analysis
operate today manner.'
events repeats in cyclic not only in North
geomorphologists and
geological geologists
history
past'aimed at the Dutton and
of
is key to the over. Powell, Gilbert,
His concept of 'present America but world
history on the basis of contributions in the field of
of past earth Davis made significant
reconstruction cyclic
geologist to observe
the present. He was the first
the subaerial denudation.
history. He also propounded A.D.) postulated
nature of earth's Major J.W. Powell (1834-1902
prospect of
of a beginning:no
concept of 'no vestige
the concept of limit of
maximum vertical erosion by
John Playfair (1748-1819
an end'. His two disciples the term base level,
(1797-1873 A.D.) further streams to which he proposed
A.D.)and Charles Lyell sea level. G.K. Gilbert
(1843
the concept of which is determined by
developed and propagated concept of dynamic
1918 A.D,) propounded the
uniformitarianism. methods
of
quantitative
equilibrium and introduced
Geomorphology became an
independent
the analysis of landforms
W.M. Davis (1850-1934
geology at the
to synthesize and
of integrate
discipline and a major branch is given credit
A.D.)
century when the development
ideas of American geomorphologists
beginning of the 19th hitherto scattered
took place at regional level in coherent and well
defined
of geomorphic thoughts to present them
thoughts can of
and two distinct schools of geomorphic credit for postulation
School and (2) framework. Davis is given
well be identified e.g (1)European theory of landscape
development which
first general
American School. of his three major concepts viz.
is in fact a synthesis
by
European School was
characterized life' (1889), 'geographical
'complete cycle of river
significant contributions in of
therecognition
fields
and 'slope evolution'. He emphasized
cycle' (1899)
and identification of Pleistocene Ice Age
and of erosional stream valleys
progressive development
glaciation, glacial erosion, marine erosion, fluvial of complete cycle of river life
through the concept
processes and erosion, arid and karst landscapes.Louis
NATURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 5

while sequential changes of landscapes through time increasing criticism of Davisian model of cyclic
for the
involving historical evolution of landsforms (time
development of landforms, concerted efforts
dependent series of landforms) or cyclic development non-cyclic (dynamic
replacement of cyclic model by
landforms were highlighted through the concept of
equilibrium) model, descriptive geomorphology
of
geographical cycle, treatmnent of landforms) by quantitative
(qualitative
The beginning was heralded of landforms
of the 20th century
geomorphology,inductive method
by methodological revolution of models
geomorphological
in
analysis by deductive method, introduction
studies brought by W.M. Davis and his followers at
approach, emergence of process
and system
home (U.S.A.) and geographical cycle was variously geomorphology, climatic geomorphology,applied
termed, popularised and applied by his followers shift
geomorphology, environmental gemorphology,
worldover e.g. normal cycle of erosion, geomorphic and
from larger spatial scale (mega geomorphology)
cycle, humid cycle etc.
longer temporal scale to smaller spatial and shorter
His concept of geographical cycle was later on (micro-geomorphology) etc.
temporal scale
applied with all other processes by Davis and his more for the
The decade 1950-60 was devoted
followers e.g. arid cycle of erosion (Davis, 1903, 1905 and the
quantitative study of landforms and processes
and 1930), glacial cycle of erosion (Davis, 1900 and
of geomorphic theories occupied a back
consideration
1906), marine cycle of erosion (Davis, 1912, D. W. of Davisian concept of cyclic
seat. The rejection
Johnson, 1919), karst cycle of erosion (Bedee, 1911,
modei" culminated in the postulation of dynamic
Cvijic, 1918), periglacial cycle of erosion (Peltier, equilibrium theory'of landscape devlopment by J.T.
1950) etc. Davis' concept of historical evolution of
Hack, RJ. Chorley and others but the conceptual
landscape became the pivot for the development of caused by the of Davisian model
vacuum rejection
classical concept of denudation chronology and erosion
could not be filled up even by dynamic equilibrium
surfaces in U.K. British geomorphologists made their model. Recently,a few alternative geomorphic theories
independent and there emerged an
have been postulated e.g. 'geomorphicthreshold
identity entirely

different school of geomorphology which laid model',tectonic geomorphic model' (M.Morisawa),

emphasis on the chronological (historical) study of 'episodic erosion model' (S.A. Schumm) etc.
landscape development in historical perspective better
The most outstanding contribution to the
known as denudation chronology based on the concept
advancement of geomorphological knowledge has
of palimpsest.
been replacement of form geomorphology' by
The Davisian model of geographical cycle met
'process geomorphology' and postulation of
with strong criticism and rapid and erosionless
upliftment became the crux
the opponents of cyclic concept of landscape
of criticisms by
functional theory' in place of 'evolution theory' and
emergence of 'environmental geomorphology as a
new branch of geomorphology. As
'
regards Indian
evolution particularly by German geomorpho contributions to geomorphology four centres of
logists. W. Penck, through his 'morphological geomorphology have developed at Allahabad
analysis' and morphological system', attempt university, Calcutta university,Poona university and
ed to reconstruct and interpret past events of crustal Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI).
movements on the basis of exogenetic Jodhpur.
processes and morphological characteristics and
postulated the concept of time independent landscape
2. Oceanography
evolution.
About three-fourthof the globe
(70.8 per cent)
of geomorphology in the form of
A new branch iscovered by hydrosphere. Out of the total surface
climatic geomorphology was developed in France and area of the globe (509,950,000 km)
lithosphere and
Germany based on basictenet that 'each climatic type hydrosphere cover 361,060,000 km and 148,890,000
produces its own characteristic assemblage of km respectively.The study of
hydrosphere (0ceans
landforms'. Sauer (1925), Wentworth (1928), Saper and seas) is called
oceanography which includes the
(1935), Friese (1935), Budel(1944, 1948), L.C. Peltier
consideration of description and analysis
(1950), Tricart and Cailleux etc. made significant of physical
and biological aspects of hydrosphere.
contributions in this field. According to
Proudman fundamental principles of
J.

