TABLEOFCONTENTS

1.Ear
lyI
ronAgei
nZi
mbabwe-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
2
Page1of1
 2.Gr
eatZi
mbabwe-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
---
7

3.Mut
apaSt
ate-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--13

4.Rozv
iSt
ate-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-22

5.Mf
ecanewar
sandZul
uSt
ate-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-29

6.TheNdebel
eSt
ate-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
37

7.ThePor
tuguesei
ntheMut
apaSt
ate-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-46

8.Mi
ssi
onar
iesi
nZi
mbabwe-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
61

9.I
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ioni
nBr
it
ain-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
74

10.
Col
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-80

11.
Col
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
94

12.
Resi
stancet
oCol
oni
sat
ion-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
108

13.
Post1897t
o1950sZi
mbabwe-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-117

I
NTRODUCTORYI
NFORMATI
ON

Thismar ki
ngguidewasdr af
tedwi t
hthehopet hatitwouldbeusefultocandidat
es
prepari
ngfortheirordinarylevelexaminati
ons.Thequest i
onsareactualquesti
onst hatwer
e
askedonspeci f
iedy earsandsessi onsandexpect edresponseswil
lguidecandidateson
howt oanswerthem.Somear esimil
artosomeseemi nglydi
ffer
entquesti
ons.Thiswas
deli
beratel
ydonef orthecandi datestoreal
isethatdif
ferentwordi
ngofquest i
onsis
somet i
mesusedt oconf useunsuspectingcandidates.Candi
datesaretheref
oremadeawar e
thatatti
mesexami nersusedi ff
erentwordswiththesamemeani ng.

Quest
ionsar
edividedi
ntoTHREE[3]cat
egoriessothatcandidat
esgetusedtoquesti
oning
t
echni
quesandknowwhati sexpectedofthem ineachcategory
.Candi
datesneedtoreali
se
t
hecommonl yusedter
mssoasnott omisfi
reintheexams.

Letusbr
ief
lyl
ookatwor
dscommonlyused percategor
yandanexplanat
ionwouldbedone
astowhati
sexpect
edfr
om t
hecandi
dates.Thecommonl yusedt
ermsincategor
y1are:

Li
st,
Ident
if
y,st
ateandname.

Candidatesneednotwri
teessaysonsuchquest i
onsbutmustdi r
ectlyanswerthem andar
e
bestadvisedtonumberthei
rresponses.Thesequest
ionsrequi
restraightf
orward
responses/answer
swit
houtelaborati
on.Responsest
ot hesequesti
onsmustbeshor t
sentences.

I
nCat
egor
y2,
thecommonl
yusedt
ermsar
e:

Descr
ibe.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Page2of2
Out
li
ne.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Showhow.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Candidatesarerequiredtoshowt hei
rfullunderstandi
ngofwhati sdemandedbyt he
question.Theyneedt ofull
yexplainpointstogetmaxi mum poi nts.Candidatesarerequired
toexplainthe12poi ntsaspermar kal
location.Mer ei
dent
if
icationwithoutelaborati
onmi ght
resul
tincandidatesunnecessar i
lylosi
ngv aluablemarks.Writi
ngi npointform wil
lresultin
candidatesgett
inghal fmarks.Candidatesshoul dalsonot
et hatatt i
mest hesequest i
ons
maybedi vi
dedintoTWOPARTS.I nthisscenar i
ocandidat
esar et oexplainsixpointsfort he
fi
rstpartandanot hersixpoint
sf orsecondpar t.

CATEGORY3.
quest
ionsatt
hisl
evel
areanal
yti
cal
/anal
ysi
s.Commonl
yusedt
erms/
Phr
ases
ar
e:

Towhat
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
. good points raised
Howf
ar.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

ThereareTHREElevel
stoanswer
ingthi
scategoryquesti
onsandcandi
dat
esar
eexpect
ed
toreachtot
hehighestl
evel
ift
heyaretogethighermarks.

LEVEL1---
--
--
One-si
dedanal
ysi
s[markrange1-3].
Nomatterhowmanypoint
sacandi
date
expl
ains,
themarkrangedoesnotchangeifal
lthegi
venpoint
sar
eone-si
ded.Eg3+0=3,
8+0.
=3 6+0=3.

LEVEL2---
--
-Bal
ancedanal
ysi
s[markrange4-
6].
lev
el 2answershowsthatthecandidat
ehas
under
stoodtheweaknessofthequesti
onandhast huspresent
edabalancedresponse.Eg
1+1=4, 2+1=4,
4+3=6, 5+4=6

LEVEL3--
--
--
Balancedanalysispl
usjudgement[markrange7-8]
.Thisisthehighestlevel.
The
j
udgementsentenceisthusamusti facandidat
eistogethighestmar ks.Thi
sj udgement
stat
ementcanonlybev ali
dwheni ti
saddedt oabal
ancedanaly si
s.Theentrypoi ntto8
marksshoul
dbe4poi nts[bal
anced]pl
usjudgement.Candidatesareencour agedt ogi
ve
asmanypointsaspossi bl
e. Eg2+1=7and2+2=8

Questi
onswiththei
rresponsesar
egroupedaccordi
ngtotopicsandt
hiswi
l
lgivecandidat
es
anopport
unit
ytoconcent r
ateonapart
icul
art
opicatanygiventi
methusgi
vinghi
m/ hera
thor
oughpracti
cepertopic.

Lat
eSt
oneAget
oEar
lyI
ronAge
[
Speci
men]

1[
a].
Listanysi
xty
pesoff
oodsf
ort
heLat
eSt
oneAgepeopl
e[6]

Fi
sh,
Meat
,insect
s

Page3of3
 Fr
uit
s,Root
s,Gr
ass

Tuber
s

(b).
Descr
ibet
heeconomicchangesi
nmet hodsofproduct
ionoff
oodf
rom t
heLat
e
StoneAgetotheEar
lyI
ronAgeinSouther
nAf r
ica. (12).

Far
ming-
Cropgr
owi
ngandl
i
vest
ockkeepi
ng;
Set
tl
edexi
stence

Mini
ng:mi
ningofir
onandcopper;smel
ti
ngt
opr
oducei
ront
ool
se,
gaxes,
hoes,
kni
ves,ar
rowsandspear
-heads

Hunt
ing:
becamemor
eor
gani
sedandef
fi
cient

Tr
ade:(Bothint
ernal
andext
ernal
)it
emswerecrops,
animal
s,tool
s,cr
aft
wor
k
et
c.Controloft
radeint
hehandsofther
ichandpowerf
ule,
gruler
s.

Cr
aft
wor
k;pot
ter
y,basket
ryandweav
ing.

Rai
ding:
aresul
tofbet
terandst
rongerweapons

Di
vi
sionoflabour:
Ironl
edtospeci
ali
sat
ione,
gther
eemer
gedspeci
ali
sed
metalwor
kersandspeci
ali
sedcraf
tsmen

Tr i
but
esy stem:basi
sofexploi
tat
ion.Agri
cul
tur
alproduct
ion,
dist
ributionand
tradecontroll
edbyseni
orandr ul
i
ngclass.Tr
ibutef
ines,t
axesandj udici
al
feespaidinf or
m ofcat
tl
e,sheep,i
vory,
gold,
clot
h,skins,
beads,i
ront ools
andgr ai
n.

(
c).
Towhatext
entdi
dthesechangesbenef
itt
hepeopl
eint
hisr
egi
onatt
hatt
ime?
(
8)

I
ronagebroughtspeci
ali
sati
oni
ntasksper
for
medbypeopl
ee,gi
nmi
ning,
tool
maki
ng,t
radingandhunting,
aswell
ascropgrowi
ngbywomen.

Womenbecameregardedascommodit
iesi
ndi
cat
ingweal
thinmarri
age,
i,
e
t
hemorewivesonehadtheweal
thi
eronewasconsi
der
ed\r
egarded.

Ther
ewasset
tl
edexi
stence,
bet
terf
oodsecur
it
y;andsecur
it
yagai
nst
enemies.

Dev
elopmentofbasi
cst
ruct
uresofgov
ernmentsy
stem

Speci
ali
sat
ionbr
oughtgr
eat
erpr
oduct
ionandpr
osper
it
y.

Tr
ibut
esy
stem l
edt
oexpl
oit
ati
onofmanbyman

Ther
esul
ti
ngdev
elopmentofst
atesl
edt
osoci
o-economi
cinequal
i
ties

Rai
dingsy
stem i
ncr
easedwar
far
e

Page4of4
 Dest
ruct
ionoft
hev
anqui
shedandenhancementoft
hev
ict
ors’
stat
us

(
Nov2009)

2[
a].
Ident
if
yanythr
eemineral
smi nedandanyt
hreedomest
icani
mal
skeptbyt
heEar
ly
I
ronAgepeopleofSout
hernAfri
ca[6].

Mi
ner
als:
iron,
gol
d,t
in,
sil
ver
,copper

Ani
mal
s:Cat
tl
e,sheep,
goat
s,dogs

[
b].
Descri
betheeconomicandsoci
allchangesf
rom t
hel
ateSt
oneAget
otheEar
lyI
ron
AgeintheSout
hernAfr
ica.[
11]
.

i
.

Earl
yIr
onAgepeoplebegant
omakeir
ontoolssuchashoes,ar
row
heads,
spear
heads,
whichweremor
eeffi
cientt
hanstonetool
s

I
ront
ool
senabl
epeopl
etocutt
reesandcl
earmor
elandf
oragr
icul
tur
e

Pr
oduct
ionoff
oodr
esul
tedi
nsur
plus

Ther
ewasal
sol
i
vest
ockr
ear
ingal
ongr
iverv
all
eys

Ear
lyi
ronagepeopl
emi
nedi
ron,
gol
d,copperandi
ronor
e

Smel
tedi
ronf
ashi
onedi
mpl
ement
s

Ear
lyi
ronagepeopl
emadecl
aypot
sforcont
aini
ngwat
er,
grai
nand
mil
k

Hunt
ingi
mpr
oved

Gat
her
ingi
mpr
oved

I
ronagepeopl
ebegant
otr
adesur
pluspr
oduct
s

Fi
shi
ngi
mpr
oved

Vassal
spai
dtr
ibut
e

Rai
dingofweakergr
oups

Di
vi
si
onofl
abourbasedonski
l
l,genderandage

i
i
. Av
ail
abi
l
ityoff
oodp r
eci
pit
atedpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h

Bui
l
tmor
eper
manentshel
ter
sofpol
eanddagga

Cl
assesbegant
oappearasar esul
tofdi
ff
erentski
l
lssuchas
bl
acksmi
thi
ng,f
ishi
ng,
tradeandmining

Pol
ygamywaspr
act
iced

Cat
tl
eusedt
opayl
obol
a

Page5of5
 Ther
ewasal
sot
heemer
genceofr
eli
giouscer
emoni
esandr
it
ual
s

Set
tl
ement
saccor
dingt
ocl
ansandl
i
neages

Di
vi
si
onofl
aborbasedonski
l
l,genderandage

Expl
oit
ati
onof women

c. Towhatext
entdi
dthesechangesbenef
itt
hepeopl
eofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca?

i
. BENEFI
TS

i
ronagepeopl
emademor
efoodandabal
anceddi
et

wer
eabl
etocl
earmor
elandf
oragr
icul
tur
e

wer
emor
esedent
ary

wer
eabl
etoki
l
llar
gerani
mal
s

t
radi
ngdev
eloped–asasour
ceoff
orei
gngoods

st
oragef
aci
l
iti
esi
mpr
oved

empl
oymentcr
eat
ion

l
i
feex
pect
ancyi
mpr
oved

secur
it
yfoundi
nlar
gergr
oups

i
i
. NONBENEFI
TS

t
her
ewascompet
it
ionf
orhunt
ing,
past
uri
ngandcul
ti
vat
ionofl
and

cl
assesbegant
o+emer
ge–l
owercl
asseswer
eexpl
oit
ed

womenwer
eexpl
oit
ede.
g.Theydi
dmor
ear
duoust
asksl
i
kecr
opcul
ti
vat
ion

manuf
act
ureofi
ronweaponspr
omot
edwar
far
eandi
ncr
easedki
l
li
ngr
ate

di
spl
acementofst
oneagepeopl
e

r
aidi
ngbr
oughtst
ri
fe

l
anddegr
adat
ion

(
June2006)

3.
(a.
)Ident
if
yanyt
hreeI
ronAgesi
tesi
nSout
her
nAf
ri
caandt
hreemi
ner
als

Ext
ract
edbyt
heEar
lyI
ronAgepeopl
einSout
her
nAf
ri
ca.
[
6]

(
i.
) Gokomere,Zi
wa, abv eni
,Zhizo,
GreatZi
mbabwe, Pel
i
ndaba,
Lydenber
g,Mapungubwe,Chinhoyi
,Mali
pat
i,HwangeGameReser
ves

(
ii
.) Gol
d,i
ron,
copper
,zi
nc,
lead,
sil
ver
,ti
nandsal
t

Page6of6
(b.
) Descri
bet
heeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esoft
heEar
lyI
ronAgepeopl
einSout
her
n
Afr
ica. [
11]

Agr
icul
tur
e:-cr
opsgr
own–mi
l
let
,sor
ghum,
cal
abashes

Domest
icat
ionofani
mal
s–cat
tl
e,goat
sandsheep

Mi
ning–gol
d,copper–openshaf
ts,
smel
ti
ngandbl
acksmi
thi
ng

Hunt
ingani
mpor
tantsour
ceofmeat
,el
ephant
sfori
vor
y

Gat
her
ingofwi
l
dfr
uit
s–ber
ri
es,
tuber
s,sour
ceofsuppl
ement
aryf
ood

Gat
her
ingdonebywomenwhi
l
stmenhunt
ed

Tr
ade–expor
tedgol
ddust
,iv
ory
,feat
her
stof
orei
gner
s.

