Name- Anjali sharma
Roll no- 220113
Semester -5
Topic – Braj Literature in Mughal India
INTRODUCTION
Braj Bhāṣā, the dialect of Braj literature, was deeply intertwined with the devotional
traditions of Krishna worship. The region of Braj, including Mathura and Vrindavan, was
central to Vaishnavism, and the literature produced in this dialect reflected the intense
devotional fervor of the time. Braj Bhāṣā, the dialect of Braj literature, was deeply
intertwined with the devotional traditions of Krishna worship. The region of Braj, including
Mathura and Vrindavan, was central to Vaishnavism, and the literature produced in this
dialect reflected the intense devotional fervor of the time. Many poets like Surdas used the
vernacular language to make their devotional messages accessible to the common people,
thereby fostering a widespread religious and cultural movement. One of the key aspects of
Braj literature was its accessibility. Unlike Sanskrit, which was the language of the elite, Braj
Bhāṣā was spoken by the common people. This made the literature more relatable and
allowed it to reach a broader audience.
Despite the dominance of Persian at the Mughal court, Braj Bhāṣā enjoyed significant
patronage. Allison Busch’s research reveals that many Mughal emperors and nobles
supported Braj poets, recognizing the cultural value and local appeal of their works. For
instance, poets like Keshavdas and Bihari Lal received patronage from Mughal and Rajput
courts. This patronage not only legitimized Braj literature but also facilitated its growth and
development.
Braj literature was not confined to devotional poetry. It encompassed a wide range of genres,
including courtly poetry, treatises and more. Busch points out that this diversity reflects the
rich literary culture of the time. Works like Keshavdas’s “Rasikapriya” and Bihari Lal’s
“Satsai” are examples of how Braj literature explored various themes and styles, providing
insights into the socio-political and cultural milieu of the sixteenth century.
The vernacular tradition of Braj literature offers a valuable counterpoint to the Persian
chronicles of the Mughal era. Historian argues that Braj literature provides a different
perspective on historical events and everyday life. While Persian chronicles often focused on
the elite and political events, Braj literature captured the experiences and sentiments of the
common people. This dual perspective enriches our understanding of the period, offering a
more holistic view of history.
MUGHAL’S INTEREST IN BRAJBHASA
During Akbar's reign (1556-1605), Hindi became an integral part of the Mughal rulers'
language repertoire, marking a significant shift in their linguistic and cultural landscape. Prior
to Akbar, Babur preferred speaking Chaghtai Turkish, which he used to write his memoirs but
on the other hand Humayun was influenced by Persian culture during his exile in Iran.
Akbar's fluency in spoken Hindi, shared by his son Jahangir and subsequent Mughal rulers,
was largely due to strategic marriages with Indian Rajput princesses, making Hindi the
mother tongue of Mughal princes. This exposure fostered a deep appreciation for Indian
culture and language.
Several factors contributed to the Mughal interest in Brajbhasha. Geographically, Agra, the
Mughal capital, was close to Hindu cultural centers Vrindavan and Mathura, which gained
power with Mughal and Rajput support. Political alliances, such as Todar Mal and Man
Singh's patronage of Vaishnava institutions, further solidified ties. Cultural exchange also
played a significant role, as Braj poetry and music from these regions captivated Akbar's
interest. Early Hindi poets, including Narhari and Chem, received patronage from Akbar and
other rulers. Akbar's court musicians, like Tansen, composed dhrupad songs in Brajbhasha,
while administrators like Todar Mal and Faizi wrote Braj poetry. Akbar's literary
contributions included composing poetry in Hindi and Persian, showcasing his understanding
of literary nuances. The world of Braj poets and their encounters with Mughal emperors are
really fascinating. One of such legend is about Pravin Ray, a courtesan of Raja Indrajit of
Orchha and student of Keshavdas, is said to have refused Akbar's summons to court. Her bold
response to the emperor has become legendary: "Pay heed, wise emperor, to what Pravin Ray
has to say. Only low caste people, crows and dogs eat off the plates used by others." This
narrative, along with dozens of others, suggests that Brajbhasha poetry was highly valued at
the Mughal court.