Post-1950 geomorphology has undergone dynamics and

thermodynamicsare also studied in
seachange in methods and approaches to the study of relation to
characteristics of ocean water and
biological aspects.
landforms, conceptual framework, paradigm and
The science of oceans i.e.,
thrust areas of study. The recent trends in the field of
includes marine geology, oceanography
geomorphologicalstudies since 1950 include marine geomorphology.
physical oceanography,
chemistry of ocean water and
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Newton presented his theory of the origin of

io-0ceanography.The origin of ocean basins
In spite of such attempts
the period of
continental drift and seafloor spreading), structure ocean tides.

of crust and mantle, characteristics of ocean deposits 17th and 19th century remained a period of inactivity
in this field because of greater emphasis
on physics.
and characteristics and origin of marine landforms
are studied marine geology and geomorphology.
in mathematics and astronomy. The study of the subject
again received attention with the exploration of South
Physical oceanography includes the consideration of
physical properties of ocean water (e.g. temperature, PacificRegion by Captain James Cook (1728-1779),
time presented the description
pressure, salinity, density,compressibility,viscosity, Marsiglifor the first

water masses and their distributional patterns) and of regional oceanography

hisbased on
studies of

bottom relief, temperature, salinity, water pressure,

dynamics of ocean water (e.g. sea waves, currents,
tides and currents of Mediterranean sea.
tides, tsunamis etc.). Recently, marine meteorology
isalso included in oceanography wherein atmospheric The development of the science of oceanography
conditions over ocean water are studied. Bio gained currency in 19th century. This period is divided
oceanography includesthe study of the characteristics,
into three stages of the development of knowledge of
evolution, distribution and dispersal of marine as follows :
Oceanography
organisms. Edward Forbes (1815-1854)
(1)Period of

The study of seas and oceans dates back to the Forbes was a marine biologist. His contributions to

ancient of before Christ though early

period the development of oceanography included the study

descriptionswere based on empirical observationsof of sea animals upto the depth of 230 fathoms near
individuals.The long period of 1200 years from 1000 Great Britain, Hebrides and Mediterranean Sea, study
B.C. to 2nd centuryA.D. is divided into 3 phases of of bottom reliefs of some parts of the Atlantic Ocean;
development of knowledge of marine environment. discovery of sites of 18submergedancient cities near
(1) Early period of 500years from the age of Homer
Lycian coast; distribution of marine life in the Aegean
(1000 B.C.) to the age of Hecatius includes the
Sea; preparation of map showing world distribution
knowledge of Mediterranean sea based on individual of marine life etc.
voyages, (2) period of the study of tides by Pytheas
(2) Period of Challenger Expedition--Wayville
(4th Century B.C.), a contemporary of Alexander;
detailed description of land and sea by Strabbo (54
Thompson (1830-1882) made significant
B.C.-25 A.D.)and measurement of ocean depths upto contributions in oceanography through his different

1000 fathoms near Sardinia by Posidonius, (3) expeditions' viz. Lightening (1868),Porcupine
of the map of the world and Indian Ocean (1869, 1870) and Challenger (1872-76).
presentation He explored
as closed sea by Ptolemy (2nd Century A.D.), dark age the depth of oceans from Faroes
in the north to
continued from 2nd century A.D. to 14th century when Gibralter in the south
through his first two
no significat contribution could be made in the expeditions while Challenger
science
of oceanography.The period from 15th to 16th expedition was
century undertaken to study the bottoms of
the oceans all
is called Great Age of Discovery and over the world wherein
Exploration he covered the distance of
because efforts were made to discover and 1,10,400 km (69,000
explore new miles) of the oceans and
areas. Columbus discovered
America and Vasco de accomplished dredging at 362
Gama reached India and Magellan centres. The results
circumnavigatedthe of this great expedition
globeduringthis period. The map (pertaining to bottom reliefs,
presented by Ortelius sea water
in 1570 gave new temperature, marine deposits
knowledge about the distribution of etc.) were
published in a book entitled
land and seas. Significant
contributions were made in
Voyages of the
Challenger-the Atlantic in 1877.
the fields origin of coastal He also studied the
geomorphology, theoretical
of
formation and origin of
base of tides, ocean currents and sea coral reefs and
waves during this world map of the presented a
period of renaissance. distribution of pelagic deposits.
John Murray
The study of seas (1841-1914) laid the
and oceans began on of modern foundation
oceanography. His major
theoretical basis since 17th century and mathematical based on Triton contributions
(1882) and
methods and scientific Challenger Expedition
principles were used for the (1872-76) include
discovery of submarine
interpretation of empirical knowledge and description. Wayville Thompsons ridge of
Ridge located to the
Ocean tides became the focal theme of study. Detailed of Scotland; study north-west
of planktons,
studies were carried out regarding the mapping seabottoms, formation deposits on
of and origin of coral
formulation of theory reefs:
ocean depth, variation in horizontal and vertical of the origin of
determination of fish zones atolls;
distribution of salinity, pressure of ocean water, ocean and mud lines
Michael Sars Expedition (based on
tides and currents on the basis of investigation of these in 1910) and
presentation of
variables in Gibralter Strait.
map of ocean deeps of the Atlantic Ocean.
NATURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 7
(3) Post-Challenger
Period-Louis Agassiz
made detailed study of Florida Reefs and Keys, (at Dehra Dun) and the Department of Ocean
He Development (Goa)have been assigned the task
sudied different aspects of ocean from Florida to
of investigation of Indian ocean and all aspects
Sansfransiscoaround south American coast. Alexander
of its marine environment.
Agassiz, son of Louis Agassiz undertook coastal
may be pointed out the study of
surverys covering a distance of 1,60,000 km (1,00.000 It that recently