Di
vi
dedi
ntot
wopar
ts(
local
andext
ernal
)

- I
mpor
tedcl
oth,
beads,
seashel
l
s

Cr
aftwor
k–pot
ter
y,basket
ry,
smel
ti
ngandbl
acksmi
thi
ng

Rai
ding

Pay
mentoft
ri
but
e

Fi
shi
ng

(
c.) Towhatext
entdi
dthepeopl
eofSout
her
nAf
ri
cabenef
itf
rom t
heuseofi
ron?
[
8]

i
. BENEFI
TS

Mor
eper
manenthomesofpol
eanddagga

Cl
ear
ingoff
iel
ds–mor
efood,
bet
ternut
ri
ti
on

Mor
ebal
anceddi
et

Hunt
ingmademor
eef
fi
cientandmi
ningbecameeasi
er

Bet
terweaponr
yfordef
ence

Popul
ati
ongr
owt
h

Pol
ygamy

St
atef
ormat
ion

Tool
smor
edur
abl
e

Tr
adedev
eloped

i
i
. DI
SADVANTAGES

Expl
oit
ati
onofpoorbyt
her
ichascat
tl
eheader
s,l
abouri
nfi
elds

Page7of7
 Confl
ict
sov
ercont
rol
ofr
esour
cessuchasmi
ner
als,
past
uresandl
and
becamecommon

For
mat
ionofcl
asses

Lossofl
i
vesduet
oincr
easedwar
far
e

(
Nov2008)

4. ( a.
) Nameanysi
xtool
susedbyt
heEar
lyI
ronAgepeopl
eofSout
her
n
Af
ri
ca. [ 6]

Bowsandarr
ows,fi
shi
nghooks,hammer s,
razor
s,knobkerri
es,
scraper
s,
gr
indi
ngst
ones,i
ronaxes,
kni
ves,hoes,
spearheads,swords,matt
ocksand
woodencl
ubs.

(b.
) Descri
bet
heeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esoft
heEar
lyI
ronAgepeopl
eofSout
her
n
Afr
ica. [
11]

Agr
icul
tur
e–gr
owi
ngt
radi
ti
onal
Bant
ucr
ops–sor
ghum,
mil
l
et,
beans.

Rear
ingofani
mal
sli
kegoat
s,sheep,
cat
tl
e

Mi
ning–gol
d,copper
,ir
on

Bl
acksmi
thi
ng–maki
ngofi
roni
mpl
ement
ssuchasaxes,
hoes,
spear
s

Tr
ade–exchanginggol
d,i
vor
y,l
i
vest
ockf
orgr
ain,
clot
hbeads.Local
l
yand
i
nter
nat
ional
lev
el.

Cr
aftwor
k–suchaspot
ter
y,weav
ingandbasketmaki
ng

Hunt
ingf
ormeatandhi
des

Gat
her
ingwi
l
dfr
uit
sandber
ri
es

Lev
yingoft
ri
but
efr
om subj
ect
s

Di
vi
sionofl
abor–womenwer
egat
her
erswhi
l
stmenwenthunt
ing

Rai
dingf
orcat
tl
e–gr
ain

Fi
shi
ng

(
c)Towhatextentdidi
ront
echnol
ogycont
ri
but
etot
her
iseofcl
asseswi
thi
nthe
soci
eti
esi
nSout her
nAfr
ica?
[8]

(
i.
) CONTRI
BUTI
ON

Ir
ontechnol
ogy-engender
edsur
pluspr
oduct
ionandemer
genceofhav
es
andhavenot

Ir
ontechnologyl
edt
oemer
genceofmi
ner
s,bl
acksmi
thsandt
rader
sas
separ
ateclasses

Page8of8
 Sur
pluspr
oduct
ionbegotpol
ygamy
,asour
ceofl
abour

(
ii
.) OTHERFACTORS

Past
oral
economybef
orei
ront
echnol
ogy

Li
neageandcl
anl
eader
sdev
elopedi
ntor
uli
ngcl
asses

Def
eati
nwar
sresul
tedi
nvassal
age

t
radebef
orei
ront
echnol
ogy

char
ismaofpeopl
e–madet
hem candi
dat
esf
orl
eader
shi
p

[
June2011]

5[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xir
ont
ool
spr
oduceddur
ingt
heEar
lyI
ronAgei
nSout
her
nAf
ri
ca.
[
6]

axes,
hoes,
spear
heads

swor
ds,
arr
owheads,
fishi
nghooks

r
azor
s,hammer
s,scr
apper
s

[
b].
Descri
bet
hesoci
alor
gani
sat
ionoft
heEar
lyI
ronAgesoci
eti
esi
nSout
her
n
Afr
ica. [
11]

Soci
alor
gani
sat
ion

pol
ygamypr
act
ised,
pay
mentofl
obol
a

cat
tl
eusedasasy
mbol
ofst
atus/weal
th

pat
ri
li
neal
soci
ety,
hel
drai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es

di
vi
sionofl
abourbysex,
pract
isedkur
onz
erasy
stem ormaf
ias

l
i
vedi
nroundshapedhut
s

bel
i
evedi
nGod-
Mwar
i

bel
i
evedi
nspi
ri
tmedi
umsandancest
ral
spi
ri
ts

l
i
vedi
nri
verv
all
eysaccor
dingt
othei
rli
neages

hadper
manentset
tl
ement
s

consul
tedspi
ri
tual
medi
umsi
nti
mesofcr
isi
s

Del
egat
eddut
ies.

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwasr
eli
giont
oEar
lyI
ronAgesoci
eti
esi
nSout
her
nAf
ri
ca?[
8]

I
mpor
tanceofr
eli
gion

I
tuni
tedpeopl
e/peacecr
eat
ion

Page9of9
 Thechi
efwaschosenbyspi
ri
tmedi
ums

Ki
ngwasr
espect
edasGod’
schosenl
eader

I
nrai
nmaki
ng[r
eli
gioni
mpor
tanti
nrai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es]

I
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
es

Ot
herf
act
ors

Mar
ri
age,
tradi
ngbr
oughtf
orei
gngoods.

Far
mingwast
hebackboneoft
hei
reconomy

Pr
oducedbasket
sforst
ori
ngandcar
ryi
ngf
ood

Mi
ningpr
oducedi
temsf
ort
rade

GREATZI
MBABWE
(
June2004)
6.(
a)I
dent
if
yanysi
xreasonswhyGr
eatZi
mbabwewasbui
lt
. (
6)

f
orenv
ironment
alf
act
ors–e.
g.goodpast
ures,
per
enni
alr
iver
s–gol
ddeposi
ts

Ast
hechi
eforMamboscour
t

Asanadmi
nist
rat
ivecent
re

Asasy
mbol
ofpower

Asat
radi
ngcent
re

Asaf
ort
ressi
nti
mesofwar

Asar
eli
giouscent
re

Asadwel
l
ingpl
acef
ornobl
es

(
b)Descr
ibet
heeconomi
candsoci
alact
ivi
ti
esoft
hepeopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe.
(
11)

(
i)Economi
cact
ivi
ti
esofGr
eatZi
mbabwe

Past
oral
i
sm

Kepther
dsofcat
tl
eforf
ood–mi
l
k-al
sof
orl
obol
a,sl
aught
eri
ngatr
it
ual
cer
emonies

Goat
sal
sor
ear
edf
ormeat

Cr
opcul
ti
vat
ion

Theyalsogrewcropssuchassorghum andmi
l
letf
orf
oodandbr
ewi
ngbeer
.
Cult
ivat
ionofcr
opswaswomen’ swork.

Page10of10
 Hunti
ngandgat
her
ingwereal
soi
mportantsour
cesoffood.Tr
adegoods
suchasi
vor
yandgoldf
ormedpar
tofeconomicact
ivi
ti
esinthedr
yseasons.

Mi
ningofmi
ner
alssuchasi
roncopper
,gol
d,l
eadandt
in.

I
ronwasmainl
yusedf
ormaki
ngtoolsandweaponswhil
stcopperandgol
d
wereusedf
oror
nament
sli
kebangl
esandnecklaces.

Hencei
ronsmel
ti
ngandbl
acksmi
thi
ngwer
eimpor
tantact
ivi
ti
es.

Tr
adewaspr
act
icedl
ocal
l
y/r
egi
onal
l
y.

Exchangingir
onimplement
sf orgr
ainandl
ongdi
stancetr
adewit
hforei
gners
suchast heSwahil
iandPer
siansexchangi
nggol
dandivoryf
orcl
oth,
glass
beads,seashel
lset
c.

Pot
terywasal
sopr
act
iced-
claypot
sser
vedasst
oragef
orgr
ainandf
eat
ured
i
ntrade.

Pay
mentoft
ri
but
e

(
ii
)Soci
alAct
ivi
ti
es

Gr
eatZi
mbabwe,
arel
i
giouscent
re

Peopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwebel
i
evedi
ncr
eat
orGod- edMwar
cal
l i
Nat
ionalspi
ri
ts-Mhondoro,
andinancest
ral
spi
ri
ts-Vadzi
mu.Thesewer
e
wor
shipedthroughspir
itmedi
ums.

Soapst
oneZi
mbabwebi
rdsmadeassy sofShi
mbol riyaMwar
i
MhondorosandMwariwer
econsult
edi
ntimesofcri
sissuchaswar
,
dr
oughtsetcthr
ought
hespir
i ums-maswi
tmedi kir
o
Spi
ri
tmedi
ums-
impor
tantati
nst
all
ati
onofnewchi
efs

Beerbr
ewedcat
tl
esl
aught
eredatt
radi
ti
onal
cer
emoni
es

(
c)Towhatext
entdi
deconomi
cpr
obl
emsl
eadt
othedecl
ineoft
hest
ate? (
8)

(
i)Economi
cfact
ors

Shor
tageofr
esour
cessuchassal
tandpast
ures

Exhaust
ionofsoi
l

Successi
vedr
ought
s-poorhar
vest
s

Decl
i
nei
ntr
adet
hroughdepl
eti
onofr
esour
ces

(
ii
)Soci
opol
i
tical
fact
ors

Successi
ondi
sput
esi
nroy
alf
ami
l
yleadi
ngt
omi
grat
ions

Ov
erpopul
ati
on

Page11of11
 At
tacksf
rom nei
ghbour
s

(
Nov2004)

7.(a)Li
stanysixt
radei
temsexchangedf
orf
orei
gngoodsbyt
hepeopl
eofGr
eat
Zimbabweduringthel
atei
ronage.
(
6)

(
i)Gol
d/cooper

(
ii
)Iv
ory

(
ii
i)Soapst
one/bowl
s

(
iv)
Ost
ri
chf
eat
her
s,i
ront
ool
s,gr
ains

(
v)Beadsf
rom seeds/j
ewel
l
ery
,cr
aftwar
e

(
vi)
Ski
nsofani
mal
s

(
vii
)Li
vest
ock

(
b)Descri
betheeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esoft
heGr
eatZi
mbabwest
atedur
ingt
hel
ate
i
ronage.(
11)

Past
oral
i
sm –keptcat
tl
eandgoat
s

Cul
ti
vat
ionofcr
ops-mi
l
letandsor
ghum

Di
vi
sionofl
abour

Mi
ninggol
d

;
pay
mentoft
ri
but
e

Fi
shi
ng

Cr
aft
wor
k-pot
ter
ybasket
ry,
weav
ing

Hunt
ing–f
ormeatandski
ns

Tool
maki
ng-
hoes,
kni
ves,
arr
ows,
spear
s

Tr
ade-l
ocal
andl
ongdi
stance

Gat
her
ingoff
rui
ts/
ber
ri
es

Rai
ding

(c)Towhatext
entdi
dtheeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
escont
ri
butetot
hedecl
ineoft
heGr
eat
ZimbabweStat
e? (8)

(
i)Economi
cAct
ivi
ti
es

Page12of12
 Shor
tageofsal
t(l
edt
onor
thwar
dmi
grat
ionofNy
atsi
mbaMut
ota)

Shor
tageoff
ood(duet
odr
ought
sandsol
eexhaust
ion)

Past
uresf
orcat
tl
e(ov
ergr
azi
ng)

Fuel
andot
herr
esour
cesdepl
eted(
env
ironment
aldegener
ati
on)

Decl
i
nei
ntr
ade

Ref
usal
topayt
ri
but
e

(
ii
)Ot
herr
easons

Successi
ondi
sput
es

Ri
seofambi
ti
ousl
eader
s

Ov
erpopul
ati
on

At
tacksf
rom nei
ghbour
s

(
Nov2005)

8.(
a)Stateanythr
eecommodi
ti
esi
mpor
tedandanyt
hreecommodit
iesexpor
ted
bytheGreatZi
mbabweStat
e. (6)

(a)(i
)Glassbeads,
clot
h,seashel
l
s,br
asswar
e,i
ronwar
e,axesandhoeheads,
chisel
s,chi
naware

(
ii
)Iv
ory
,gol
d,ost
ri
chf
eat
her
s,ani
mal
ski
ns,
soapst
one/bowl
s,l
i
vest
ock/cat
tl
e

(
b)Descr
ibet
heeconomi
candsoci
alact
ivi
ti
esoft
hepeopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe
(
11)

(
i)Economi
cact
ivi
ti
es

Agr
icul
tur
e–gr
ewsor
ghum ,
mil
l
et,
cal
abashes,
gour
ds

Domest
icati
onofcatt
le,
goat
sandsheepf
ormeat
,mi
l
k,t
radi
ti
onal
cer
emoniesandlobol
a

Mi
ning-
ir
on,
copper
,gol
ddust

Smelt
ingandbl
acksmi
thi
ng-
manuf
act
ureofhoes,
spear
headsand
ar
rowheads

Trade-i
nternalt
radeexchangi
nggrai
nforhoes,
spear
setcandext
ernal
trade
exchangingivor
ygolddustforcl
othgl
assandbeadswit
hSwahil
ipeopl
efrom
Persi
a,Indi
a

Hunt
ingf
ormeat,
elephant
sfori
vor
y

Page13of13
 Gat
her
ingst
il
lani
mp or
tantsour
ceoff
ood

Div
isionoflabour–menwenthunt
ingandher
dingwhi
l
stwomenwent
gatheri
ng,cul
ti
vatedl
and.

