1

BCSE302L – DBMS
Module 2 Data Modeling
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar,
VIT Chennai

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
Overview 2

 Entity Relationship Model

 Types of Attributes
 Relationship
 Structural Constraints
 Relational Model
 Relational Model Constraints
 Mapping ER Model to a relational schema
 Integrity Constraint

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Data Model 3

 Collection of Tools for describing

 Data
 Data relationships
 Data semantics
 Data constraints
 Types of Data Model
 Entity Relationship Model
 Object Oriented Model Object based

 Relational Data Model

 Network Model Record based
 Hierarchical Data Model
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
 ER Model 4

 ER model is the logical representation of

data as objects and relationships among
them.
 Designed by Peter Chen and published in
1976
 ER Model is a high-level conceptual data
model.
 ER model is a design or blueprint of a
database.
 ER diagram shows the complete logical
structure of a database.

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

STUDENT
Name
Jack
Stu_ID
CD0748
Major
CSE
ER Schema 5

John CD0468 MECH  Description of a database is called the

COURSE database schema.
Co_Name Co_Id Co_Dept
 Pictorial representation of schema is called
Database CS1078 CSE
a schema diagram.
Robotics MH073 MECH
 This model is frequently used for the
STUDENT conceptual design of database applications.
Name Stu_ID Major

COURSE
Co_Name Co_Id Co_Dept

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 ER Diagram 6

 ER diagram has three main components

1. Entity
2. Attribute
3. Relationship

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Image source : Tutorialspoint
 Entities and Attributes 7

 Entity
STUDENT
 An object or a thing in the real word represents an
Name RegNo Major entity
Ram 22BCE1001 CSE  An entity may be an object with a physical existence
John 22BCE1002 MECH  Example : person, car, house, employee, student
 Entities- Students, courses
COURSE
Co_Name Co_Code Co_Dept
 Entity Type
 A collection entities that have same attributes, but
Database CS1078 CSE
each entity has its own value(s) for each attribute
Robotics MH073 MECH  Entity Set
 The collection of all entities of a particular entity
type in the database at any point in time

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Entity Types 8

 Types of Entities in ER Model

 Strong entity or regular entity
Entity type that do have key attribute
 Weak entity or identifying entity
Entity type that do not have key attributes of their
own

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Attributes 9

 Attributes
 Each entity has attributes—the particular
properties that describe it
 Employee Entity
 Name, Id, Address, age, designation , salary
 Types of Attributes
 Simple and Composite
 Single valued and multivalued
 Stored and Derived

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attributes 10

 Simple and Composite Attribute

 Simple or atomic
 Attributes that are not divisible into smaller
subparts
 Example : age, rollno
 Composite
 can be divided into smaller subparts

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Attributes 11

 Single valued and Multi valued Attribute

 Single valued
 Attribute that consists of single value
 Example : age, regno
 Multivalued
 Attribute that has multiple values
 Example
 Mobile No.
 Degree
 Email

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Attributes 12

 Stored and Derived Attribute

 Stored
 The value derivable from an attribute which is
referred as stored attribute
 Example : DoB
 Derived
 Value of one attribute can be derived from
another attribute
 Example
 Age DoB

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Attributes 13

NULL values
 Several meaning for Null values
 Not applicable value
 Example : Apartment No, Degree
 Value Unknown
 Value exists but is not available

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Attributes 14

 Complex Attributes
 composite and multivalued attributes can be nested arbitrarily
 Composite - ()
 Phone(Area_code, Phone_number)
 Address(Street_address (Number, Street, Apartment_no), City, State, Zip)
 Multivalued - {}
 { Phone(Area_code,Phone_number) }
 Example
 Address_phone
 Address_phone( Address(Street_address (Number, Street, Apartment_no), City, State,
Zip), {Phone(Area_code,Phone_number)})
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Relationship 15

 A relationship is an association among

two or more entities.
 Within entity-relationship diagrams,
relationships are used to document the
interaction between two entities.
 Types of Relationships are usually verbs
such as assign, associate, or track.

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Higher Relationship Degree 16

 Degree of a relationship is the number of

participating entity types
 Binary
 Ternary or Higher
Binary relationship

Ternary
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Mapping Cardinalities 17

A B
 Mapping cardinalities or cardinality ratios
express the number of entities to which
another entity can be associated via a
relationship set
 useful in describing binary relationship sets
 One to one
 One to many
 Many to one
 Many to Many

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Mapping Cardinalities 18

a. One-to-one. An entity in A is associated

with at most one entity in B, and an
entity in B is associated with at most one
entity in A.
b. One-to-many. An entity in A is
associated with any number (zero or
more) of entities in B. An entity in B,
however, can be associated with at most
One-to-one One-to-many
one entity in A.