oceanography has gained currency because the

miles) through Black and Albatross Expeditions. His
maior contributionsinclude location and origin of Gulf economic and strategic importance of seas and oceans
Stream between Newfoundlandand Florida, studies 1S increasing very fast. Thus, more attention is paid

of coral reefs near Bahamas and Cuba,Bermuda and towards applied oceanography which includes the

Borida. Great Barrier Reef of Australia, Fizi Islands. consideration of delineation, mapping, exploitation,

and Maldives etc. He rejected the Darwinian utilization and management of marine biotic and abiotic
theory
Marine ecology and marine ecosystem have
resources.
of subsidence of the origin of coral reefs and atolls.

According to him atolls and barrier reefs are formed

become the focal the mes of oceanography. There is a
due to biological, need to introduce and develop 'economic
mechanical and chemical processes.
Oceanography' (resource oceanography) as a new
Several expeditions were launched to study branch of oceanography.
different aspects of seas and oceans in the first half of
the 20th century e.g. Gazelle Expedition in the North 3. Climatology

Atlantic Ocean, Fishing Commission and Albatross gaseous envelop surrounding the earth
The is

Expedition in the East Pacific Ocean, Mete or called atmosphere while the science dealing with the

Expedition in the South Atlantic Ocean, Michael Sars study of the atmospheric components and charactristics
Expedition in the South Atlantic Ocean, Carne gie is calledmeteorology and climatology. Climatology
Expedition in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, Discovery includes the systematic and regional studies of the

(2nd) Expedition in Southern Seas (1950-5 ), 1

atmospheric conditions i. e. weather and climate.

Challenger Expedition and Danish Expedition in Weather refers to the sum total of the atmospheric

Southern Seas etc. conditions in terms of temperature, pressure, wind,

moisture, cloudiness,precipitation and visibility of a
renowned oceanographersnamely
Several particular place at any given time. In fact, weather
Nansen, Amundsen, Pettersson,Shepard etc. enriched denotes short term variations of atmospheric conditions
the science of oceanography through their elaborate and it is highly variable. On the other hand, climate
studies of different aspects of oceans and seas. F.B. is defined as aggregate weather conditions of any

Taylor and A.G.Wegener postulated the concepts of region in long-term perspective.

continental drift to account for the origin of continents According to Trewartha climate representS a

and ocean basins. In the 1960s Hary Hess (1960) composite of day to day weather conditions and of
which the atmospheric elements, within a specified area over
propounded the concept of sea floor spreading
of continental drift. a long period of time.' According to Critchfield
further validated the hypothesis
theory the riddle 'climate is more than a statistical average; it is the
With the postulation of plate tectonic
aggregate of the atmospheric conditions involving
of origin of ocean basins, bottom reliefs of the oceans,
heat, moisture, and air movement. Extremes must
displacement and drifting of continents and ocean
always be considered in any climatic descripion in
basins could be successfully solved. Recently, new
addition to means, trends, and probabilities".
information about marine environment and marine
of
According to Koeppen and De Long, climate is a
ecology are forthcoming through the institutes
summary,a composite of weather conditions over a
ocean
oceanography, ocean departments and long period of time; truly portrayed, it includes details
by several countries
expeditionsestablished and funded of variations, extremes, frequencies, sequencesof the
Office, the
and organizations like Naval Hydrographic weather elemens which occur from year to year,
the Scripps Institute of
Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Oceanography ;
(U.S.A.) the Geophysical Institute,
particularly

is
in temperature and precipitation.