Cr
aft
wor
k-;
basket
ry,
maki
ngsoapst
onebowl
s,Zi
mbabwebi
rdf
igur
ines

Fi
shi
ng

Tr
ibut
e

[
ii
]Soci
alAct
ivi
ti
es

Gr
eatZi
mbabwe-
rel
i
giouscent
re

Fi
gur
inesofZi
mbabwebi
rdexcav
atedatGr
eatZi
mbabwe

Peopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe–bel
i
evedi
ncr
eat
or-
GodMwar
i,

Bel
i
evedi
nexi
stenceofot
hersuper
iorbei
ngs,
ancest
ral
spi
ri
ts

Nat
ional
andr
egi
onal
spi
ri
tscal
l
edMhondor
os

Communi
cat
ionwi
thspi
ri
tsmadet
hroughspi
ri
tmedi
ums

Spi
ri
tmedi
umsusedt
oint
erpr
etv
oiceofHungwe[
Fish-
eagl
e]

Pol
ygamywaspr
act
iced

Cat
tl
easast
atussy
mbol

Di
vi
sionofl
abour

Cat
tl
eloani
ngsy
stem/
kur
onzer
a

Set
tl
ementsy
stem/
dwel
l
ings/
accommodat
ion

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dtr
adecont
ri
but
est
othedecl
ineofGr
eatZi
mbabwe? [
8]

[
i]
.Tr
adeanddecl
i
ne:

Cont
ri
but
edt
hroughexhaust
ionofr
esour
ces,
gol
d,ost
ri
chf
eat
her
s,i
vor
y

Openi
ngofZambezi
tradepr
eci
pit
ateddecl
i
neoft
radeatGr
eatZi
mbabwe

Unf
airt
radepr
act
icese.
g.r
ecei
vedwor
thl
essgoods

[
ii
].
otherf
act
ors

Shor
tageofsal
t

Per
sist
entdr
ought
s

Page14of14
 Exhaust
ionofpast
ure/
soi
lwhi
chsuppor
tedagr
icul
tur
e

Ov
erpopul
ati
on

Ther
ewer eal
sosuccessi
ondi
sput
esandt
hreat
sofat
tacksf
rom ext
ernal
enemies

Ci
vi
lwar
s

(
Nov2010)

9(
a).
Listanysi
xcr
aft
spr
act
isedbyt
hepeopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe. (
6)

Pot
ter
y,Basket
ry,
Weav
ing

Bl
acksmi
thi
ng,
Scul
ptur
e,Bui
l
dingofst
ones.

Car
vings,
Leat
her
wor
k,Jewel
l
ery

Smel
ti
ng,
Drum maki
ng

(
b).
Out
li
net
hef
act
orswhi
chl
edt
other
iseofGr
eatZi
mbabwe. (
11)

Favour
abl
ecli
mat
e-goodr
ainf
all
andav
ail
abi
l
ityofwat
erf
rom r
iver
ssuchas
theMti
ri
kwi.

Absenceoft
set
sef
li
esandgoodpast
urewhi
chsust
ainedpast
oral
i
sm

Abundanceofgamef
ormeat
,ski
nsandi
vor
yint
hear
ea

Areawasaccessi
bletoint
ernat
ionalt
radewi
thSwahi
l
i,Ar
abs,
Per
siansand
Chineset
hroughSofal
aandlocaltr
ade

Hi
ll
topwasprobablychosenf
ordef
enceagai
nstenemi
esandasacent
ref
or
r
eli
giouswor
ship.

Riseofambit
iousleader
swhounder
tookconquestofot
herl
i
neagest
o
contr
oltr
aderoutes,r
esour
cesandt
olevytr
ibut
e

Fer
ti
lel
andsf
oragr
icul
tur
e

Abundanceofmi
ner
alsf
ort
radeandt
ool
maki
ng

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofgr
ani
ter
ock

Cat
tl
eloani
ngsy
stem(
Kur
onzer
a\Maf
isa)

Thef
all
ofMapungubwe

Pol
ygamy

St
rengt
hoft
hear
my.

Page15of15
(
c).
Towhatext
entdi
deconomi
cfact
orscont
ri
but
etot
her
iseoft
hest
ate? (
8)

Economi
cfact
ors

Tr
adegoodsusedbyr
uler
stost
rengt
hent
hei
rposi
ti
ons

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofsal
t

Agr
icul
tur
e-f
oodav
ail
abl
e

Past
oral
i
sm

Hunt
ing-
meatandski
ns

Tr
ibut
epay
ment

Mi
ner
als-f
ort
rade,
maki
ngt
ool
sandweapons.

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofwoodf
orf
uel

Cat
tl
eloani
ngsy
stem-
madel
eader
sst
rong.

Ot
herf
act
ors

Ri
seofambi
ti
ousl
eader
s-l
eadi
ngandor
gani
singpeopl
e

Tr
ibut
e

Hi
l
ltopar
eaf
ordef
encepur
poses

Rel
i
gion,
fal
lofMapungubwe.

Absenceoft
set
sef
li
es

Ri
seofpopul
ati
on

Accessi
bil
i
tyoft
hear
eat
hroughr
iver
s

Pol
ygamy

Rol
eoft
hear
my

Goodr
elat
ionwi
thot
herpeopl
e

[
Nov2011]

10.[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xusesofcat
tl
eint
heGr
eatZi
mbabwest
ate. [
6]

Pay
mentofl
obol
a(br
ide-
pri
ce)

For
m ofweal
th/st
atussy
mbol

Loani
ng-
maf
isa-
cat
tl
eforpol
i
tical
inf
luence

Page16of16
 Fort
rade

Pay
mentoft
ri
but
e

Forr
it
ual
cer
emoni
essuchasr
ainmaki
ngcer
emoni
es,
appeasi
ngspi
ri
ts

Forf
ood-
mil
kandmeat

For
msoft
ranspor
t,
ri
ding,
car
ryi
nggoods(
draughtpower
)

Mat
s,cl
othesandbl
anket
s

Drums,paymentoff
ines,manure,
flourpol
i
sh, maki
ngshi
elds,
maki
ng
sandal
s,hi
desandskins-
forcl
othi
ngandbl anket
s

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hef
act
orst
hatl
edt
other
iseoft
heGr
eatZi
mbabwest
ate.[
11]

Fal
lofmapungubwe

Goodr
ainf
all
suppl
i
es

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofgr
ani
ter
ock

Rel
i
giouspower
s

I
tsgeogr
aphi
cal
locat
ion

Li
vest
ockowner
shi
pespeci
all
ycat
tl
e

St
rongar
my

Mar
ri
ageal
l
iances

Fer
ti
lesoi
l
sforgowi
ngcr
ops

Cont
rol
ofsur
pluspr
oduct
ionbyl
eader
s

Goodpast
uresf
ordomest
icani
mal
s,
cat
tl
e,got
asandsheep

Abundantwat
ersuppl
i
esf
rom near
byr
iver
segMut
ir
ikweRi
ver

Pl
ent
yofFaunaf
ormeat
,iv
ory

Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
e-f
reet
set
se-f
ly-pr
omot
ingcat
tl
erear
ing

Ri
chmi
ner
alweal
thi
nthenei
ghbour
hood,
e,
gcooper
,gol
d,i
ron

Sui
tabl
epl
acef
ort
aki
ngr
efugei
nwart
ime-
NemnwaHi
l
l

Hi
l
lregar
der
dassacr
edf
orr
eli
giouspur
poses

Cent
ral
locat
ionmadear
eaaccessi
blet
olocal
andi
nter
nat
ional
trade

Page17of17
 Emergenceofinf
luenti
alandambi
ti
ousl
eader
skeenonr
ull
i
ngal
arger
pol
i
ticaluni
tandlevyi
ngtri
bute

Abundanceoff
uel
,
Abundanceofsal
t,st
rongar
my

Dev
elopmentofi
ront
echnol
ogy

Pol
ygamyl
eadi
ngt
opopul
ati
oni
ncr
ease

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwer
epol
it
ical
fact
orsi
nther
iseofGr
eatZi
mbabwe. [
8]

I
mpor
tanceofpol
i
tical
fact
ors

Fal
lofMapungubwe

Emer
genceofambi
ti
ousl
eader
s

Contr
ol ofrel
igi
on–r
uker
sregar
dedasdi
vi
nel
yappoi
ntedhencecommanded
uni
versalrespect
n

Leader
s’ambi
ti
onswet
tedbyconsi
der
ati
onsoft
ri
but
ecol
l
ect
ion

St
rongar
my

Uni
ty

Sui
tabi
l
ityoft
hear
eaf
ordef
encei
nwart
ime

I
mpor
tanceofot
herf
act
ors

Economi
cfact
orssuchasaccessi
bil
i
tyt
oint
ernat
ional
andl
ocal
trade

Fer
ti
lesol
i
sforgr
owi
ngcr
ops

Abundantpast
uresf
orl
i
vest
ock

Abundantmi
ner
alweal
th

Abundantf
auna

Sui
tabi
l
ityofar
eaf
ordef
encei
nwart
ime

THEMUTAPASTATE
[
Speci
men]

11[
a].
Stat
esi
xfact
orst
hatl
edt
other
iseoft
heMut
apaSt
ate. [
6]

Depl
eti
onofresour
cesatGreatZi
mbabweandt
her
esul
tantmi
grat
ionof
gr
oupsofpeoplefr
om t
here.

Needt
ocont
rol
longdi
stancet
radeal
ongt
heZambezi
(Sambav
ezi
)ri
ver
.

Page18of18
 Successi
ondi
sputesatGr
eatZi
mbabwel
edt
othemi
grat
ionofdef
eat
ed
l
eaderstonewarea.

Ambi
ti
ousl
eader
sli
keMut
otawant
edt
ost
artnewst
ates

Exi
stenceofbet
terr
esour
cesi
ntheNor
thEast
.

Gr
owt
hinpopul
ati
onofShonapeopl
e.

Emer
genceofsev
eral
chi
eft
ainshi
psi
nthear
eal
edt
oamal
gamat
ion

Mi
l
itar
yst
rengt
hofsomel
eader
shel
pedt
hem t
odomi
nat
eandexpand

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esoft
heMut
apaSt
ate. [
11]

Far
ming-
bot
hagr
icul
tur
eandpast
oral
far
ming

Mi
ning–f
ort
hingsl
i
kei
ron,
copperandweapons

Cr
aft
wor
k-t
hemaki
ngofhousehol
dit
emsl
i
kebasket
s,pot
ter
ydr
umsand
mats

Trade–bot hinternalandexter
naltr
ade.Theformeri
nvol
vedexchange
betweendi f
ferentgroupsofShonae, gMiner
sexchangi
ngwi t
hfar
mers;and
thelat
terinvolvedtheShonaandout sider
sli
ketheSwahil
iandPort
uguese
whobr oughtinnewi temslikeclot
handmai ze

Nat
ional
weal
thwasal
soaccumul
atedt
hrought
ri
but
epai
dtot
her
uler

Hunt
ing–al
soplay
edapar
tint
heeconomyoft
heMut
apaasi
taugment
ed
t
hefoodsuppl
y

[
c].
Howfardidt
heseeconomicact
ivi
ti
escont
ri
but
etot
hegr
owt
hand
expansi
onoftheMutapaSt
ate?
[8]

Thesystem ofdi
vi
sionoflabourhel
pedt
opromot
etheeconomyasdi
ffer
ent
groupsplayedt
hei
rparttoenhanceweal
th—e,
gmencoul
dconcent
rat
eon
tr
adewhi l
ewomenpr oducedfood.

Cont
rol
oftr
adebyleader
sgavethem powerandweal
thwhi
chhel
pedt
hem
domi
nateot
herl
esswealthygr
oups.

Knowledgeofi
ronmaki
ngalsogavepoweri
ntermsofweaponsandhel
ped
thel
eadinggr
ouptoest
abl
i
shaut hor
it
yandevenexpandi
tsi
nfl
uenceov
er
l
argeareas

Resul
ti
ngexhi
bit
ionofpoweral
soenhancedgr
owt
handexpansionwhen
somesmall
erethni
cgroupsvol
unt
ari
lyj
oinedt
heMut
apakingdom.

Theking’
sal
legedrel
igi
ouspowerswer
econt
rol
l
edt
hrought
hechi
efs
repr
esent
ati
vealsoenhancedgr
owth

Page19of19
 Themi l
i
tar
yprowessofthenucleusgroupofMutot
ahel
pedt
oconquerot
her
areasandbri
ngthem undercent
ral
izedaut
hor
it
y.

[
JUNE2004]

12.[
a].
Nameanysi
xrul
ersoft
heMut
apast
atef
r he15thcent
om t uryt
othe17th
cent
ury.[
6]

Kapar
ari
dze

Ny
atsi
mbaMut
ota

Ny
anheweMat
ope

Ny
ahumamukomber
anwa

Mamv
uraMhande

Ny
akambi
re/
Nyakunembi
re

NegomoMapunzagut
a

Gat
siRuser
e

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalst
ruct
ureoft
heMut
apast
ate
[
11]

Thepol
i
tical
str
uct
ureoft
heMut
apast
ate

Mut
apast
ate-
ver
ylar
geby1450

BoundedbyZambezir
iveri
nthenort
h,Li
mpopoi
nthesout
h,t
heI
ndi
an
OceaninEastandt
heKalahar
ideser
tinwest

Hencet
her
ewasneedf
oref
fi
cientsy
stem ofgov
ernment

TheMut apahimsel
fwasthecent
reofgov
ernment
-basedathi
s
headquarter
s-muzi
nda[
court
].

Otheri
mportantst
ateof
fi
cial
sincl
uded-
thecourtchancell
or,
thecour
t
chamberl
ain,t
hearmycommander ,
theheaddrummer ,thecook

Thequeenmother
,ki
ng’
ssisteraswell
ast
heki
ng’
sni
nepr
inci
pal
wiv
es,nobl
esandpagessentbyvassal
s

Chi
efpr
iest
soft
heMwar
icul
t

Int
hei mport
antprov
incessuchasGuruuswa,
Mbire,
Dande,Bar
we,
ManyikaandUt ev
etheMut apaputt
rust
edrel
ati
vesorf
ri
endstorul
e
asvassalchi
efs

Chi
efswer
echosen/
appoi
ntedi
nconsul
tat
ionwi
thspi
ri
tmedi
umsor

Page20of20
 mhondor
os

Eachvassalchi
efcoll
ect
edtr
ibut
eonbehal
foft
heMut
apai
nfor
m of
i
vory,
gold,grai
n,cat
tl
eetc

Sentownsonwi
tht
ri
but
etoMut
apaassi
gnofl
oyal
ty

Vassalchief
salsorequi
redtoli
ghtt
hei
rownf
ir
efr
om Mut
apa’
sfi
re
annual
l
y, asfur
thersi
gnofloyal
ty

Rebel
l
iousv
assalswereat
tackedbyt
heki
ng’
sar
mywhi
chal
sohel
ped
tohol
dempire/
stat
etoget
her

Mut
apamai
ntai
nedast
rongar
myf
ordef
ence

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dsuccessi
ondi
sput
escont
ri
but
etot
hedecl
ineoft
heMut
apast
ate?
[
8]

Reasonsf
ort
hedecl
i
ne

Theki
ngdom wast
ool
arge,
communi
cat
ionwi
thal
lpar
tswasdi
ff
icul
t

Poorl
eader
shi
pofcert
ainr
uler
s-whol
ackedt
hechar
ismaandmi
l
itar
y
pr
owess–tokeepst
ateuni
ted

Successi
ondi
sput
es-
e.g.Por
tugueseagai
nstGat
siRuser
e,Mamv
uraMhande

I
nter
fer
encef
ormf
orei
gner
ssuchasSwahi
l
itr
ader
sforbet
tercont
ract
sfr
om
r
uler
s

Lat
erint
erf
erencefr
om Por
tugueset
rader
sinthe16th/
17thcent
uri
eswhohad
i
nfl
uenceonr ul
ersl
i
keMamv uraMhande,Gat
siRusere

For
eigner
sfannedsuccessi
ondi
sput
es-
taki
ngsi
desi
ndi
sput
es

Br
oughtI
slam/
Chr
ist
ianr
eli
gionwhi
chdest
roy
edt
radi
ti
onal
rel
i
gion-
auni
fyi
ng
el
ement.