The tradition of Brajbhasha poetry continued with notable poets like Gang Kavi, Keshav Das
Mishra, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, who wrote extensively on devotion, love, and
spirituality. Their works had a lasting impact on Indian literature and culture, with Brajbhasha
remaining a popular medium of poetry until the 20th century.
WORK OF KESHAVDAS MISHRA
Keshavdas Mishra was a renowned Indian poet, writer, and scholar who lived from 1555 to
1617. Born in Orchha, a small principality in Bundelkhand, he came from a family of learned
Sanskrit pandits but chose to become a vernacular writer, adopting the Braj Bhasha style of
Hindi. This decision was significant, as it marked a shift away from the traditional Sanskrit-
dominated literary landscape. His family had a strong background in Sanskrit scholarship,
with his ancestors serving as pandits to the rulers of Orchha and other nearby kingdoms. His
elder brother, Balabhadra, was also a poet. Despite this, he opted for a vernacular style, which
was considered inferior by some. The rise to significance of Keshavdas was also influenced
by the politics of the time. The Mughal Empire held sway in the area, with Orchha being
a tributary state. The tributary rulers asserted their remaining power through cultural
channels, and he was associated with Orchha's court from the time of the reign of Madhukar
Shah. Busch describes him as "a friend, advisor, and guru to the Orchha kings but ... also a
consummate poet and intellectual". Initially he was in the court of Indrajit Singh, the brother
of the Bundela ruler Ram Singh. In 1608, when Vir Singh Deo came to power, Keshavdas
joined his court.
Keshavdas's literary works defy conventional Western notions of historical writing, instead
adheres to the traditional style that emphasizes heroic and idealistic themes. This approach
prioritizes artistic expression over historical accuracy, presenting challenges for historians
seeking factual information. The blend of literature and history in his poetry intertwines
historical and literary discourse, requiring nuanced understanding and an interdisciplinary
approach. Recent theoretical perspectives argue that all historical accounts are inherently
narrative, and literary and historical aspects cannot be neatly separated. Recognizing this
complex relationship enriches understanding, revealing deeper insights and challenging
traditional notions of categorization. As a result, scholars must consider both literary and
historical contexts to uncover the rich meanings and nuances in Keshavdas's works, which
cannot be reduced to solely historical or literary classifications.
Keshavdas's association with the Mughal court is evident in his work, particularly in his
interactions with Birbal, a prominent Mughal noble . In his "Kavipriya" i.e Handbook for
poets in1601, he mentions Birbal alongside Raja Indrajit of Orchha, suggesting a close
relationship. He also wrote a poem, "Jahangirjascandrika" (Moonlight of the Fame of
Jahangir, 1612), which is set in Jahangir's court in Agra and includes praise for various
Mughal elites.
Some of his notable works include Ratan Bavani (ca. 1581): An early work that showcases
his unique style and anti-Mughal political stance, Rasikpriya (1591): A pioneering work of
the Riti Kaal of Hindi literature Ramchandrika (1600): A collection of poems that
demonstrate his mastery of the Braj Bhasha style, Kavipriya (1601): A handbook for poets
that highlights his connection to the Mughal court. Jahangirjascandrika (1612): A poem that
eulogizes Jahangir and showcases Keshavdas's association with the Mughal elite.
RATAN BAVANI {1581}
The Ratnabhavani, a narrative poem tells the story of Orchha prince Ratnasena's bravery in
resisting Mughal Emperor Akbar's forces. However, historians have found that some details
in the poem may not be entirely accurate. Keshavdas omission of certain events that don't fit
his theme of kingly splendor and glory can actually reveal more about the historical context.
The poem doesn't depict the Orchha state as victorious over the Mughals, but its style,
language, and themes establish Ratnasena's moral victory, subtly undermining Mughal
authority. This was likely a way for Keshavdas to express Rajput resistance to Muslim power.
In the poem, Ratnasena chooses to die on the battlefield, a noble end that showcases his
loyalty and bravery.
Interestingly, his later work, Virsimhdevcharit, contradicts the Ratnabhavani's account, stating
that Ratnasena actually fought on Akbar's side. Other sources confirm that later didn't die in
1578 resisting Akbar's army but instead died fighting for Akbar in the 1582 Bengal campaign.