(thus) aggregate of the weather',G.F Taylor has

Climate

Hydrographic Biological Commission

in
the maintained that 'climate is the integration of weather,
the Marine Biological Association of and weather is the differentiation of climate. The
Scandinavia;
Institute in Paris; Institute between weather and climate is, therefore,
U.K.; the Oceanographic distinction

in Russia etc. The first

Canada and mainly one of time." According to Critchfield
of Oceanography
study of Indian oceans was climatology is that science which studies the nature
cO-operative work for the
of the International Indian of climate, the causes and interpretation
initiated with the launch of its spatial
countries and
Ocean Expedition (IIOE) comprising 20
variations and its association with the elements of
Office natural environmnent and human activities.
38research ships in 1960. Naval Hydrographic
8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
There are three distinct branches of climatology surrounding an individual organism;
(2) ecological
climate or ecoclimate, which represents
e.g. (1)physical climatology,(2)regional climatology, weather
elements of the habitatsof the
and (3) applied clinatology.Physical climatology deals organisms, in the case
with the interpretation of factors responsible for the of man the habitat may be his
house and working
spatialand temporal variations of exchange of air places like factory, office, mine,
agricultural farm,
circulation, heat and humidity. It studies various pasture etc. and (3) geographical climate or
elements of weather namely insolation,temperature, geoclimate, which represents weather condítions of
air pressure, wind, evaporation and humidity, larger areal unit and longer temporal span.
precipitation, fogs, visibility etc. Different climates
are formed due to combinations of these weather 4. Biogeography
elements. The occurences of different combinations
Biosphere is a life supporting layer which
of these weather elements are accomplished through surrounds the earth and makes plants and animal life
dìfferent processes and mechanisms.Thus, these
possible without any protective device. The organíc
processes of exchange of heat, humidity and world or biosphere is that part of the earth which
momentum between atmosphere and earth's surface
contains living organisms-the biologically inhabited
are also studied thoroughly. It is, thus, evident that soil, air and water (J. Tivy, 1982). According to A.N.
physical climatology studiesthe factors and processes
and A.H. Strahler (1977) all the living organisms of
of regional variations of climatic condiions. the earth and the environment to which these
Regional climatology includes the study oftypes, organisms interact make biosphere. Thus, the
distribution, patten and characteristic features of biosphere consists of all the living organisms (thebiotic
world climates .Regional climatology is studied in component), energy (the energy component) and
three ways on the basis of spatial scales viz.(1)
macro physical environment (abiotic component)and there
climatic regions, (2) meso-climatic regions, and (3) are continuous interactions between living organisms
micro-climatic regions. Applied climatology studies and physical environment and among the living

the application of climatic knowledge to solve various organisms themselves.

problemsfaced by human society e.g. global warming The average thickness of biosphere or life
and climatic changes. It studies the interactions supporting layer consistingof land, air, water, soil and
between climate and biosphere i.e. how does climate rock is about 30 km. The upper limit of biosphere is
influence and controlplants and animals including man determined by the availability of oxygen, moisture,
and in urn how does man modify climate by temperature and air pressure which are necessary for
introducing advertent and inadvertent changes in the the existence of organisms. Decrease in
oxygen,
physical environment and by making certain weather temperature, moisture and air pressure with increase
modifications e.g. cloud seeding and induced in height in the atmosphere limits the upper boundary
precipitation. Further, applied climatology includes the of the biosphere. Though the NASA has discovered
study of variability of climate, climaticchanges, air the presence of bacteria upto the height of 15 km
in
pollution, climate and comfort, climate and health, the atmosphere but the lower layer of the
atmosphere
Climate and society, extreme weather events (e.g. upto a few hundred metres accounts for most of the
foods, drought etc.) and their impacts, climate and living organisms because favourable environmental
agriculture, climate and manufacturing industries, conditions are available for the growth and
chmate and recreation, climate and urban planning. development of living organisms in the lower part ot
weather forecasting, climate and transport and the atmosphere. The depth of the biosphere over the
Communication, weather modifications etc.
land is upto the depth of deepest roots of trees or the
Human biometeorology, which studies the depth upto which can live the burrowing organisms
reactions human bodies to the changes in the
of or the depth at which lie the parent rocks. The
atmosphericenvironment, has gained currency biosphere extends upto greater depth in the oceans.
I
recently. lays emphasis on to 'establish how much
of the overall biological
The existence of life has been detected upto adeph
variability is the result
banges in weather, chmate and season' (J.E.Hobbs,
of of 9,000 m in the deep oceanic trenches and deep sea
plains.
1O80). The study of cimate also divided into three
is
eooiesbased on infuences of climatic The study of biosphere is called biogeography.
environment which includes the consideration of physical
hunanhealh and bchaviour on
different spatial
cales ViZ. Micro-climate, ecoclimate and environment, soil, animals and plants. 'Biogeography
geoclimate.
According to M.Bates (1966) three levels of asthe term indicates, is both a biological and a
climatic
environment affect human behaviour viz. (1) geographical seience. Its field of study is the

aicroclimate,which represents weather biologically inhabited part of the lithosphere,

conditions and hydrosphere-or, as it has become
atmosphere
ATURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 9
nown-the biosphere' (J. Tivy, 1982). Since the
habitats, they are more affected by their
environment
of fthe biosphere are