[
Jun2006]

13.[a]
.Li
stanysixti
tl
esofoffi
cial
sinMut apa’
sgov er
nment [6]
-
Chancellor
,-
armycommander ,
-headdrummer ,headdoorkeeper,courtchamberlai
n
,headcook,Queenmot her
,ki
ng’ssi
ster,ki
ng’sninepri
ncipalwives,chiefspi
ri
t
medium,king’ssonsinlaw,v
assalchief
s,chi
efs,prov
incialchi
efs

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalsy
stem andt
hesoci
alsy
stem oft
heMut
apast
ate [
8].

[
i]
.Pol
i
tical
syst
em ofMut
apast
ate

Ki
ngwasthehighestoff
ici
al,cent
reofgov
ernment,
commanderi
nchi
efof
ar
my,
chi
efjudge,r
eli
giousleader,
dist
ri
but
orofl
andandboot
y

Page21of21
 I
mportantof
fi
cial
satchiefscour
tincl
udedar
mycommander s,chancel
lor
,
headdrummer,headdoorkeeper
,headcook,
king’
ssi
ster
,Queenmot herand
theki
ng’sni
neprinci
palwives

Offi
cial
srel
atedtoMutapaStat
e-di
vi
dedintoprovi
ncesundercont
rol
of
vassalchi
efssuchasUteveofSofal
a,SendadaofSave,Chi
kangaofMany
ika,
andMakombeofBar we.

Vassal
chi
efspai
dtr
ibut
etoMut
apa

Vassal
chi
efsr
equi
redt
oli
ghtf
ir
esev
eryy
earf
rom Mut
apa’
sfi
re

Al
sosentsonsasambassador
stoMut
apaassi
gnofl
oyal
ty

Mar
ri
ageal
l
iances

Mai
ntenanceofanar
myaspar
tofpol
i
tics

[
ii
]Soci
alsy
stem oft
heMut
apast
ate

Shonabel
i
evedi
nhi
ghGod-
Mwar
iCr
eat
orofmanki
nd

Shonaal
sobel
iev
edinvar
iousspi
rit
ssuchasf
ami
l
yancest
ors,
clanand
Nati
onal
Spi
ri
tscall
edMhondoros

Spi
ri
ts–wer
econsul
tedt
hroughspi
ri
tmedi
ums

Spi
ri
tsappear
edt
hroughbr
ewi
ngbeerandsl
aught
eri
ngcat
tl
e

Bel
i
efsi
nwi
tchcr
aft

Pr
act
icedpol
ygamy

Kur
onzer
a/cat
tl
eloani
ngsy
stem

Li
vi
ngi
nvi
l
lagesaccor
dingt
oli
neages

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwasr
eli
gioni
nthepol
it
ical
syst
em oft
heMut
apast
ate?
[
8]

[
i]
.Impor
tanceofshonar
eli
gion

Shonar
eli
gionmosti
ntegr
ati
nganduni
fyi
ngf
act
ori
nMut
apast
ate

NewMut
apa–chosenandi
nst
all
edbyNat
ional
Mhondor
o

Mut
apar
espect
edasadi
vi
ner
uler

Ki
ngconsul
tedspi
ri
ts/
mhondor
osi
nti
mesofcr
isi
s,war
,fami
ne

Ki
ngr
uledwi
thbl
essi
ngofspi
ri
tmedi
ums

[
ii
]Ot
herf
act
ors:
Page22of22
 I
ncl
udedmi
l
itar
yor
gani
zat
ionort
hear
myf
ordef
ence/
expansi
onoft
hest
ate

St
rongeconomybasedonf
armi
ng,
past
oral
i
sm,
mini
ng,
trade-
whi
chhel
pedt
o
maint
ainalar
gear
my

Pay
mentoft
ri
but
e,r
oyal
fir
e

Al
soi
mpor
tanti
nensur
ingl
oyal
tyt
ost
ate/
str
ongr
uler

[
Nov2006]

14.[
a].
Listanysi
xit
emst
hatwer
eusedt
opayt
ri
but
eint
heMut
apaSt
ate.
[
6]

-
Agr
icul
tur
alpr
oduce,-
labour
,-v
aluabl
eski
ns,-gol
d,-
cat
tl
e,-
ivor
y,-
ir
onhoes,
-ost
ri
ch
f
eat
hers,
-j
ewel
ler
y/beads,-
guns,-
cerami
cs,-
forei
gngoods.

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heor
igi
nsandexpansi
onoft
heMut
apaSt
ate.
[
11]

[
i]Or
igi
ns

FoundedbyNy
atsi
mbaMut
ota

Assumedt
obedirectsuccessort
oGr
eatZi
mbabwest
atet
hatcol
l
apsed
t
h
ar
oundmid15 century

I
deadependsonor
alt
radi
ti
onaboutMut
ota

Sentagent
stonor
ther
npl
ateausear
chi
ngf
orsal
t

Di
scov
erednewsal
tdeposi
tsi
nnor
thsomov
ementt
oDandear
ea/
MtDar
win
ar
ea

Dr
oughtatGtZi
mbabwe

Shor
tageofr
esour
ces

Successi
ondi
sput
esshi
ft
ingoft
radet
oZambeziv
all
ey

Conquest
sandpl
underoft
heTongaandTav
arapeopl
e

Al
l
iancest
ochi
efDzi
vagur
u,l
eadi
ngt
osuppor
tbyl
ocal
peopl
e

[
ii
].
Dev
elopment
/Expansi
on

Tr
adel
edt
oexpansi
onoft
hest
ate

Hi
ssonandsuccessor,
Matope,
ext
endedt
err
it
oryeast
wardsbyconquer
ing
i
ndependentki
ngdomsofBar
we,Mani
caandSofal
a,Ut
eve,Madanda

Mut
apaexer
cisedt
hepower
sofpar
amountchi
efov
ernor
th-
east

Page23of23
 Mashonal
andandmuchofpr
esentdayMozambi
quef
or200y
ear
s

Haddi
rectcont
rol
overNEcor
nerofMozambi
que

Ki
ngsofUt
eve,
MadandaandChi
kangapai
dtr
ibut
e

Ext
endedwest
war
dasf
arast
heKal
ahar
ideser
t

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwast
hear
myi
ntheexpansi
onoft
heMut
apaSt
ate? [
8]

[
i]
.I
mpor
tanceoft
hear
myi
nst
ateexpansi
on

Conquestofnewt
err
it
ory

Col
l
ect
ionoft
ri
but
e

Def
enceoft
hest
ate

Suppr
essi
onofr
ebel
l
ions

pr
otect
ingt
heMut
apa

[
ii
]Ot
herf
act
ors

Al
l
iancet
oDzi
vagur
upr
iest
sandsuppor
tfr
om t
hel
ocal
s[r
eli
gion]

Mar
ri
ageal
l
iances

Mi
l
itar
ypr
owess/
char
ismat
icl
eader
shi
pofMut
ota&Mat
ope

Weaknessesoft
hel
ocal
s.

[
Nov2007]

15[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xsoci
algr
oupswi
thi
ntheGr
eatZi
mbabweSt
ate.[
6]

Far
mer
s;Mi
ner
s;Tr
ader
s;Rul
i
ngCl
ass;
Spi
ri
tMedi
ums;
Hunt
ers;

Pot
ter
s;Her
bal
i
sts;
WarCapt
ives;
Blacksmi
ths;
Sol
dier
s;Gat
her
ers;
Slav
es;

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalandsoci
alsy
stemsoft
heGr
eatZi
mbabweSt
ate.[
11]

[
i]
Pol
i
tical
syst
em:

Theki
ngwast
hepol
i
tical
,j
udi
cial
andr
eli
giousov
erl
ord

Ki
ngwasal
socommanderi
nchi
efoft
hear
myanddi
str
ibut
orofl
and

Ki
ngwasassi
stedbyt
het
radi
ti
onal
counci
lofel
der
s

Alsoappoint
eddi
str
ictandv
il
lagechi
efst
ocont
rol
dist
ri
ctsandv
il
lages
respect
ivel
y

Page24of24
 Lesserchi
efspai
dtr
ibut
easasi
gnofl
oyal
ty

Theyal
sohadanar
myf
orpr
otect
ionoft
rader
sandf
ormai
ntai
ningor
der

Ki
ngshi
pwasher
edi
tar
y

Therewereal
soimpor
tantof
fi
cial
li
ket
heQueenmot
her
,ki
ng’
swi
vesand
sons-i
n-l
awandarmycommanders.

[
ii
].
Soci
alsy
stem:

Gr
eatZi
mbabwesoci
etywaspat
ri
li
neal

Owner
shi
pofcat
tl
ewasast
atussy
mbol

Cat
tl
ewer
eusedt
opayl
obol
a

Pol
ygamywaspr
act
icedasasour
ceofl
abourandsol
dier
s

Gr
eatZi
mbabwesociet
ybeli
ev edi
ncreat
orGodMwar
iandNat
ional
Spi
ri
tsor
Mondor
osandancest
ralspi
ri
ts,Hungwebir
d

Wor
shi
pwasdonet
hrought
hespi
ri
tmedi
ums(
Masv
iki
ro)

Theki
ngwaschosenbyspi
ri
tmedi
umsandl
edatr
it
ual
cer
emoni
essuchas
rai
nmaki
ngorhar
vest

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwast
ri
but
eint
heGr
eatZi
mbabwepol
it
icalsy
stem?

[
i]
Impor
tanceoft
ri
but
e:

Ensur
edl
oyal
tyofl
esserchi
efst
otheki
ng

Ensur
edl
esserchi
efswoul
dnotbecomet
ori
ch,
power
ful
andambi
ti
ous

Enhancedt
heweal
th,
inf
luenceandpoweroft
heki
ng

[
ii
].
Otherf
act
ors

Al
soi
mpor
tantwasr
eli
gionwhi
chuni
tedt
hepeopl
e

Ki
ngwaschosenbyspi
ri
tmedi
umshencecommandeduni
ver
sal
respect

Thear
myal
soi
mpor
tantf
ordef
ence,
lawandor
derdi
scour
agi
ngr
ebel
l
ions

Tradewasi
mpor
tantf
oraccesst
ofor
eigngoodsandst
rengt
hoft
he
economy

Agr
icul
tur
ewasi
mpor
tantf
orast
rongeconomyandf
orf
eedi
ngt
hepopul
ace.

[
Nov2008]

16.[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xpr
ovi
ncesoft
heMut
apaSt
ateatt
hepeakofi
tspower
. [
6].

Page25of25
-
Gur
uuswa[
Tor
wa]
,-Mbi
re,
-Chi
dima[
chi
demo]
,-Bar
we,
-Many
ika,
-Ut
eve,
-Madanda

[
b].
Descr
ibet
her
iseandexpansi
onoft
heMut
apaSt
ateupt
o1480. [
11]

[i
].
Nyat
simbaMut
ota–ambi
ti
ousbutunsuccessf
ulcl
aimantt
othet
hrone-
[1420-
1450]

1420Mutot
asetoutt
oDandeRegi
oni
nsear
chofsal
t,gol
d,i
vor
y,past
ures,
fer
ti
lel
ands

Al
sot
ocont
rol
trader
out
eonZambezi
Riv
er.

Mut
otaconquer
edt
heTonga,
Tav
araandKor
e-kor
eoft
heDandeRegi
on

Wasgi
venpr
aisename‘
MweneMut
apa’

Owneroft
heconquer
edl
andswhi
chbecameady
nast
ict
it
le

Mut
otaest
abl
i
shedt
hecapi
tal
atChi
takoChangony
anearMtFur
ainDande

Mut
otadi
edi
n1450bef
orecompl
eti
nghi
sexpansi
oni
stpol
i
cy

Rel
i
gionenhanceduni
tye.
g.Dzi
vagur
ucul
t

(
ii
.) Ny
anheweMat
ope,
Mut
ota’
ssoncont
inuedt
heexpansi
oni
stpol
i
cy.

- Conquer
edandabsor
bedBar
we,
Many
ika,
Utev
eandMadanda

- St
il
ldesi
redt
ocont
rol
trader
out
es,
tri
but
e,gol
dandi
vor
yresour
ces.

- Mut
apaSt
atewasati
tszeni
thdur
ingMat
ope’
srei
gn.

Intheeastitwasboundedbyt heIndi
anOcean,int
hewestbytheKal
ahari
Desert
,inthenorthbytheZambezi Ri
ver,
andinthesout
hbytheLimpopo
Riv
er.MutotaandMat opecreatedaveryvastempi
rehadtoappoi
ntvassal
chi
efstocontrolprov
inces.

(c.
) Didt
hepeopleoftheMutapaStatebenef
itf
rom t
heexpansi
onoft
hest
ate
duri
ngt
heper
iod?Expl
ainyouranswer
. [
8]

(
i.
) BENEFI
TSFROM MUTAPASTATE

Peaceandpr
otect
ionbyst
rongst
atear
my

Wer
econduci
vet
otr
adeandf
armi
ng

Accesst
ofor
eigngoodst
hrought
rade

Rul
i
ngcl
assl
evi
edt
ri
but
efr
om v
assal
chi
efs

Accesst
omor
eresour
ces–gol
d,gameani
mal
s,i
vor
y,f
ert
il
esoi
l

Uni
tyenhancedbyr
eli
gione.
g.t
heDzi
vagur
ucul
t
Page26of26
 (
ii
.) NON-
BENEFI
TS

Rebel
l
ionsbyv
assal
chi
efs–causeddeat
hsanddest
ruct
ions

Successi
ondi
sput
esbyambi
ti
ousmember
soft
her
oyal
fami
l
y

Cont
rol
ofv astempi
rewasdi
ff
icul
thi
nder
edbypoor
communicati
on

Or
dinar
ypeopl
eandv
assal
chi
efshadt
opayt
ri
but
e

Or
dinar
ypeopl
efoughti
nKi
ng’
sar
miesandper
ished.