The discrepancy between the two accounts can be seen as a reflection of the emotional pain
felt by the Bundela royal clan as they submitted to Mughal rule. Ratnasena's death becomes a
metaphor for the loss of Orchha's sovereignty. Notably, the Ratnabhavani's style and language
show no Persian influence, instead following Sanskrit literary models.
RASIKPRIYA [1591]
Keshavdas's Rasikpriya, written in 1591 explores ideal love and emotions, particularly
through Krishna and Radha's immortal love story. As the court poet of King Madhukar Shah
and Prince Indrajit Shah of Orchha, he wrote Rasikpriya in Braj Bhasha, making it a guide for
Hindi Romantic literature and a favourite among Rajput kings. It categorizes heroines
(nayikas) into eight types, known as Ashtanayika, representing different states of women in
romantic relationships. These categories, first described in Bharata's Natya Shashtra, were
elaborated upon by Keshavdas. The eight nayikas are: Vasakasajja (waiting eagerly for her
lover), Virahotkanthita (sad due to separation), Svadhinabhartruka (controlling and loved by
her husband), Kalahantarita (regretful after quarreling), Khandita (angry over infidelity),
Vipralabdha (waiting in vain), Proshitabhartruka (longing for her husband's return), and
Abhisarika (seeking secret meetings).
Each nayika is depicted in various situations, showcasing their emotions and behaviors. For
instance, Vasakasajja is shown waiting eagerly, smoking a hookah, while Virahotkanthita is
depicted sad and alone. Svadhinabhartruka controls her husband, who is subservient and
loving. Kalahantarita regrets quarreling and Khandita is angry over infidelity. Vipralabdha
waits in vain, throwing jewellery in anger, while Proshitabhartruka longs for her husband's
return, surrounded by maids. Abhisarika sneaks out to meet her lover secretly.
Rasikpriya's portrayal of nayikas has inspired artists, becoming iconic in Indian painting,
literature, sculpture, and classical dance. Keshavdas's work celebrates love, centering it on
Krishna and Radha, and has become a foundational text of ritikavya. His classification of
nayikas remains influential, offering insights into the complexities of love and relationships.
Virsimhdevcharit
Keshavdas's second historical poem, Virsimhdevcharit, reflects the changing political landscape of the
early 17th century. Unlike his earlier work, Bhavani, which portrayed the Mughals negatively,
Virsimhdevcharit presents a more neutral tone. This shift coincides with Bir Singh's accession to the
Orchha throne and the kingdom's increasing ties with the Mughal Empire. The poem chronicles Bir
Singh's life and Orchha's submission to Mughal authority. This work showcases the complex
dynamics between regional kingdoms and the Mughal Empire. Initially, Akbar's conquests sparked
resentment, but Keshavdas's later works reveal a more intricate relationship.
Keshavdas's Virsimhcharit highlights the rise of Bundelkhand's state formation and promotes Bir
Singh Deo's status as a Kshatriya king. By linking the Bundelas to the Suryavanshi lineage,
Keshavdas legitimized their authority and shed their obscure identity. The poem also emphasizes
rajdharma, guiding Bir Singh to rule with compassion and divine right, portraying him as Vishnu's
incarnation. Notably, Keshavdas secularized kingship by incorporating Mughal emperors, like
Jahangir, into the Hindu pantheon, blurring religious lines and reflecting the complex cultural
dynamics of medieval India.
In his final work, Jahangırjascandrika, Keshavdas even compares the Mughal emperor to
Hindu gods, using classical styles with Persian influences. This indicates a growing acceptance of
Mughal rule and incorporation of Persian vocabulary. Through this we can interpret The submission
of regional kingdoms like Orchha to Mughal authority solidified the Empire's control over northern
India. It also demonstrate the adaptability of regional kingdoms in navigating complex alliances and
rivalries with the Mughal Empire.
The long-term consequences of his works include the enduring cultural and literary impact of Persian
influences, the ongoing importance of regional kingdoms' strategies, and the lasting effects of Mughal
rule on India's political, social, and cultural landscape.