ving organisms studiedin botany, affect their environment. Plants

and in turn they also
onlogy, biochemistry and geography with different man because they
provide food to all animals including
iew points and focus and hence there are variations
are primary producers
and becone most valuable
the meaning andscope(subject-matter of study) of resource to human society.
n
in the aforesaid disciplines. If a biotic
biogeography It may be pointed out that though
studiesthe distributionpatterns of plants significant
geographer are most
components of the biosphere
and animals of the biosphere in spatialand temporal biogeography but abiotic
aspect of the study of
ontexts and attempts to analyse the processes and and water are also
land, air
components involving
ctors which are responsible for such spatial and Land or lithospheric
studied in this discipline.
lemporal variations,the biologists limit themselves to
smaller to higher)elements
component includes (from
studyof physiological, morphological, behavioural hydrogen, carbon
the
(iron, nickel, oxygen, nitrogen,
etc.), rocks
and functional aspect of an individual organism. A etc.), minerals
(hematite,dolomite, felspar
(relief features
of 3rd order
geographerbeside studying the distributional patterns
and soils, micro-landforms by
of community of plants and animals also
emphasises and depositional landforms produced
viz erosional
like running water
wO more aspects ViZ. (1)intimate interrelationships exogeneticdenudational processes
sea waves- marine
hetween the abiotic and biotic components and (2) fluvial process, groundwater,
glaciers and periglacial
reciprocal relationship betweenman and biosphere.
process, wind-aeolianprocess,
of 2nd order
(relief features
out that the discipline of meso-landforms
It may be pointed
process),
forces namely, mountains,
domain of either produced by endogenetic
biogeography cannot be exclusive etc.) and macro-landforms
(relief
plateaus, faults, folds
its boundary is overlapping ocean basins).
biology or geography as features of 3rd order
e.g. continents and
two subjects but also with other
not only with these component of
aptly remarked, the The atmosphere is a significant
subjects. J. Tivy (1982)has it provides all the
geomorphologist the biospheric ecosystem because
geologist,climatologist,pedologist, all life formns in
the sustenance of
geneticist and gases necessary for
as well as the botanist, zoologist.,
incoming solar radiation
It also filters the
or 'crop', the case may
as the biosphere.
geographere all 'cultivate' ultraviolet solar radiation waves
and thus prevents the
of this very large and varied
field
be, particular parts and hence protects it from
to a greater or toreach the earth's surface
so they are,
(biosphere) :and in
doing component
becoming too hot. The atmospheric
extent, essential to as well as being dependent of the composition and
lesser the includes the consideration
of biogeography'. Thus, mesosphere,
on, an understanding to study vary structure (troposphere, stratosphere,
and approach and exosphere) of the
meaning. subject-matter the thermosphere- ionosphere
interest and objective of of weather and climate
according to the atmosphere and the elements
humidity
investigator. (insolation, temperature,air pressure,winds,
is to present and fronts,
of a geographer airmasses, frontogenesis
The primary goal of and precipitation,
patterns of distribution etc.).
a vivid picture of
spatial
and cyclones and anticyclones
variations
animals. their temporal The water or hydrospheric componentis very
plants and
Margaret Anderson or physical
causes thereof. important component of the abiotic
Processes and of 'biological element for
defined as the essence and the components because it is very essential
biogeography as animnal)
man (considered all types of life in the biosphere.
Water plays very
relations between environment'. of nutrients in the
whole of his and inanimate important role in the circulation
animate
of
components and it makes
major the ecosystems
variouscomponents of
are
Since plants and animals divided
into
the subject in the biosphere.The
is
and hence animal biogeoche mical cycles effective
biogeography and (2) of surtace water, subsurface
consist
two branches viz. (1) plant geography geograpny
watercomponents
of
studies plant
or groundwater and
oceanic water. Surfacewater
in geographical geography or
zoOgraphy but animal in state (e.g. waterof
attention while the earth surtace is found
static
b given more because of
seat.This is ete.) and in dynamic
occupies back of animals lakes,ponds, tanks, reservois
00geography pattern surtace streams, springs
the fact that the study of distribution very (in mouon) state (e.g. runoft,
of animals, is found in the pore spaces of
becomes difficult due to mobility
variability ete.). The groundwater
very high
micro-forms of speciesand
animal
of distribution
regolith known as aquifers
while the study The oceanic water or bydrosphere covers about
in their behaviour
due totheir static
of plants becomnes casy
per cent of the total surface area of the globe.
On
patterns community. 71
in static biomass divided
nature and their aggregation the basis of size and location the hydrosphere is
most of total
toanimals seas, bays etc. The
Simultaneously, plants represent into oceans, seas, Small enclosed
n comparison
of the world (say biiosphere).
In of their
environment
more on physical
plants depend
10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

hydrospheric component includes the consideration Darwinian theory of origin of species, propounded
of origin and characteristics of botom reliefs by Charles Darwin, is related to the concept of
(continentalshelves,continental slopes,deep sea plains, progressive evolution of species (gradual speciation).

deeps, submarine canyons etc.), temperature, salinity, Charles Darwin(1859) postulated the principles
Ocean deposits, waves and currents, coral reefs and and mechanismsof evolution of species by the process
in
atolls because these determine different types of of natural selectionwherein the heritable variations
habitats of marine organisms. the populations (here population means a community

Biotic components of the biosphere consist of 3 of individuals of sexually reproducing species) form
the basis of evolution of species. The prOcess
of
subsystems e.g. plant system, animal system including
natural selection simply means that a few of the
man and micro-organisms. Of these three subsystems
advantageous qualities inherited from the
parents of a
plants are most important because these alone produce
few of that species are such
organic matters which are used by themselves and by species by a populations
that these qualities enable a few individual members
animals including micro-organisms either directly or
species to survive in their environment and to
indirectly. Plants also make the cycling and recycling of that

become adapted to the physical environmental

of organic matter and nutrients possible in different
conditions. On the other hand, some individual
componentsof the biospheric ecosystem. study The
members of the species lack the advantageous
in
of plant component includes the consideration of
qualities because these could not be inherited bythem
classification of plants, major divisions of plant
from their parents. In such cases the individuals which
kingdoms, plant system, plants and their environment,
possess the advantageous qualities which are useful
structure and composition of plant communities,
evolution, distribution, dispersal and extinction of for theiradaptation to their physical environmental

plants etc. The study of animal component includes conditions eliminate those plants and animals which
the consideration of classification, distribution, do not possess those advantageous qualities.