[
Nov2009]

17(
a.) Nam eanysi
xrul
ersoft
heMut
apaSt
ateupt
othe18thcent
ury
.
[
6]

Ny
atsi
mbaMut
ota

Ny
anheweMat
ope

Chi
kuy
oChi
samar
engu

Mav
uraMande(
Phi
l
li
p)

Gat
siRuser
e

NegomoMapunzagut
u(Sebast
ian)

Ny
amboKapar
ari
dze

Mukombwe

Chi
vher
eNy
asor
o

Ny
ahuma

Ny
akunembi
re/
Neshangwe

Ny
amhi
taNehanda

(
b.) Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalandr
eli
giousor
gani
zat
ionoft
heMut
apaSt
ate.
[
11]

(
i.
) POLI
TICAL

Therul
erwasover
all
inchar
ge,
chi
efadmini
str
ator,
chiefj
udge,
commanderinchi
efofthear
myanddi
str
ibut
orofland.[maxof3
duti
es]

Rul
erwascal
l
edbyt
it
leMunhumut
apa(
MweneMut
apa

Ki
ngshi
pwasher
edi
tar
ypassi
ngont
otheel
destsonaf
tert
hedeat
h
oft
heKing

Page27of27
 Theki
ngwashel
pedt
orul
ebypr
ovi
nci
alr
uler
sint
hepr
ovi
nces

Di
str
ictchi
efswer
einchar
geofchi
efdoms

Therul
erhadmanyof fi
cial
ssuchascourtchamber
lai
n,army
commanders,cooks,
door -
keeper
,taxcol
l
ector
s,messenger
s,
ambassador
s.[maxof2]

Al
soimpor
tantwast
hequeenmot
herandt
heki
ngsni
nepr
inci
pal
wi
ves.

Lesserchi
efspai
dtr
ibut
etoMut
apaasasi
gnofl
oyal
ty

TheMut
apaalsor
equir
edlesserchi
efst
oli
ghtt
hei
rfi
resf
rom t
he
Ki
ng’
sfi
reannual
l
y(royal
fir
e)

Ki
ngal
sohadanar
myt
omai
ntai
nlawandor
der
.

(
ii
.) RELI
GIOUS

ThepeopleoftheMutapaStatebel
i
evedinthecreat
orGodMwar
i,
Nati
onalSpi
ri
ts(Mhondoros)andancest
ral
spir
it
s.[MAX3]

Thesewereworshipedt
hrought
hespir
itmedi
ums(masviki
ro)
.Spi
ri
ts
play
edanim port
antrol
einthei
nst
all
ati
onofki
ngs(
kingschosenby
spir
itmedi
ums)

TheMut apasconsul
tedspiri
tmediumsint
imesofcr
isessuchaswar
,
drought
,epidemi
cs,successi
ondisput
esetc

Rai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es

Bel
i
efi
nli
feaf
terdeat
h

Bel
i
evedi
nwi
tchcr
aft

(
c.) Howf
ardi
drel
igi
oncont
ri
but
etot
hest
abi
li
tyoft
hest
ate? [
8]

(
i.
) i
mpor
tanceofr
eli
gion

Hel
pedi
nchoosi
ngki
ngsandi
nthei
rinst
all
ati
on

Wereconsul
tedbyki
ngsandchi
efsi
nti
mesofcr
isessuchaswarand
dr
ought

Tr
eat
ingofi
l
lpeopl
e

Rel
i
giouscer
emoni
essuchasr
ainmaki
ng

Al
l
iancewi
tht
heDzi
vagur
ucul
t

(
ii
.) Ot
herf
act
ors

Thear
myf
ormai
ntai
ningl
awandor
der

Tr
ibut
epay
mentensur
edt
hel
oyal
tyofl
esserchi
efs

Page28of28
 Col
l
ect
ionofr
oyal
fir
eal
soensur
edl
oyal
tyt
olesserchi
efs

St
abl
eeconomymeantast
abl
egov
ernment

Tr
ade

Rai
ding

Mar
ri
ageal
l
iances

Kur
onzer
a

[
Nov2011]

18[
a].
Nameanysi
xpr
ovi
ncesoft
heMut
apast
ate. [
6]

Chi
koy
a,Madnda/
Sedanda

Ut
eve/
Qui
tev
e,Many
ika/
Mani
ca

Bar
we,
Dande-
Chi
dima.

Mbi
re,
Gur
urswa/But
ua

Fur
a,Sango

[
b].
Outl
inet
hemil
it
aryachi
evement
sofMut
otaandt
hepol
it
icalsy
stem t
hathe
dev
elopedi
ntheMutapast
ate. [
11]

Mi
l
itar
yachi
evementofMut
ota

I
n1420,
Mut
otabr
okeawayf
rom Gr
eatZi
mbabweast
heheadoft
hear
my

Heconquer
edtheTonga,
Tav
araandKor
ekor
eoft
heDande-Chi
dimaar
easof
t
heZambeziVall
ey.

Hi
sname,
Mut
otameantt
hathecont
rol
l
edconquer
edl
ands

Heusedt
hear
myt
oest
abl
i
shal
argest
ate

Heest
abl
i
shedhi
scapi
tal
atChi
takoChangi
nyaHi
l
lnearMtFur
a

Mut
otaf
ormedt
heMut
apast
ate

Ti
tt
le

Pol
i
tical
syst
em Dev
elopedi
ntheMut
apaSt
ate

Mutapawast
heov
eral
ll
eaderwi
thpol
i
tical
,rel
i
giousandadmi
nist
rat
ive
power.

Ki
ngdi
str
ibut
edl
and,
armycommander

Heappoi
ntedl
esserchi
efst
ogov
ernpr
ovi
nces

Lesserchi
efspai
dtr
ibut
easasi
gnofl
oyal
i
ty

Page29of29
 Lesserchi
efswer
eal
sor
equi
redt
orel
i
ghtcour
tfi
resannual
l
yfr
om t
her
oyal
fi
re

TheMut
apaal
sokeptanar
myt
oenf
orcel
awandor
deri
nthest
ate

Al
l
iancewi
thDzi
vagur
u

Therewasalsoal ar
genumberofcour
tof
fi
cial
ssuchasthecour
t
chamberl
ain,headdoorkeeper
,ar
mycommander,spi
ri
tmediums,wi
ves
queenmotheretc

Ki
ngshi
pwasher
edi
tar
y

[
c].
Towhatextentdi
dMut
ota’
smi
li
tar
yachi
evement
scont
ri
but
etot
her
iseoft
he
MutapaSt
ate? [
8]

Cont
ri
but
ionofmi
l
itar
yachi
evement
s

Conquestoft
heZambezi
val
l
ey

Shi
ft
ingoft
hecapi
tal
tot
heNor
th

Useofal
argear
myt
ocr
eat
eal
argest
ate

Ti
tt
leMunhumut
apa

Cr
eat
edast
rongst
sat
e

Ot
herpoi
ntsi
nB1

Cont
ri
but
ionofot
herf
act
ors

Reasonsf
ort
hef
all
ofGr
eatZi
mbabweal
soqual
i
fy

Cont
rol
ofl
ongdi
stancet
rade

Cont
rol
ofgol
dmi
ning

Sear
chf
orsal
t

Fer
ti
lel
andf
orcul
ti
vat
ionweal
thi
nfor
m ofcat
tl
eabsenceoft
set
sef
li
es

Weaknessesofl
ocal
peopl
e

THEROZVISTATE
[
NOV.2003]

19.(
a.) Li
stt
hreedut
iescar
ri
edoutbymal
emember
sandt
hreedut
ies
car
ri
edoutby

Femal
emember
sint
heRozv
isoci
ety
. [
8]

(
i.
) MALE

Page30of30
 Hunt
ing,herdi
ngcattl
e,mi
ning,
that
chi
nghut
s,al
socul
ti
vat
ion,
smel
ting,t
rade,f
ishi
ng. [3]

(
ii
.) FEMALE

Cr
opcul
ti
vat
ion,
gat
her
ing,
househol
dchor
es,
looki
ngaf
terchi
l
dren.
[
3]

(
b.) Out
li
net
heeconomi
candsoci
alwayofl
if
eint
heRozv
ist
ate.
[
11]

(
i.
) ECONOMI
C

Cr
opculti
vati
on–f
ingermi
l
let
,bul
rushmi
l
let
,sor
ghum,
cowpeas,
maize,
rapoko.

Past
oral
i
sm –cat
tl
e,af
orm ofweal
th–i
mpor
tantf
orweal
thandt
imes
ofdr
ought.

Mi
ning–gol
d,i
ron,
copper
.Pr
act
icedopencastmi
ning.

Hunt
ing–t
ogetmeat
,enj
oyedasaspor
tbymen;
ivor
y,ski
ns.

Trade–localandext
ernal
tradewit
hPoruguese.Useofv
t ashambadzi
.
Iv
oryandgoldimport
anttr
adeitemstoobt
aincl
oth,beads,seashel
ls,
etc.

Blacksmit
hing–anindustr
ytoproducet
ool
sandweaponssuchas
knives,
razors,
spear
s,ar
row-heads.

Weav
ing–cl
oth–cr
aft
wor
k

Pot
ter
ybywomenandbasket
rybymen

Tr
ibut
ecol
l
ect
edbyt
hear
myf
orChangami
re

Di
vi
si
onofl
abouraccor
dingt
osex,
ageandski
l
l.

(
ii
.) SOCI
ALWAYOFLI
FE

Rel
igi
on-bel
iev nMwar
edi iandt
hei
mpor
tanceofancest
orsand
spi
ri
tual
bei
ngs.

Shonapr
iest
s–ani
mpor
tantl
i
nki
nthesoci
ety

Bel
iev
edspiri
tli
vedi
nMount
ains,
bigpool
sofwat
er,
thi
ckf
orest
s.
Wit
chcraf
t.

Mafisa–sy st
em –asystem ofkur
onzerapeopl
ewhodi
dnotown
catt
lelookedaft
erot
herpeople’
scatt
le,
andwouldbegi
vensome
eventual
ly.

Page31of31
 Marr
iage–roor
apai
d.Pol
ygamypr
act
icedesp.byt
hosewhoowned
manycatt
le,
andbl
acksmi
ths.

Apat
ri
li
neal
soci
etyi
.
e.r
elat
ionst
racedt
hrought
hemascul
i
negender

Ethni
cdancesoni
mpor
tantoccasi
onsandasl
eisur
ee.
g.r
eli
gious
ceremoni
es.

(
c.) Expl
ainwhyt
hisst
atedecl
ined. [
8]

Reasonsf
ordecl
i
ne

(
i.
) Int
ernalf
act
ors–seri
ousdrought
s,ci
vi
lwars,economicdecl
ine,
successi
ondisput
es,
disput
eswit
hChikangaofMany i
ka,al
soBarwe
chi
efs

(
ii
.) Exter
nalFactors–Nguni
incur
sionsandPor
tuguesei
nvasi
ons.Nguni
gr
oupswereZwangendaba’sNgoni
;Nyamazana;t
heNdebel
e;NxabaandtheNgoni
al
sobri
efl
yinv
aded.

[
Nov2004]

20[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esoft
heRozv
iSt
ate.

Cr
opcul
ti
vat
ion–mi
l
let
,sor
ghum

Past
oral
i
sm-
cat
tl
e,goat
s

Tr
ade-
int
ernal
andext
ernal
trade

Hunt
ing-
formeatandani
mal
ski
ns

Cr
aft
wor
ktool
maki
ng/
blacksmi
thi
ng

Pay
mentoft
ri
but
e

Mi
ning

Fi
shi
ng/
gat
her
ing/
rai
ding

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalor
gani
zat
ionoft
heRozv
iSt
ate. [
11]
.

Rozv
irul
ersknownasMamboorChangami
re

Mambowasov
eral
li
nchar
geoft
hemi
l
itar
y,r
eli
giousandpol
i
tical
power

Posi
ti
onofMambowasher
edi
tar
y

Thepoweroft
heki
ngr
est
edmai
nlywi
tht
hear
my

Hadadv
isor
stoassi
st–mai
nlypr
iest
sandar
mycommander
s

Pr
ovi
nci
alchi
efswer
einchar
geofpr
ovi
nces.
TheMambowasi
nchar
geof
Page32of32
 t
hei
rinst
all
ati
on.Al
sohadher
edi
tar
yposi
ti
ons

Chi
efs(
ishe)wer
einchar
geofchi
efdomsandwer
eappoi
ntedbyt
heMambo

Undert
hechi
efswer
eheadmen(
sadunhu)

All
egiancet
ot heMambowasdonet
hroughpay
mentoft
ri
but
e.Tr
ibut
ewas
col
lectedbythearmy
.

Rel
i
giousl
eader
sinv
olv
edi
nthei
nst
all
ati
onoft
heMambo.

Tumbar
eact
edasr
egentaf
tert
hedeat
hofChangami
re.

NB:Mambo(
king) I
she(
chi
ef) Sadunhu(
Headman)

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dpol
it
icalpr
obl
emscont
ri
but
etot
hecol
lapseoft
heRozv
iSt
ate?

[
i]
.Cont
ri
but
iont
othef
all
:

Rozv
ist
atet
oobi
g–hencepoorcommuni
cat
ion

Successi
ondi
sput
es

Pol
it
ical
divisions,
Civi
lwarsfai
lur
etof
ull
yincor
por
atesomechi
efdomsl
i
ke
Kal
anga,(chiefdom r
ebel
l
ions)

Pr
act
iceofTumbar
eact
ingasar
egent

[
ii
]Ot
herf
act
orsf
ort
hecol
l
apse

Successi
vedr
ought
s

Decl
i
neofgol
dpr
oduct
ion

Di
srupt
ionoft
rade,
especi
all
ybyPor
tuguese

I
nvasi
onoft
heSt
atebyMf
ecanegr
oupse,
gNdebel
eandNgoni

Depl
eti
onofr
esour
ces

[
Nov2005]

21[
a].
Nameanyt
hreeRozv
itownsandanyt
hreeRozv
irul
ersupt
othe18thcent
ury
.

Khami
(Dl
odl
o);
Nal
etal
e;Danangombe;
Many
anga;
Nhav
aYaTumbar
e

ChangamireDombo;
Changami
reRupangaManhanga;
Changami
re
Chi
risamhurui
i

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalsy
stem andr
eli
gioussy
stem oft
heRozv
iSt
ateupt
o
t
h
t
he19 cent
ury.
[
11]

Page33of33
 Rozvi
polit
icalsyst
em-Rozv
iMambo-washeadofstat
e;andcommander
-i
n-
chi
ef.Successiont
othethr
onewasher
edi
taryandcul
tur
al

Ondeathofmambo-Tumbar
e(Rozv
igener
al)act
edasr
egent–t
il
l
appoi
ntmentofnewmambo.