Abdur Rahim Khan-i Khanan
He was a important figure, with his contributions to Braj poetry being just one aspect of his diverse
talents. He is credited with numerous works in Braj, including two prominent collections of verses in
the barvai (short couplet) meter, which align with the significant literary trends of the sixteenth
century in Brajbhasha. One collection focuses on themes of Krishna bhakti, while the other delves
into the genre of nayikabheda, which categorizes the various female archetypes found in Indian
poetry. The poetry of Mughal administrator Abdur Rahim Khan-i Khanan offers a valuable lens for
examining the Hindi language. His command of multiple languages is reflected in his Hindi literary
style, which embodies a form of Mughal cosmopolitanism through its linguistic richness. The
Madanastaka, in both its vocabulary and themes, transports readers from the kunj of Vrindavan to the
poetic landscape of the Persian ghazal. In this work, Krishna's flute enchants the gopis on a moonlit
night, evoking traditional Indic poetic imagery, while also expressing admiration for a gopi's hair
using ghazal terminology like zulfe, and indulging in the cup (pyala) of the lovesick, echoing motifs
from Persian poetry. Rahim's literary talent symbolizes a cultural fusion between the Mughals and the
local Hindu community. He not only adopted Indic lexical styles but also embraced their thematic
elements. His deep understanding of various aspects of Indian culture is evident, encompassing a wide
range of languages, Vaishnava bhakti, Indian mythology, and a nuanced knowledge of Sanskrit and
Hindi literary traditions. Additionally, three other regions emerge as significant centers of innovation
in Braj literature: Gwalior, located south of Agra, the Braj district to the north of Agra, and Orchha.
Gwalior stands out as one of the earliest identifiable hubs for the development of Brajbhasha poetry,
where a fifteenth-century poet named Vishnudas emerged.
Literary historiography and challenges
Hindi literary historiography emerged during India's nationalist period (late 19th to mid-20th century),
driven by linguistic and cultural nationalism. This movement aimed to establish Hindi as a distinct
language and literary tradition. However, this early historiography was marked by communalist
readings, nationalist agendas, and limited perspectives. Historians like Ramcandra Shukla and
Acharya Ramchandra Sukla played pivotal roles in shaping Hindi literary historiography. Shukla's
"Hindi Sahitya Ka Itihas" (1929) divided Hindi literary history into four periods: ancient, medieval,
bhakti, and riti. Sukla's "Hindi Sahitya" (1930) emphasized Hindi literature's importance in Indian
culture. While their contributions were significant, they have been criticized for promoting
communalist readings and neglecting Muslim contributions.
Early historiography also focused primarily on Brahmanical and upper-caste perspectives,
marginalizing other voices. Furthermore, historians often adopted an uncritical approach, prioritizing
nationalist agendas over nuanced literary analysis. These limitations have led to contemporary re-
evaluations of traditional historiography. The impact of Hindi literary historiography on Brajbhasha
studies has been significant. Unfortunately, Brajbhasha has often been marginalized, viewed as a
"lesser" language compared to Hindi. Additionally, the focus on Brajbhasha's devotional aspects,
particularly its association with Krishna devotion, has overshadowed its courtly and literary
significance. To rectify these imbalances, scholars are re-examining Brajbhasha's role in Indian
literature, acknowledging its unique contributions and cultural importance. By doing so, they aim to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of Hindi literary history and its interconnectedness with
other languages and traditions.
CONCLUSION
The 16th-17th century Indian literary landscape witnessed a significant cultural exchange between the
Mughal Empire and regional kingdoms. Poets like Keshavdas and Abdur Rahim Khan-i Khanan
played pivotal roles in shaping this exchange. Their works, such as Virsimhcharit and Madanastaka,
showcased the blending of Persian and Indian literary styles. Brajbhasha poetry emerged as a key
component of this cultural fusion, influencing Mughal speech, song, and dance. Poets of this school
bridged the gap between the governing elite and common people, contributing to a distinct Mughal
cultural identity. Hindi literary historiography, which developed during the nationalist period, initially
marginalized Brajbhasha and Muslim contributions. However, contemporary scholars are re-
evaluating traditional narratives, incorporating diverse perspectives, and challenging communalist
readings. The legacy of Brajbhasha poetry and Mughal cultural exchange continues to impact Indian
society today. Literature and the arts remain powerful tools for bridging cultural divides, fostering
mutual respect, and promoting understanding between people of different backgrounds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
busch, allison (2010 ) "hidden in plain views: Brajbhasa poets at mughal court"