dispersion and extinction of animals. development of

In the early stages of the
The develoment of biogeography is closely linked two aspects were more emphasized viz.
biogeography

with biological sciences (botany,zoology and ecology) taxonomic aspect and ecological aspect. The
which have themselves come out of the earth sciences classification (taxonomy) of plants, their nomenclature
and natural history as is aptly remarked by J. Tivy, and distribution, dispersion and evolution of individual

'biogeography is firmly rooted in the biological sciences plants became the centre of investigation and study
on whose data,concepts and methods the geographer by botanists whereas geographers attached more
is obliged to draw and whose developments have importance tothe ecological aspects (relationships
inevitably influenced his particular interest in and between plants and physical environmental factors)

approach to the biosphere' (J. Tivy,1982). Thus, the and geographical factors responsible for spatial

historyof the development of biogeography is traced variations in plant species.In fact, 'plant geography
from biological sciences.In fact, the development of has made and condinues to make important

biological sciences and thus biogeography began with contributions to the elucidation and assessment of the

the contributionsof early explorers and naturalists like relative importance of the factors which determine
Carl von Linne, Alexander von Humbolt, Edward floristic (plants) distribution' (J. Tivy, 1982). Plant
Forbes,Joseph Hooker, Louis Agassiz, Alfred Wallace, geographer, as influenced bythe Huttonian theory of
Charles Darwin etc. Initially, different aspectsof plants uniformitarianism based on two concepts of present
(e.g. classification, taxonomy, evolution etc,) were is keythe past' and 'no vestige of a beginning and
to
by Scottish
given more significance. no prospect of an end' (as propounded
James Hutton), also attempted to study the
The development of two basic concepts for the
geologist
influences of past events and environmental
conditions
explanation of biological diversity and anomalies in
the distribution on present distribution of plants.
of different types of plant and animal
species on the basis of information of plants and Plant geographers were more influenced by the

between biotic
animals gathered by early explorers and naturalists ecological concepts of interactions
man) and
made revolution in biological sciences and components (plants and animals including
abiotic (physical) environment and among the biotic
biogeography mainly plant geography together.These
themselves. Ecology, in a very simple
two basic concepts were (i) the concept of adaptation components
that studies the independent, mutually
of species to their physical environmental conditions, term, is a science
interconnected relationships between the
and (2) concept of natural selection and survival of reactive and
on the one
the fittest. may be mentioned that these two basic
It organisms and their physical environment
hand and among the organisms on the other hand.
concepts became the basis of Darwinian Theory of
(oekologie or oecologie,
evolution and origin of species in 1859. In fact, the Though theterm 'oecology'
 11
ATURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
ko=homne) was first coined and used by German and acceptance of ecology as an
rcognition
Ernst Haeckel in 1869, a few conceptual the biological
Gologist,
academically respectable branch of
erms were already proposed to reveal relationships sciences' (J. Tivy, 1982).
etween organisms and their environment, for as a significant ecological
Climate was accepted
example, ethology by French Zoologist, Isodore
during 18th and 19th centuries, consequently
variable
eoffroy St. Hilaire in 1859 (forthe study of relations vegetation of the world
attempts were made to divide
the organisms within the family and society in the on the basis of climatic
into vegetation zones
bf

and the community); lexicology by British the

For example, C.H. Merriam divided
aggregate in
conditions.
naturalist St. George Jackson Mivart (for the study on basis of climatic
World into life zones
the
of relations which exhist beween organisms and their A.W.F.
temperature in1894.
parameters mainly
environment) etc. Since then the scope of ecology importance to climate
Schimper attached reasonable
enormously with the
and its objectives have expanded aspects of vegetation in
while dealing with various
development of ecological concepts and thoughts
famous book entitled Plant Geography on a
his
consequent upon growing interest in man-envirnment Basis'. The vegetation-climate
Physiological
relationships due to increasing pressure on natural
in the classification of world
also reflected
resources to sustain and enhance economic relationship
(1918) and divisions of
climates by W.K. Koeppen
development. regions by A.H. Herbertson
the world into natural
The field and the scope of ecology have changed mentioned that by this time
(1905). It may be
development component of
during various phases of methodological vegetation was taken (studied)as static
of the subject. In the beginning ecology was In other words, vegetaion was studied
the biosphere.
associated with biological sciences e.g. was made to study its
at a given time and no attempt
exclusively