Provi
nceswereunderv
assal
chi
efsi
nst
all
edbyt
heMamboorhi
s
repr
esent
ati
ve

VassalChi
efs-
paidtr
ibutet
oMamboassi gnofloy
alt
y;Tumbar
e(Rozv
i
general
)wasresponsibl
eforcol
l
ect
ionoftr
ibut
e.

Sadunhu,Mambo’sseni
orwi
vesandsonsi
n-l
awwer
eimpor
tantof
fi
cial
sof
theki
ng’scour
t.

Rozvir
eli
gion-theRozviwor
shi
pedthesky
-God-Mwar i
-CreatorofMankind
andallcr
eation;Rozvi
alsobel
i
evedinspi
ri
ts-
ancest
ralspi
rit
sr egi
onal
and
nat
ionalspir
itscal
ledMondoro

Spir
itmedi
umswerego-bet
weenoft
hepeopl
eandMondor
o-consul
tedi
n
cr
ises–famine,
war
,dr
ought

Mambobel
i
evedt
obeadescendantofMwar
i

Wasar
eli
giousl
eader

[
c].Howi
mpor
tantwast
her
oleoft
hear
myi
ntheRozv
ipol
it
icalsy
stem? [
8]

[
i]
.I
mpor
tanceoft
heAr
my

Usedt
oconquerorr
aidnei
ghbour
sforcat
tl
e,ext
endt
err
it
ory

Usedt
odef
endt
hest
ate

Armywasal
sousedt
ocol
l
ectt
ri
but
e–puni
shr
ebel
l
iouschi
efs-f
ail
i
ngt
opay
tr
ibut
e

[
ii
].
Otherf
act
ors

Mosti
mpor
tantel
ementi
ntheRozv
ist
atewasr
eli
gion-
whi
chuni
tedpeopl
e

Mambowasconf
ir
medi
nof
fi
cebyspi
ri
tmedi
ums

Mambor
egar
dedasdi
vi
ner
uler

Alsoimport
antwast
hest
rongeconomyoft
hest
atebasedonagr
icul
tur
e,
pastor
ali
sm,tr
ade

Kur
onzer
auni
tedpeopl
e

Mar
ri
ageal
l
iances

Page34of34
 [
Nov2007]

22[
a].
Listanysi
xgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
soft
heRozv
iSt
ate.
[
6]

Ar
mycommander
s

Pr
ovi
nci
alchi
efs

Di
str
ictchi
efs

Queenmot
her

Ki
ng‘
ssons-i
n-l
aw

Spi
ri
tmedi
ums

Tumbar
e

Vi
l
lageheads

Ki
ng

Sadunhu(
Headman)

Cour
tcounsel
l
ors

[
b].
Out
li
net
hesoci
alact
ivi
ti
esoft
heRozv
iSt
ate. [
11]

Rozv
isoci
etywaspat
ri
li
neal

Successi
ont
othet
hronewast
hroughf
ather
’sl
i
ne(
pat
ri
li
neal
)

Owner
shi
pofcat
tl
ewasast
atussy
mbol
andcat
tl
ewer
eusedt
opayr
oor
a

Wealt
hincat
tl
ecouldbeloanedsomebyt
heweal
thi
ert
hrought
hekur
onzer
a
sy
stem orMaf
isasy
stem

Di
vi
sionofl
abourwasmai
nlybasedongender

TheRozviworshi
pedcreatorGodcal
ledMwari
,Nati
onal
spi
ri
ts(
Mondoros)
andfamil
yancestr
alspi
ritmediums(
Masvi
ki
ro)j
ustl
iket
heshonaofgr
eat
Zimbabwe.

Consul
tedancest
orsi
nti
mesofcr
isi
s

RozviMambowaschosenbyspi
ri
tmedi
umsandl
edatr
it
ual
cer
emoni
es
suchasrai
nmaki
ng

TheRozv
ibel
i
evedt
hatspi
ri
tsr
esi
dedi
nmount
ains,
lar
gepool
sandt
hick
for
est
s

Ther
ewaswi
despr
eadbel
i
efi
nwi
tchcr
aft
Page35of35
[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dsoci
alact
ivi
ti
esst
rengt
henedt
heRozv
iSt
ate? [
8]

[
i]
.I
mpor
tanceofsoci
alact
ivi
ti
es:

Rel
i
gionwasuni
fyi
ngf
act
or

TheMambowaschosenbyspi
ri
tmedi
umsandl
edatr
it
ual
cer
emoni
es

Kur
onzerasystem hel
pedtoreducepov
ert
yandmai
ntai
ninf
luenceov
er
i
mportantl
ineagesandthepoor

Polygamyhel
pedtoestabl
i
sht
iesandinf
luence.I
twasalsoasour
ceof
l
abourandsoldi
ers.Somemar
riageswer
ef orpol
i
tical
all
i
ancet
omaint
ain
peace

Si
ncetheMambohadt
hehi
ghestnumberofcat
tl
e,hewast
heweal
thi
estand
washeldi
nhi
ghest
eem.

[
ii
].
Otherf
act
ors:

St
rongeconomybasedonagr
icul
tur
ehel
pedt
omai
ntai
npeaceandst
abi
l
ity

Tradewasasour
ceoff
orei
gngoodsandhel
pedtost
rengt
hent
heeconomy
andenri
cht
heMambosincehecont
rol
ledt
rade

Alsopay
mentoftri
but
e–ensur
edloy
alt
ytotheMamboandensur
edt
hat
chief
sdi
dnotbecometoori
chandpowerf
ul.

Astr
ongarmywasal
soi
mpor
tantf
ordef
enceoft
hest
ateandput
ti
ngdown
r
ebel
li
ons.

(
Nov2010)

23.
(a)
.Li
stanysi
xresponsi
bil
it
iesoft
heRozv
irul
er.(
6)

Di
str
ibut
ionofl
and,
Chi
efj
udge,
Rel
i
giousl
eader

Chi
efadmi
nist
rat
or,
Cust
odi
anofst
atepr
oper
ty

I
nst
all
ati
onofl
esserchi
efs,
commander
-i
n-chi
efoft
hear
my

Recei
vi
ngandshar
ingt
ri
but
e

Cont
rol
ofhunt
ingact
ivi
ti
es,
Concl
udi
ngal
l
iances

Decl
ari
ngwar
,Cont
rol
l
ingt
rade,
prot
ect
ingci
ti
zens

Cont
rol
l
ingmi
ningact
ivi
ti
es,
recei
vi
ngf
orei
gnv
isi
tor
s

Pr
esi
dingov
ert
hecounci
l
.

(
b).
Descr
ibet
hesoci
alor
gani
sat
ionoft
heRozv
ist
ate. (
11)

Page36of36
 Bui
l
tpol
eanddaggahut
s

Li
vedi
nHomest
eads-
li
vedaccor
dingt
oli
neages

Bel
ongedt
otheMoy
otot
em

Rozv
imar
ri
ageswer
eexogamous

Pr
act
isedpol
ygamyandpai
dlobol
ainf
orm ofcat
tl
eandi
ront
ool
s

Owner
shi
pofcat
tl
ewasast
atussy
mbol

Pr
act
ised‘
maf
isa\
kur
onzer
a-cat
tl
eloani
ngt
opeopl
ewi
thoutcat
tl
e

Di
vi
sionofl
abour

Pat
ri
li
neal
soci
ety

Wor
shi
pped‘
Mwar
i’
,t
heSupr
emeBei
ngandCr
eat
orofev
ery
thi
ngonear
th

Bel
i
ev edi
nnat
ional
orr
egi
onal
spi
ri
ts(
Mhondor
os)andf
ami
l
yancest
ral
spi
ri
t
mediums

Theki
ngwast
her
eli
giousl
eaderandl
edt
radi
ti
onal
cer
emoni
es

Br
ewedbeerandsl
aught
eredcat
tl
eatcer
emoni
escal
l
ed‘
Bir
a’andhel
drai
n
maki
ngcer
emonies

Bel
i
evedt
hatl
argerpool
s,f
orest
sandmount
ainshar
bour
edspi
ri
ts

Ki
ngcommuni
cat
edwi
thMwar
ionbehal
fofpeopl
e

Bel
i
evedi
nli
feaf
terdeat
handwi
tchcr
aftandny
angas.

(
c).
Howimpor
tantwassoci
alor
gani
sat
ioni
nthepol
it
icalsy
stem oft
heRozv
iSt
ate?
(8)

Rel
i
gionwasauni
fyi
ngf
orce

Ki
ngwaschosenbyspi
ri
tmedi
ums

Ki
ngl
edt
radi
ti
onal
cer
emoni
es

Cat
tl
eloani
ngsy
stem hel
pedt
omai
ntai
ninf
luenceandpeace

Pol
ygamyusedbyr
uli
ngcl
asst
omai
ntai
nal
l
iancesandi
mpor
tantl
i
neages

Ot
herf
act
ors

Tr
ibut
easasi
gnofl
oyal
ty

Ar
myf
orl
awandor
der
,andsuppr
essi
ngr
ebel
l
ions

Page37of37
 Ast
rongeconomyensur
edst
abi
l
ity

[
June2011]

24[
a].Nameanyt
hreeet
hnicgr
oupsandt
hei
rrespect
ivel
eader
swhof
oughtt
he
Rozvibet
ween1800and1890 [
6]

Khumal
o-Mzi
i
kazi

Jer
e–Ngoni
-Zwangendaba

Ngoni
-Ny
amazana

Shangane-Soshangane

Msene-
Ngoni
-Nxaba

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hedut
iesoft
heRozv
iMambo. [
11]

Cont
rol
l
edt
rade,
Reci
vedv
isi
tor
s.

Commanderi
nChi
efoft
heRozv
iar
my

Mambowast
heheadofst
ate,
dist
ri
but
edl
and

Wast
hechi
efj
udge,
sel
ect
edpr
ovi
nci
alchi
efs,
dist
ri
ctchi
efsandsub-
chi
efs

Recei
vedandhandl
edr
epor
tsf
rom v
ari
ouspar
tsoft
heki
ngdom

Appoi
ntedt
heCounci
lofAdv
isor
s,sanct
ionedr
it
ual
cer
emoni
es

Mambowast
her
eli
giousl
eader
,sentt
hear
myf
orr
aidi
ngexpedi
ti
ons

Recei
vedt
ri
but
efr
om t
hechi
efs,
appoi
ntedar
mygener
als

Wor
kedhandi
nhandwi
thr
eli
giousl
eader
s

Hadpowert
orel
i
evehi
sappoi
nteesoft
hei
rdut
ies

Dut
ytodef
endt
hest
atef
rom enemyat
tacks

Hadcust
odyov
ercapt
ives

Di
str
ibut
edf
oodint
imesofdr
ought
,decl
aredwar
s,si
gnedt
reat
ies,
and
di
str
ibut
edl
oot
y.

[
c].
WastheMambo’sl
eader
shi
ptobl
amef
ort
hedecl
ineoft
heRozv
iki
ngdom?
Expl
ainy
ouranswer
.
[
8]

Mambo’
sweaknesses

Page38of38
 Ot
herl
eader
swer
elesschar
ismat
ict
hanDomboChangami
re

Appoi
ntedi
ncompet
entsubor
dinat
es

Appoi
ntment
sofof
fi
cial
swer
eonaki
nshi
pbasi
s

Fai
l
edt
orul
ethev
astempi
re

Fai
l
edt
opr
oper
lyde-
cent
ral
i
sehi
spol
i
tical
power
s

Fai
l
edt
orepel
Nguni
incur
sions

Ot
herf
act
ors

Successi
ondi
sput
es/
col
l
ater
alsy
stem ofsuccessi
on

Ser
iousdr
ought
s,Ci
vi
lwar
s

Economi
cdecl
i
nee,
gmi
ning,
trade

Di
sput
eswi
thChi
kangaandBar
wechi
efs

Nguni
incursi
onse,gMzi
l
ikazi
’
sNdebel
e,Zwangendaba’
sNgoni
and
Nyamazana’sNgoni.

Cl
asheswi
tht
hePor
tuguesel
eftt
heRozv
ist
ateweakened

Br
eakaway
,Tumbar
ebecamet
oopower
ful
,Hi
yaef
fect
s.

Mf
ecaneandt
heZul
uSt
ate
[
Speci
men2003]

25.
[a]
.st
atesi
xfact
orst
hatcausedt
heMf
ecanei
nNguni
land [
6]
Gr
owt
hinpopul
ati
onandpr
essur
eonl
and

Desi
ret
ocont
rol
trade,
especi
all
ywi
tht
hePor
tugueseatDel
agoaBay

I
mpor
tanceofcat
tl
einsoci
etyanddesi
ret
oacqui
remor
e

Desi
ret
ocont
rol
hunt
inggr
oundsespeci
all
ywher
eiv
orywasconcer
ned

Desi
ret
ocont
rol
thegr
azi
ngl
andsf
ort
hei
ncr
easi
ngnumberofcat
tl
e

Dev
elopmentofadv
ancedmi
l
itar
ytact
icswhi
chpr
omot
edaggr
essi
on

Emer
genceofambi
ti
ousAf
ri
canl
eader
swhodesi
redt
odomi
nat
eot
her
s

Fami
ne[
Madl
atul
eFami
ne]t
hatoccur
redcausedr
ival
ryasf
oodshor
tagespr
ead

Cr
eat
ionofl
argepowerf
ulki
ngdomssupport
edbysmal
l
erones,egTheMthet
hwa;t
he
Ndwandwe;theNgwane;et
c,t
hesmallZul
uet
hni
cgroupsi
dedwit
htheMthet
hwa

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hef
ight
ingt
hatt
ookpl
acebet
weent
heet
hni
cgr
oupsi
nNguni
land

Page39of39
dur
ingMf
ecanef
rom 1818t
o18123.
[
11]
1816ri
val
ryoftheNdwandweandNgwanebeganov
erl
andt
hel
att
erwer
edef
eat
ed
andpushedawaynort
h

1818NdwandweunderZwi
deat
tackedMt
het
hwaofDi
ngi
sway
o

Di
ngi
sway
owascapt
uredandki
l
ledandt
heMt
het
hwawer
edef
eat
edandscat
ter
ed

Ndwandweat
tackedt
heot
hergr
oupsi
nthear
eaeastoft
heDr
ankensbur
g

Somer
emnant
soft
heMt
het
hwaf
ledgi
vi
ngZwi
def
reer
eigni
nthear
eaofNguni
l
and

Zwi
det
hendeci
dedt
ofi
ghtt
hesmal
lZul
utr
ibenowunderTshaka

Themi l
i
tar
ytact
icshedevel
opedi
ntheear
lyst
agesoft
hemf
ecanegav
eTshakaa
deci
siv
eadvantageov
ertheNdwandwe

Tshakat
henr
eassembl
edt
heMt
het
hwaandt
heZul
usi
ntoapower
ful
mil
i
tar
ymachi
ne

Weakert
ri
beswhocoul
dnotf
leedeci
dedt
oseekr
efugeunderTshakaandbecamepar
t
oftheempi
re

Thr
eatoft
hewhit
esfrom t
hesout
halsohelpedt
hepeopl
etoral
l
ybehi
ndt
hemost
powerf
ull
eader,
thusbecomi
ngpartofanenl
argedst
ate

Tshakaadoptednewf
ight
ingmethods,l
iket
hecow-hor
nfor
mationandbegantoat
tack
hi
sneighbour
s.Hi
ssmallZul
ukingdom begant
oexpandandbeachall
engetothe
Ndwandwe

1818Zwidedecidedt
ocrushtheemer
gingZul
ust
ate.I
nthef
ir
stbat
tl
etheNdwandwe
wer
edefeatedanddr
ivenoff

Endof1818hesentaf ul
lar
myacrosstheMf ol
oziRiv
er.Tshakaatfi
rsthewithdrewhis
wholepopul
ati
onandwealt
h.Zwidefol
lowedacrossdesertedcountrywi
thnof ood.
Ndwandwear mybecameweakenedandbegant oretr
eat.Tshakathenat
tackedand
drovetheNdwandwebackt
otheircapi
talwhichheransacked.Ndwandwewer e
defeat
ed.