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Savings Account Mapping Cardinalities 19

One to one One to many

Customer Account Account Fixed Deposit No
Vijay 12345 12345 FD101
Ram 12346 12346 FD102
Sam 12347 12347 FD103
Manas 12348 12348 FD104
FD105
FD106
FD107

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Mapping Cardinalities 20

c. Many-to-one. An entity in A is
associated with at most one entity in B.
An entity in B, however, can be
associated with any number (zero or
more) of entities in A.
d. Many-to-many. An entity in A is
associated with any number (zero or
Many-to-one Many-to-many more) of entities in B, and an entity in B
is associated with any number (zero or
more) of entities in A.

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Joint Account Mapping Cardinalities 21

Many to One Many to Many

Customer Account Customer Account
Vijay 12345 Vijay 12345
Ram Ram 12346
Sam 12346 Sam 12346
Manas 12347 Manas 12347
Sisir Sisir 12348
12349

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Structural Constraints 23

Partial Participation  Participation Constraints

 specifies whether the existence of an entity depends
Total Participation on its being related to another entity via the
relationship type.
 Total Participation / existence dependency
Partial Participation  if every entity in E must participate in at least one
relationship in R
 Ex: every entity in the total set of Instructor entities
must be related to a Student entity via Adivsor
relationship
 Partial Participation
Total Participation  Some entities in E do not participate in relationships
in R
 Ex: some part ofDr.set of Instructor entities are related
K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
to a Student entity via Adivsor relationship
 Structural Constraints 24

 Structural constraints specified using (min, max)

notation

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Stud_Course Keys 25

Name Stu-ID Major Cname Ccode  Key is an attribute or collection of attributes

Ram 22bcse1001 CSE DBMS BCSE302L that uniquely identifies an entity among
John 22bcse1002 CSE IWP CSE3002 entity set.
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE OS CSE2005  For example, the roll_number of a student
makes him/her identifiable among students.
Super Key – {Stu-ID,CCode}  Super Key − A set of attributes (one or more) that
Candidate Key – {Stu-ID}, {CCode} collectively identifies an entity in an entity set.
Primary Key – {Stu-ID}, {Ccode}  Candidate Key − A minimal super key is called a
candidate key. i., each of the keys is called candidate
key.
Stud Course
 Primary Key − A primary key is one of the candidate
Name Stu-ID Major Cname Ccode keys chosen by the database designer to uniquely
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE DBMS BCSE302L identify the entity set.
John 22bcse1002 CSE IWP CSE3002
OS CSE2005
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Stud Course Keys 26

Name Stu-ID Major Cname Ccode

DBMS BCSE302L
 Foreign Key − An attribute to link two entity
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE
John 22bcse1002 CSE IWP CSE3002
sets through the primary key.
OS CSE2005

Primary Key – {Stu-ID}, {Ccode}

Stud-Course
Stud
Name Stu-ID Major Stu-ID Cname Ccode
Primary Key – {Stu-ID}, {Ccode} Ram 22bcse1001 CSE 22bcse1001 DBMS BCSE302L
Foreign Key – {Stu-ID} John 22bcse1002 CSE 22bcse1001 IWP CSE3002
22bcse1002 OS CSE2005
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Notation of ER(Entity Relationship) 27

Diagram

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Entities, Attributes, Relation & Keys 28

EID Name Designation

Employee
Employee ={Eid, Name,Designation}

Eid - Key attribute Employee Entity Set

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Entities, Attributes, Relation & Keys 29

DID Name EID

Department
Department={DID,Name, EID}

DID - Key attribute Department Entity Set

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 ER Diagram 30

EID Name Posting DID Name EID

Employee Works-In Department

Works-ln Relationship Set

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Descriptive Attribute 31

 Attribute that helps to describe the

relationship
 Relationship attribute
 Stores the information about the relationship

Students Access VToP Login

Last AccessDate

Descriptive Attribute Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Descriptive Attribute 32