and zoology and hence plants and animals were i.e. its dynamic
aspect
botany changing form with time
This approach led to the emergence vegetaion) was altogether
studied separately.
(temporal changes in
of plant ecology and animal ecology. ignored.
study of
The second approach of the Thus, with the march of time
other factors were
and physical could conrol and
relationships between organisms also taken into consideration which
was based on habitats in
environment (i.e. ecology) Consequently, the
determine the nature of vegetation.
(e.g. topography, dynamic aspect of
terms of their physical characteristics importance of time in influencing
and temperature, water, minerals, and the process of
soils, insolation vegetation gained currency
This approach of ecological study of vegetation
weather and climate etc.). succession was introduced in the
of habitat ecology. a new direction to
study led to the development geography which gave
studies is to
to ecological
biogeography. 'Succession' simply
means the entire
The third approach or groups of
organisms and changes of either
study either individual of
process directional sequential
This approach
ecosystemn. of plants adapted to a
organisms of a particular plant community (groups
autecology and synecology.
of or the whole ecosystem through
led tothe development particular habitat)
of relationships of
individual
is the study The of successional development
sequence
Autecology is the time.
while synecology
species to its environment (changes) of vegetation community is called 'sere'.
of groups of
interrelationships
study of complex because In other words, the transitional stages of sequential
as biologicalcommunities
organisms known changes from ohe vegetation community
to another

animals and micro-organisms) The succession

organisms (plants, community are called 'sere'.
and interact vegetation
in reciprocal manner
affect each other of vegetation community in any habitat of an ecosystem
environment.
with habitat or natural into is classified into two types on the basis of temporal
was further divided biome changes the environmental conditionsof that habitat
Synecology ecology,
in

ecology, community viz. autogenic succession (due to changes in the

population synecology
ecology etc. Though
environmental conditionseffected by vegetation
itself)
ecology, ecosystem but autecology
inbiogeography variations physical
1S given more and allogenic succession (due
attention to in
It may be
mentioned
lose its relevance. changes,
also does not concerned with
the components of habitats e.g. global climatic
became more
that biogeography In fact, plant rapid rate of siltation of lakes, ponds etc., accelerated
of plants than animals.
ecological studies to
plant
as ecological rate of erosion of the region concerned, upliftment or
was also referred was
geography plant geography subsidence of ground surface etc.).
Simultaneously,
geography. term of vegetation F.E. Clemnents introduced geneticapproach to
replaced
by more specific it from botany.
the study of vegetation community and gave more
geography
so as to differentiate
tation ge ography, emphasis time factor strengthen dynamic nature
study of vege
to to
'the the
In fact, century before
nearly a
however, developed
 12 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

climax which laid more emphasis on major

of vegetation geography. He further enriched and climatic
at world
with soil zones
elaborated the concept of 'succession'. After vegetation zones in association

of vegetation communities
elaborating two processes of succession (e.g. primary level and evolution

involving geological time

scale.
and secondary succession) he propounded the concept
research
But soon there began a shift in
of 'climax' to indicate last stage of successional
development of vege tation community. Primary due emnphasisto new
methodology in biogeography
of vegetation data from
succession refers to the developmental sequence of on field study, collecton
experimentation, with
vegetation those bare areas where there were no
in Smaller areas and laboratory
through
vegetation and animals earlier whereas secondary the resultdata and information obtained
in the laboratories
succession refers to the developmental sequences of controlled areas and experiments
vegetation those areas which had vegetation cover to examine empirical
in
enabled the investigators
earlier but now have been rendered nude or bare, due hypotheses. During this
hypotheses and modify earlier
emerged two aspects of
to destruction of vegetation (either partly or course of new emphasis
there
plant sociology and
ecological
completely) either by natural processes (like lava floW, detailed study namely
of ecological
prolonged drought, glaciation, natural widespread energetics. Secondly, two distinct schools
forest fires, severe storms, catastrophic floods etc.) world level e.g. (1) the American
studies emerged at
or by human interferences (like intentional burning of and British School (led
School (led by F.E. Clements)
vegetation, massive land use changes, mass felling of studies which
by A.G. Tansely) of
ecological
trees, overgrazing etc.). the study of habitats and vegetation
emphasized
School which gave
It may be pointed out that such disturbed communities and (2) European
of composition
ecosystems or habitats stillcontained mature soils and more attention to the study floristic

some original vegetation

'
of 'sere ofsecondary
and therefore the
succession of plant
initial

community
stage of plant community.
The post-first world war period registered
methodology
a sea

in
is quite differentfrom the initial stage or sere of primary change in the subject-matter and
The larger scale
succession which starts on a bare rocky surface, biogeography and ecology.
spatial

having no earlierplants and animals. The end product involving larger areal extent
was replaced by small
small areal extent for intensive
of the process ofsucce ssion of vegetation community spatial scale involving
succession, climax the study of ecological
was gven the term of climax study of vegetation. Secondly,