Tshakadrov
et heNdwandwegener
als-
ZwangendabaandSot
shanganaaway
.Theyf
led
aft
erZwidewasdefeat
ed

Zwi
def
ledt
other
egi
onofupperNkomat
iRi
ver

Soshanganal
efti
n1821attacki
ngtri
best
otheNor
thandendedupi
nGazal
and,
near
modern-
dayChipi
nge/
chiri
nda.

Ot
hersmall
ert
ri
besfledt
othewesti
ntot
heSot
hoandTswanaar
eaIt
err
orandi
ntur
n
spreadt
heter
roronthei
rway

Tshakaproceededt
oattackt
ri
besbetween1819and1822andsubduedt
hem and
i
ncorporat
edtofor
m alar
geZulukingdom

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dtheMf
ecanel
eadt
other
iseoft
heZul
ust
ate?
Mf
ecanewar
sal
l
owedTshakat
odev
elopt
heZul
ust
ate

Page40of40
 .
Deser
ti
onbyt
hekeyr
ival
s,e,
gMzi
l
ikazi
oft
heKhumal
o.

[
JUNE2004]

26.
[a].
Stat
eanyt
hreest
atesandtheirr
espect
ivel
eader
swhi
chemer
gedamongstt
he
t
h
Norther
nNgunii
ntheear
ly19 century
.
[
11]

TheMt
het
hwaunderDi
ngi
sway
o

TheNdwandweunderZwi
de

TheNgwaneunderSobhuza

TheNgwaneunderMat
iwane

[
b].
Out
li
net
hemi
li
tar
yref
ormsi
ntr
oducedbyTshakai
ntheZul
uKi
ngdom.
[
11]

Tshakagai
nedcont
rol
oft
heZul
ucl
anont
hedeat
hofSenzangakhonai
n1816.

Adoptedandperf
ect
edmili
tar
yinnovati
onsbyDi
ngi
sway
osuchasbanni
ngof
ci
rcumci
sionanddr
aft
ingboysintoage-
setr
egi
ment
s

Eachr
egi
menthaddi
sti
nctdr
essandcol
or

Tshakabannedt
heuseofsandal
sint
hear
my;
sol
dier
swer
etowal
kbar
efootf
orspeed

Equippedhi
ssol
dier
swit
htheshor
tst
abbi
ngspear[
assegai
]forhand-
to-handf
ight
ing
andlar
geman-si
zeshi
elds

Sol
dier
swer
epuni
shedbydeat
hforl
osi
ngweaponsespeci
all
ytheassegai

Tshaka’
sar
miesempl
oyedt
hecow-
hor
nbat
tl
efor
mat
ion

Adopt
edsur
pri
seat
tackonenemyasast
rat
egy

Empl
oyedspi
est
ogat
heri
nfor
mat
ionabouthi
senemi
es

Madeuseofsmokesi
gnal
sforcommuni
cat
ion

Bannedmar
ri
edofal
lmenbef
oret
heageof40orbef
oremi
l
itar
yser
vice

Empl
oyedy
oungboy
sasbaggagecar
ri
ersf
orsol
dier
s

I
sol
atedsol
dier
sfr
om communi
tyandf
edsol
dier
sonbeef

Bel
i
evedintotaldest
ruct
ionoftheenemy,ki
l
li
ngt
her
uli
ngf
ami
l
yofdef
eat
edt
ri
besand
tot
all
yincorporat
ingdefeat
edtr
ibes.

[
c].
Expl
ainwhyShakawasassassi
nat
edi
n1828.

[
i]
.Reasonsf
orShaka’
sassassi
nat
ion

Shakabecamedi
ctat
ori
al.

Di
dnotconsul
ttr
adi
ti
onal
counci
lofadv
isor
sonnat
ional
issues

Nordi
dheconsul
thi
sindunasf
requent
ly

Page41of41
 Mai
ntai
nedacr
uel
syst
em ev
enwheni
twasnol
ongerj
ust
if
ied

Shaka’
sst
ri
ctdi
sci
pli
ne-andcr
uel
tyki
l
li
ngofsubj
ect
sformi
norof
fences

[
ii
].
Shaka’
sal
sokepthi
ssol
dier
sonceasel
esscampai
gns

Ar
mybecameexhaust
ed

Howev
er,Shakasuccessmadehisrel
ati
vesuchashal
fbrother
s,Di
nganeand
Mhlangana,auntMkabay
ijealousandambit
ioust
orule.

Mkabay
i-
suspect
edShakaofhav
ingki
l
ledhi
sownmot
her

Subsequent
lyki
l
ledl
argenumber
sofpeopl
eforf
ail
i
ngt
omour
nhi
smot
herNandi

Shaka’
sbr
other
swer
eal
soqui
teambi
ti
ous.

[
NOV2004]

27.
[a]
.Li
stanysi
xmi
li
tar
yref
ormsi
ntr
oducedbyTshaka. [
6]

Useofl
ongshi
elds-
cowar
dicepuni
shedbydeat
h

Useofashor
t-
stabbi
ngspear[
assegai
]

Conscr
ipt
ionofal
lmenunder40y
ear
sint
othear
my-
runner
stor
elaymessages

Goi
ngt
owarbar
efoot
ed

Youngboy
stocar
rybaggagef
orsol
dier
s

Cr
eat
ionofast
andi
ngar
my

Tot
aldest
ruct
ionofenemi
es

I
mpr
ovementoft
hecow-
hor
nfor
mat
ion

Useoff
emal
eregi
ment
s

Bannedci
rcumci
sioncer
emoni
es

Usedspi
es,
nyanga/
sangomas-
tot
reatsol
dier
s

Useofsmokesi
gnal
sforcommuni
cat
ion

Usedmockbat
tl
esast
rai
ning

[
b].
Outl
inet
hepr
obl
emsf
acedbyTshakaaski
ngoft
heZul
uSt
ate
[
11].

Expansionpol
icycharact
eri
zedbyv
iol
entwar
far
e,pl
under
ingandr
aidi
ngot
herst
ates
thuscreat
inghatr
eds

ThedeathofNandi ,hi
smot her,
creat
edpr
obl
emsf orhim ashekil
l
edmanypeople.Ev
en
hi
ssistersuspectedthatTshakawasr
esponsi
bleforNandi’
sdeat
h.Tshaka’
s
motherwashi sadvisor.

Jeal
ousr
elat
iveswhoul
ti
mat
elyassassi
nat
edhi
m

Hi
ghr
ateofexecut
ionscr
eat
edenemi
esf
orTshakaamongt
hear
my

Page42of42
 Mzi
l
ikazi
’
srebel
l
ioni
n1822.

Thr
eatf
rom t
heexpansi
oni
stBoer
sandBr
it
ish

Bat
tl
edt
ocont
rol
theDel
agoat
rader
out
e

Shor
tageofr
esour
ces-
egl
and

Lackoft
rustbycommander
s

[
c].
Isi
ttr
uet
hatTshakawasr
esponsi
blef
orhi
sowndownf
all
?Expl
ainy
ouranswer
.

[
i]
.Tshaka’
sownr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ordownf
all
:

Wasadi
ctat
or-
all
poweri
nhi
shands

I
gnor
edt
radi
ti
onal
chi
efs

Fai
l
edt
owor
kwi
thbr
other
sandsi
ster
swhoshoul
dhav
eassi
stedhi
m

Fr
equentr
aidsexposedhi
m-notenoughpr
otect
ion

Rathercruel,
egi ssaidt
ohaveki
ll
edmanypeopl
ewhenhi
smot
herdi
ed
especial
l
yt hosenotshowi
ngenoughsi
gnsofgri
ef

Al
l
owedKhumal
otor
emai
naut
onomous

[
ii
].
otherf
act
ors

Jeal
ousbr
other
sandsi
ster
s-env
iedTshaka’
ssuccess

Ambi
ti
ousl
eader
swhoal
sowant
edt
orul
e

Sol
dier
sti
redofcont
inuousr
aids

Tshakawasani
l
legi
ti
mat
echi
l
d

Usur
pedpowerf
rom br
otherSi
guj
ana

Thr
eat
sofwhi
tes

[
NOV2009]

28.
[a]
.I
dent
ifyanythreeNor
ther
nNguni
leader
sandt
hei
rrespect
ivechi
efdomswhower
e
i
nvolv
edintheMf ecanewar
s.
[
6]

Di
ngi
sway
o–Mt
het
hwa

Sobhuza-
Ngwane

Zwi
de-
Ndwandwe

Tshaka-
Zul
u

Di
ngane-
Zul
u

Mzi
l
ikazi
-Ndebel
e

Nxaba-
Ngoni

Page43of43
 Soshangane-
Shangane

Zwangendaba-
Ngoni

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalor
gani
zat
ionoft
heZul
uSt
ate [
11]

Ki
ngwast
hesupr
emer
uler

Ki
ngwascommanderi
nchi
ef

Cont
rol
l
erofl
abour
,rel
i
gion,
tradeandl
and

Ki
ngassi
stedbychi
efsandcounci
l
lor
smostofwhom wer
erel
ati
vesandt
hose
hetr
ust
ed

Powerdist
ri
butedatt
hreelev
els,
theki
ngatt
het
op;
member
soft
her
uli
ngZul
uli
neage;
t
heincorpor
atedt
rust
edchiefs

Bel
owthem wer
eothersmal
l
erchi
efswhoweresupposedt
oregar
dthemsel
ves
asZul
uandwouldbeall
owedtobecounci
l
lor
s

Otherchi
efsweret
hosenotr
elat
edt
ot heZul
u-hadpr
ivi
l
egesbuthadt
opay
t
ri
bute,excl
udedfr
om maki
ngimpor
tantdeci
sions

Ar
myusedbyt
heki
ngt
ocont
rol
thest
ate.Hadast
andi
ngar
my

Zul
uwast
heof
fi
cial
language

St
atedi
vi
dedi
ntor
egi
ment
alt
ownsunderi
zi
nduna

Thei
nkat
hawasasy
mbol
ofuni
ty

Rel
i
giousl
eader
sinst
all
edchi
efs

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwast
hear
myi
ntheZul
upol
it
ical
syst
em?

[
i]
.i
mpor
tanceofar
myi
npol
i
tical
syst
em

Usedt
oexpandt
hest
ate

Usedt
ocol
l
ectt
ri
but
e

Usedt
orai
dot
herst
ates

Pr
otect
edt
heki
ngandt
hest
ate

Usedt
opr
otectt
rader
out
es/
hunt
inggr
ounds

Usedt
opuni
shr
ebel
l
iouschi
efs

[
ii
].
other
sal
soi
mpor
tant
:

Chi
efs,
counci
l
lor
sandki
ng’
srel
ati
veshel
pedt
oadmi
nist
ert
hest
ate

Tr
ader
swer
ethesour
ceoff
orei
gngoods

Tr
ibut
epay
mentbysubj
ect
s

Rel
i
gionusedasauni
fyi
ngf
orceegI
nxwal
afest
ival

Page44of44
 I
nter
mar
ri
ages

Theki
ng’
sper
sonal
i
ty

[
JUNE2006]

29.
[a]
.St
ateanyt
hreel
eader
sandt
hei
rrespect
ivegr
oupswhom Zwidef
oughtdur
ingt
he
Mfecane [
6].

Sobhuza-
Ngwane

Di
ngi
sway
o-Mt
het
hwa

Tshaka- Zul
u

[
b].
Out
li
net
hecausesoft
heMf
ecanei
nNor
ther
nNguni
land [
11]

Popul
ati
onexpl
osi
oni
nNguni
l
and

Compet
it
ionf
orpast
ures,
fer
ti
lesoi
l
s

Cr
eat
ionofl
argerchi
efdomsf
orpr
otect
ion

Tr
adei
nski
nswi
thPor
tugueseatDel
agoaBay
-togetcl
oth,
beads,
guns

Needt
ocont
rol
areasr
ichi
niv
ory
,accesst
otr
ader
out
escausedconf
li
cts

Cr
eat
ionofage-
setr
egi
ment
s

Amabut
hof
orhunt
ing,
far
ming andr
aidi
ngf
orcat
tl
eandgr
ain

TheMadl
atul
eandl
ongdr
oughtpr
eci
pit
atedconf
li
ctsov
erpast
ure,
grai
nandcat
tl
e

Eur
opeanexpansi
oni
ntoi
nter
ior

Demandf
orl
abourl
edt
orai
dsf
orsl
avesbyBoer
s,Kor
ans,
Por
tuguese

Expansi
onofZul
uki
ngdom underTshakacr
eat
edchai
nreact
ionofconf
li
ctsi
n
Ngunil
and

Ci
vi
lwar
sandambi
ti
ousl
eader
s

[
c].
Isi
ttr
uet
hatt
heMf
ecanewascausedbyt
heEur
opeans?Expl
ainy
ouranswer
.

[
i]
.Eur
opeani
nfl
uenceonMf
ecane;

Mf
ecanel
argel
yat
tri
but
abl
etowhi
teexpansi
oni
ntoi
nter
ior
.