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 ER Diagram 33

Entity types for the COMPANY database

• Entity Types : DEPARTMENT, PROJECT, EMPLOYEE, DEPENDENT

1. DEPARTMENT = {Name, Number, Locations, Manager, Manager_start_date}

Locations is multivalued attribute.
Name, Number are key attributes
2. PROJECT = {Name, Number, Location, and Controlling_department}
Name, Number are key attributes
3. EMPLOYEE= {Name, Ssn, Sex, Address, Salary, Birth_date, Department, Supervisor}
Name and Address may be composite attributes;
Name—First_name, Middle_initial, Last_name
4. DEPENDENT = {Ssn, Dependent_name, Sex, Birth_date, Relationship }
(Relationship – Relationship to the employee)

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
ER Diagram of Company DB 34

Entity Set and Attributes

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

ER Diagram of Company DB 35

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

 Extended ER - Specialization and Generalization 36

 Generalization is the process of

extracting common properties from a set
entities
 Bottom up approach
 Ex : Savings_account, Checking_account
can be generalized to Account entity
 Specialization is the process of defining a
set of sub entities from an entity type.
 Top down approach
 For example, the set of subclasses
{Savings_account, Checking_account} is a
specialization of the superclass ACCOUNT.
Top down approach Bottom up approch Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
 ER Diagram 37

BANK database

Entity Types : CUSTOMER, ACCOUNT, LOAN,BRANCH,PAYMENT, EMPLOYEE

CUSTOMER = {Customer_Name, Customer_id, Customer_Street, Customer_City}

Customer-id is key attribute
ACCOUNT = {Account_id, Balance}
Account_id is key attributes
LOAN = {Loan_number, Amount}
Loan_number is key attribute
PAYMENT = {Payment_number, Payment_date,Payment_amount)
Payment_number is key attribute
BRANCH = {Branch_name, Branch_city, Assets}
EMPLOYEE= {Employee_Name, Employee_id, Telephone_number, Dependent_name, Start_date}
Employee_id is key attribute
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
ER schema Diagram of Bank DB 38

Specialization and
Generalization

Base Entity Set

Sub Entity Sets

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
 Extended ER – Aggregation 39

 Aggregation is the process by which

entities are combined to form a single
meaningful entity
 The process flow for aggregation in DBMS.

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Image Source: Scaler.com, section.io
 40

Relation/
Relational Data Model
columns
Table  Database is a collection of relations
A1 A2 A3
 A Relational model groups data into one or more tables.
t1
rows  The data is represented in the form of rows and columns i.e.
t2
tables.
 Domain
 Set of atomic values
 Relation Schema
STUDENT  R, denoted by R(A1, A2, ...,An)
Name Stu_ID Major
 Student(Name,Stud_ID,Major)
Jack CD0748 CSE
 Relation/ Relation State
John CD0468 MECH
 r of the relation schema R(A1, A2, ..., An), also denoted
by r(R), is a set of n-tuples r = {t1, t2, ..., tm}.

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 41
Relational Data Model

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 Stud_Course Keys 42

Name Stu-ID Major Cname Ccode  Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE DBMS BCSE302L uniquely identifies an entity among entity set.
John 22bcse1002 CSE IWP CSE3002  For example, the roll_number of a student makes
him/her identifiable among students.
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE OS CSE2005
 Super Key − A set of attributes (one or more)
Super Key – {Stu-ID,CCode} that collectively identifies a tuple or row in the
Candidate Key – {Stu-ID}, {CCode} relation schema.
Primary Key – {Stu-ID}, {Ccode}  Candidate Key − A minimal super key is called a
candidate key. i.e, a relation schema may have
more than one key. In this case, each of the keys
Stud Course is called a candidate key.
Name Stu-ID Major Cname Ccode
 Primary Key − A primary key is one of the
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE DBMS BCSE302L candidate keys chosen to uniquely identify a
John 22bcse1002 CSE IWP CSE3002 tuple or row in the relation schema.
OS CSE2005
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Stud Course Keys 43

Name Stu-ID Major Cname Ccode

DBMS BCSE302L
 Foreign Key − An attribute to link two
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE
John 22bcse1002 CSE IWP CSE3002
relation schemas through the primary key.
OS CSE2005