vegetation, climatic climax etc. relationship was prefered to vegetation taxonomy and
was accepted as a convenient ideal areal
ecosystem
A. G.Tansely defined the 'climax' on the basis
unit for ecological study.
ofmain dominant factor which controls the maximum
to him 1970 the environmentalists, ecologists,
Since
growth of vegetation of habitat. According and planners became more and
climax conservationsists
the climax should be identified as (1) climatic
the most dominant factor), (2) more aware about the process of environmental
(when climate is
degradation and ecological imbalance caused by
edaphic climax (when soil is the most dominant (both biotic and
depletion of natural resources
being the most
factor), (3) relief climax (relief
climax (human
aboitic)due to their rapacious exploitation and
dominant factor), (4) anthropogenic
(5) biotic
irrational
utilization by man. Consequently, the study
activities being the most dominant factor),
of components,circulation of energy, circulation and
climax(bioticfactors being the most dominant factors)
cycling and recycling of nutrients, soil systemsetc.
etc. It may be pointd out that the concept of succession in the biospheric ecosystems of various orders gained
Cowles and
and climax stage as propounded by Henry currency. The systematic study of different aspects
F.E. Clements denoting development of successive
(e.g. classification, evolution, distribution,dispersion
of vegetation evolution in terms of time was in
tages and and animal systems and
extinction) of plant
onformity with Darwin's the ory of evolution of biomes is more emphasized.
characteristicfeatures of
pecies and William Morris Davis' concept of cycle Simultaneously,the study of man-environment
f erosion. relationships and ecological equilibrium has
Similarly, time concept was also used for the become the focal theme of ecology and bio
splanation of pedogenesis and developmental stages geography.
evolution of soils. It may be mentioned that there more and more attention is paid
Recently,
gan a major shift from larger spatial and longer towards the study of processes and factors of
poral scales to smaller spatial and temporal scales environmental degradation and pollution, stability and
geomorphology, pedology and climatology in the instability of ecosystem and ecological inbalance.
ginning of the 20th century but biogeography was Environmental planning and management involving
remedial measuresof environmental degradation and
Iseized by zonal approach and the concept of
 13
NATUREOF PHY SICAL GEOGRAPHY

reduction in the impact of natural hazards

pollution,
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
1.4
and disaster, conservation and preservation of
ecological resources etc. has become centre
of Applied climatology
on
:
is the study
of impacts of
all biota (including
ecologicalstudy. Biosphere reserve (nature reserve) weather and climate and human
in general
with three roles (e.g.logistic role, development role plants and animals
on one hand, and in turn
and conservation role)programmehas been launched beings in particular
the influences
ofhuman activities on different
world over for the management of abiotic and biotic and climate.
elements of weather
resources of the nature which has been
by human activities.
least impacted
Biogeography :
is the study

plants and
of physical
animals of the
environment, soil,
Since 1970 numerous books have been published biosphere.
on ecologicalconservation and resource management
Biosphere reserves
:represent an international
eg.Biological Conservation by D.W. Ehrenfield, areas for conservation
network of protected and
by A. Warren and
(1970), Conservation in Practice preservation of natural habitats
and
diversity with
F.B. Goldsmith (1974),Grassland Ecology and ecological and genetic
monitoring, education
Wildlife Management by E. Duffey et. al (1974), research, environmental

Conservation of Nature by E. Duffey (1970), the and training.

Scientific Management of Animal and Plant

Catastrophism :
refers to the concept of
of
quick
animate
and sudden origin and evolution
Communities for Conservation byE. Duffey and A.S. all

Watt (1971), Ecology and Environmental Planning in very short period

and inanimate objects
by J.M. Edington and M.A. Edington (1977), of time.
Environmental Conservationby R.F. Dasmann (1977), of aggregate
Climate: is defined as the study
Biological Management and Conservation by M.B. conditions of any
weather (atmospheric)
Usher (1973), The Ecosystem Concept in Resource region in long-term perspective.
by G.M. Van Dyne (1969), Environmental Geography
Darkage :refers long period of 1460 years
to a
by Savindra Singh (1991), etc. The siginficant books A.D. of sluggish
from 1st to 14th century
on biogeography are Basic Biogeography (N.V.Pears, of know ledge in all disciplines.
development
1968), Biogeography- AnEcological and Evolutionary
Approach (G.B.Cox, ILN. Halley and P.D. More, Denudation chronology : refers to the
reconstruction of chronological sequencesof
1973),Biogeography-A study of Plants in the
denudational history of a region based on the
Ecosphere (J. Tivy, 1971), Bioge ography (H.
Robinson, 1972), Principles of Biogeography(D. principle of uniformitarianism.

Watts, 1974), Geography theBiosphere (P.A. Furley

and W.VW. Newey, 1983)etc.
of Ecology : is the science of the study of
interrelationshipsbetween abiotic and biotic
componentsof a natural ecosystem on one
It may be conluded thatphysical geographyhas hand, and among the biotic components
recently become more relevant to society because of (plants,animals and micro-organisms) on the
increasing interest of geographers to strengthen the other hand.

core ofgeographyi.e. physical geographyand greater Ecoclimate : or ecological climate represents

2
emphasis on the study of spatial pattern of physical
weather elements of the habitats of organisms
environ ment and complex interrelationships of its
including man.
components which may be more relevant and
conducive for regional planning and development. In
Ecosystem : is a functional and spatial unit having
abiotic and biotic components together with
act, environment has alwaysbeen at the centre stage
their interactions and interrelationships.
f geographybut unfortunately it was overshadowed

y tilt of geographers towards sociology and Environmentalgeography :is the studyof spatial
conomics during 1960-1980 but now they have attributesof interrelationships between
living
alised the risk of leaving their core subject i.e. organisms and natural environmentin general
hysical environment and are now giving due and between man and his environment in

aportance to the study of physical geography.The particular in temporaland spatial framework.

troduction and development of environmental Form geomorphology :refers to the systematic
ography' asa new branch of geographyby Savindra study of characteristics, origin and
ngh (1989 and 1991) isa positive welcome step in developmentof different categories of relief
s direction. features of the earth's surface.