Primary Key – {Stu-ID}, {Ccode}

Stud-Course
Stud
Name Stu-ID Major Stu-ID Cname Ccode
Primary Key – {Stu-ID} Ram 22bcse1001 CSE 22bcse1001 DBMS BCSE302L
Foreign Key – {Stu-ID} John 22bcse1002 CSE 22bcse1001 IWP CSE3002
22bcse1002 OS CSE2005
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 44
Stud Referential Integrity
Name Stu-ID Major
• It ensure that a value that appears in one relation
Ram 22bcse1001 CSE
for a given set of attributes also appears for a certain
John 22bcse1002 CSE
set of attributes in another relation.
Ishan 22bce1003 CSE
• Observe the following rules:
Stud-Course 1. Can’t enter a value in the foreign key column
Stu-ID Cname Ccode
of the related table that does not exist in the
22bcse1001 DBMS BCSE302L
primary key of the primary key table.
22bcse1001 IWP CSE3002
2. Can’t delete a row from a primary key table if
22bcse1002 OS CSE2005
matching rows exist in a related table
3. Can’t change a primary key value in the
1. Try to insert 22bce1004 into Stud- primary key table if matching values exist in a
Course
related table.
2. Try to delete 22bce1002 from Stud
3. Try to modify 22bce1001 in Stud
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
India.
 45
Integrity Constraints
• It ensure that changes made to the database by
authorized users do not result in a loss of data
consistency
1. NOT NULL - prohibits the insertion of a null
value for the attribute
2. UNIQUE - unique values are permitted, null is
also allowed
3. CHECK - attribute values satisfy specified
conditions

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
India.
 46
Relational Model Constraints
1. Domain constraint
• Set of possible values that may be
associated with an attribute
• Data types - Integers, Real numbers,
characters, boolean, string, date,time etc..
• range
2. Key Constraints and constraints on Null Values
• Super Key, Candidate key, Primary Key and
Unique key
3. Entity Integrity Constraints
• Primary Key
4. Referential Integrity Constraints
• Foreign Key
5. Other types of Constraints
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe • Triggers and Assertions
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,
India.
 47
Mapping ER to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm (or)
Reducing E-R Diagrams to Relational Schemas
ER Diagram 1. Mapping of Regular Entity Types
2. Mapping of Weak Entity Types
3. Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relationship Types
• Foreign key approach,
• Merged relation approach
• Cross-reference or relationship relation
Relational Schema approach
4. Mapping of Binary 1:M Relationship Types
• Foreign key approach,
• Cross-reference or relationship relation
approach
Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,
Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
India.
 48
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm

ER Model 5. Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types

• Create a new relation S to represent R
• Cross-reference or relationship relation
approach
• No multivalued attributes
6. Mapping of Multivalued Attributes
Relational Schema • Create a new relation R
• Cross-reference or relationship relation
approach
7. Mapping of N-ary Relationship Types

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
India.
 ER schema Diagram of Company DB 49

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 50
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
1. Mapping of Regular Entity Types
Relational Schema

1. Entity Types – Regular/Strong

Primary Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 51
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
2. Mapping of Weak Entity Types
Relational Schema

2. Mapping of Weak Entity Types

Foreign Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 52
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
2. Mapping of Weak Entity Types

Foreign Key

Refers

Primary Key Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 53
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
3. Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relationship Types

• Foreign key approach

• Merged relation approach
• Cross-reference or relationship
relation approach

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 54
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
3. Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relationship Types
Primary Key
Relational Schema • Foreign key approach

Foreign Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 55
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
3. Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relationship Types
Primary Key
Relational Schema • Merged relation approach
• merge the two entity types and
the relationship into a single
relation
• possible when both
participations are total

Foreign Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 56
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
3. Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relationship Types
Primary Key
Relational Schema • Cross-reference or relationship
relation approach

Foreign Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 57
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
4. Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types
• Foreign key approach

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 58
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
4. Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types
Relational Schema • Foreign key approach

Primary Key Foreign Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 59
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
4. Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types
Relational Schema • Cross-reference or relationship
relation approach

Primary Key Foreign Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 60
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
Primary Key • ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
4. Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types
Relational Schema • Foreign key approach

Foreign Key

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 61
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
4. Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types
Relational Schema • Cross-reference or relationship
relation approach

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 62
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
5. Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types
• Create a new relation S to represent R

foreign key attributes {Essn, Pno}.

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 63
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
5. Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types
• Cross reference approach

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 64
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
6. Mapping of Multivalued Attributes
• Create a new relation R

Multivalued Attributes

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 65
Result of Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
India.
 66
Result of Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
India.
 67
Mapping ER Model to a Relational Schema
• ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
7. Mapping of N –ary Relationship types

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 68
Mapping ER and EER to a Relational Schema
• ER and Extended ER to a Relation Schema

Employee

ISA

Secretary Technician Engineer

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai,

India.
 69

END OF MODULE - 2

Dr. K.P. Vijayakumar, VIT Chennai, India.