Boerdemandf
orl
abouri
nint
eri
or

Por
tugueseal
sor
aidi
ngf
orsl
avesf
orexpor
t-
chi
efdomsf
oughtt
ogetpeopl
eto
sel
lasslav
es

[
ii
].
otherf
act
ors;

However,
Mfecanealsot
raceabletoprobl
emsli
kepopul
ationexpl
osion-
wit
h
r
esul
tantcompeti
ti
onforscarceresour
cessuchaspast
uresfert
il
eland

Mf
ecanepr
eci
pit
atedcr
eat
ionofager
egi
ment
sforr
aidsonnei
ghbour
s

Page45of45
 Madl
atul
e/dr
ought

Tshakaandt
her
iseoft
heZul
unat
ion

[
Nov2007]
.

30.
[a]
.Li
stanysi
xreasonsf
ort
her
iseoft
heZul
uSt
ate.
[
6].

Mai
nNguni
kingdomsf
oughtanddest
roy
edeachot
hergi
vi
ngachancet
otheZul
u

I
nfl
uenceofDi
ngi
sway
oonTshaka

Shaka’
sabl
eleader
shi
p

Shaka’
sreor
gani
zat
ionofdef
eat
edMt
het
hwaandhi
sZul
ust
atei
ntoawar
machine

Thedefeatoft
heNdwandwebyt
hecombi
nedMt
het
hwa/
Zul
uar
mies[
nowcal
l
ed
theZul
u].

Conquestofal
lsur
roundi
nget
hni
cgr
oupsandchi
efdomsbyZul
uar
mies

Newmi
l
itar
yinnov
ati
onsi
ntr
oducedbyTshaka

Rol
eoft
rade

Popul
ati
onpr
essur
e,

Madl
atul
e/f
ami
ne

[
b].
Out
li
net
hemi
li
tar
yref
ormsi
ntr
oducedbyTshaka.
[
11]

Theuseofl
ongshi
elds

Theuseofshor
tspear
s[assegai
]

Conscr
ipt
ionunt
il40y
ear
sofage

St
andi
ngsar
miesi
ndi
ff
erenti
ndi
ff
erentar
easofki
ngdom awayf
rom soci
ety

St
ri
ctmi
l
itar
ydi
sci
pli
ne

Useoft
hedeat
hpenal
tyf
ormi
nor
/maj
orof
fences

Mockbat
tl
esandmi
l
itar
ydr
il
ls

Useoft
hecow-
hor
nbat
tl
etact
ics

Femal
eregi
ment
s

Yout
hscar
ri
edf
orsol
dier
s

Useoftot
alwari
nwhi
chenemyst
ruct
ureswer
ecompl
etel
ydest
roy
ed,
incl
udi
ng
roy
alf
amily

Useofspi
esandsmokesi
gnal
sfori
nfor
mat
ion

Page46of46
 Mi
l
itar
ydemandsl
edt
obanni
ngofci
rcumci
sionbecausei
ttookl
ongt
oheal

Theuseofspeedi
nwar
[f
ight
ingbar
efoot
ed]

Useoft
radi
ti
onal
heal
ers

Warcr
y

Fedsol
dier
sonbeef

Useofsur
pri
seat
tacks

Mf
asi
mba[
dist
inctheaddr
ess]

Per
enni
alwar
far
e

[
c].
Howef
fect
ivewasShakai
nhi
suseoft
heser
efor
ms?

[
i]
Thet
act
icsbr
oughtsuccesses:
Eff
ect
iveness

Succeededi
nbuil
dingav
eryst
rong/
power
ful
Zul
uki
ngdom –f
ear
edt
hroughout
Souther
nAfr
ica

Conquer
edandcont
rol
l
edmanyot
herst
atesf
orhi
sownper
sonal
glor
y

Managedt obecometheki
ngoftheZulust
atef
rom t
hest
atusofasmal
l
chi
efdom atthebegi
nni
ngofMfecane

Managedt
obui
l
dav
eryst
rongeconomybasedoncat
tl
e

TheZulucul
tur
eandt
acti
csofsur
viv
alwer
eadopt
edi
nthear
eaandot
her
regi
onsinSout
her
nAfr
ica

[
ii
].
Ther
efor
mshadnegat
iveef
fect
s;

Cr
eat
edav
erybi
gst
atewhi
chhef
ail
edt
okeept
oget
her

Hi
sdi ct
atori
alt
endenci
escreat
edmor
eenemi
es.Tshaka’
shal
f–br
otherand
si
sterpl
ottedhi
sdownfall

Themi
l
itar
yref
ormsl
edt
omassi
veexodusofexper
iencedandski
l
ledper
sonnel

Hemaintainedacr
uelsystem wheni
twasnol
ongernecessar
yasar
esul
toft
he
ef
fect
ivenessoft
hereforms

Depopul
ati
on

Thear
mynol
ongerenj
oyedmi
l
itar
ycampai
gns

Ledt
odeat
hofmanypeopl
eanddest
ruct
ionofpr
oper
ty

[
NOV2006]

31.[
a].
Ident
if
yanyt
hreepeopl
ewhopl
ott
edt
heassassi
nati
onofShakaandanyt hr
ee
reason for hi
s assassi
nati
on
[
6]

[
i]
.Di
ngane,
-Mbopha,
-Mhl
angana,-
Mkabay
i

Page47of47
[
ii
].
-Tshaka’
saut
ocr
ati
crul
e

-
jeal
ous

-
Tshaka’
sendl
esswar
far
e

-
Str
ictdi
sci
pli
ne

-
Incr
easedexecut
ionf
orpet
tyof
fences

-
Execut
ionofpeopl
efornotmour
ningTshaka’
smot
her
/hi
scr
uel
ty

[
b].
Out
li
net
hepol
it
icalandsoci
alor
gani
zat
ionoft
heZul
ust
atedur
ingTshaka’
srei
gn.
[
11]

[
i]Pol
i
tical
organi
zat
ion

Tshakacr
eat
edacent
ral
i
zedst
ate

Def
eat
edchi
efswer
eof
tendeposedandr
epl
acedbyTshaka’
sappoi
ntees

Ki
ngdom wasor
gani
zedonmi
l
itar
yli
nes

Age-
regi
ment
saccommodat
edi
nregi
ment
alt
owns

Regiment
altownsadmi
nist
eredbyani
ndunahel
pedbyaf
emal
ememberoft
he
roy
al f
amil
y

Regi
ment
alt
ownsal
l
ocat
edr
oyal
cat
tl
etol
ookaf
ter

Ki
ngwast
hechi
efj
udge

Counci
lofadv
isor
srender
edi
rr
elev
antasTshakabecameaut
ocr
ati
c

Ki
ngwasar
mycommander

Tr
adi
ti
onal
chi
efsr
educedt
oadmi
nist
rat
ionofl
ocal
aff
air
s

I
nkat
haasy
mbol
ofuni
ty

[
ii
]Soci
alor
gani
zat
ion

Mar
ri
agewasonl
yal
l
owedt
omenaf
terr
eti
ri
ngf
rom ar
my

Femal
esor
gani
zedi
ntor
egi
ment
s

Regi
mentsofwomen–usedt
ocul
ti
vat
elandandf
orcer
emoni
aldancesand
di
spl
ays

Di
vi
sionofl
abour

Soci
etywaspat
ri
li
neal

Thekingoffi
ciat
edatt
heInxwal
acer
emony
,Ki
ng’
sspi
ri
tual
powerwasr
enewed
thr
oughtradi
ti
onalmedici
nes

Set
tl
ementsetup

[c]
.Di
dthepol
it
icalor
gani
zat
ionoft
heZul
ust
atebenef
itt
heZul
unat
ion?Expl
ainy
our
answer.

Page48of48
[
i]
.Benef
it
sofTshaka’
spol
i
tical
organi
zat
ion;

Organi
zat
iononmi
l
itar
yli
nesst
rengt
henedst
ateagai
nstext
ernal
aggr
essi
on
duri
ngMfecane

Mi
l
itar
ypoweral
sonecessar
yforr
aidsonnei
ghbour
s

Fost
ereduni
tyamongsty
oungadul
tsr
ecr
uit
s/r
aidedpeopl
e

I
tincapaci
tat
edv
assal
chi
efsf
rom r
ebel
l
ingt
hwar
ti
ngci
vi
lwar
s

[
ii
].
Disadv
ant
ages/
Non-
Benef
it
s;

Regi
mental
/i
buthosy
stem r
esent
edbyy
oungmenf
ordel
ayi
ngmar
ri
ageandf
or
per
enni
alwarf
are

Pol
it
icalsyst
em madeki
nganaut
ocr
ati
crul
erwhoi
gnor
edi
ndunas,
tradi
ti
onal
chi
efs’adv
ice

[
June2011]

32[
a].
Ident
if
yanysi
xet
hni
cgr
oupst
hatexi
stedsout
hoft
heLi
mpopo. [
6]

Zul
u,Khumal
o,Qhwabe

Ndwandwe,
Mthet
hwa,
Swazi

Hl
ubi
,Ngwane,
Mpondo.

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heef
fect
soft
heMf
ecanesout
hoft
heLi
mpopo.[
11]

Depopul
ation-l
argear
easofNATAL,OrangeFreest
ateandTr
ansv
aal
wer
elef
t
depopul
atedaspeoplesoughtsecur
it
yelsewher
e

Lossofl
i
ves–manypeopl
elostt
hei
rli
vesaswar
far
ewast
heor
deroft
heday

Hungerandstar
vati
on–farmi
ngwasdi
srupt
edandpeopler
esor
tedt
osur
viv
al
t
echniquessuchasfeedi
ngongamemeatandwil
dfrui
ts

Destruct
ionofproper
ty–mostoft
heaff
ect
edgr
oupsl
ostt
hei
rval
uabl
epr
oper
ti
es
i
ncludingli
vest
ockasraidi
ngt
ookit
stol
l

Uni
nhabi
tedl
ands-at
tract
edBoert
rekker
sfr
om t
heCapeCol
ony

Canni
bal
i
sm-casesofcanni
bal
i
sm i
ncr
easedduet
oshor
tageoff
ood

Dest
ruct
ionofst
ates–newandol
dst
ateswer
edest
roy
ed

Empirebui
l
ding-et
hni
cgr
oupswhi
chf
ledt
heMf
ecanebui
l
tnewempi
rese,
g
Sobhuza

Emer
gencyofdef
ensi
veki
ngdomssuchasSwazi
,Bapedi
andBasot
ho

Spr
eadofNguni
rel
i
gione,
gInxwal
a

Di
srupt
ionofDel
agoaBayt
radewi
tht
hePor
tuguese

Spr
eadofNNguni
war
far
etact
ics

Page49of49
 Spr
eadofNguni
language

[c]
.Towhatext
entwastheMf
ecaner
esponsi
blef
ort
hef
allofki
ngdomsi
nCent
ral
Af
ri
ca?Explai
nyouranswer
. [8]

Ef
fect
sofMf
ecanewar
s

Mov
ement
sofv
ari
ousgr
oupsi
nsear
chofl
and

Bet
terf
ight
ingmet
hods,
bet
terl
eadesr
shi
pqual
i
ties

UseofAssegai
andl
ongshi
eldspr
ead

Est
abl
i
shmentofmi
l
itar
ytowns,
bet
terl
eadesr
shi
pmet
hods

Rai
dingandi
ncor
por
ati
onofdef
eat
edpeopl
e

Hungerandst
arv
ati
on,
widespr
eaddeat
hsanddest
ruct
ionofpr
oper
ty

Const
antf
aerofr
ebel
l
iousel
ement
s,bet
terf
ight
ingmet
hods

Ot
heref
fect
s

Successi
ondi
sput
es,
Civ
ilwar
s

Weakl
eader
shi
p,dr
ought

Decl
i
nei
ntr
ade,
col
oni
ali
sm

Di
suni
ty,
mil
i
tar
yweakness

TheNdebel
e St
ate
[
NOV2003]

33.[
a].
Ident
if
yanyt
hreegr
oupsandt
hei
rrespect
ivel
eader
sthatf
ledf
rom Tshakadur
ing
theMfecane[6]

Ndebel
e-Mzi
l
ikazi

Ngoni
-Zwangendaba-
Jer
e-Ngoni

Shangane-
Soshangane

Ngoni
-Msene-
Nxaba

[
b].
Descr
ibeMzi
li
kazi
’
sjour
neyf
rom Zul
ulandt
oZi
mbabwe. [
11]

Mzi
l
ikazi
wasachi
efoft
heKhumal
oundert
hel
eader
shi
pofShaka,
theZul
u

Hef
ledZul
ulandaf
terhewasat
tackedbyTshaka’
sar
myf
orf
ail
i
ngt
osur
render
l
oot
ytotheking

I
n1822Mzi
l
ikazi
crossedt
heDr
akensbur
gmount
ainswi
thabout300menand
women

Ont
hei
rwayt
heyest
abl
i
shedset
tl
ement
sandf
oughtv
ari
ousgr
oups

Page50of50
 ;
i
ncor
por
ati
ngsomeoft
hem

Ekuphumuleni
-i
ncor
porat
edandraidedl
ocalpeople.Movedf
rom t
hispl
ace
around1826becauseofatt
acksbythePedi
,nearnesstoZul
uanddrought
s

Mhlahl
andl
elainthekwenal
andrai
dedSothoforpeopl
eanddomesticanimal
s.
Alsorai
dedtheTswana.MetR.Moffatoft
heLondonMi ssi
onar
ySociet
yandthe
twobecamef r
iends

Lef
tMhlahl
andl
elabecauseofexter
nal
thr
eat
sfrom Dingane,
KoraKhoisan,
Gri
quaandRol
ong,andsett
ledaroundt
heMari
coRiverinabout1832.

In1837Mzili
kazi
‘
scapitalMosegawasattackedbymanygr
oupssuchasthe
Griquas,
KoraandBoers.Thi
sforcedtheNdebelet
omovenort
hwardsacr
ossthe
Limpopo,af
terdi
vidi
ngupintotwogroups.

TheNdebelemov edi
ntwogroups;maingr
oupledbyaseniori
ndunaGundwane
Ndiwenitoget herwit
hMzil
ikazi
’ssonNkul
umane; t
hesmall
ergroupl
edby
Mzil
ikazit
ravelledwestwar
dsv i
atheTswanaland.Themai
ngroupcrossedthe
Li
mpopoRi verandset tl
edi
nt heRozvi
countr
yatDanangombe[Dlodl
otoday
]
aft
erli
ttl
eresistance.

I
n1840t het
wogroupsrejoi
nedwhent hei
ndunasofthemai
ngrouphaddecided
t
oinstal
lNkul
umaneastheirnewking.Mzil
ikazi
regar
dedt
hisasanactof
t
reasonandkil
l
edthoseinvol
ved.Mzil
i
kaziwasano–nonsensebloodyl
eader

Mzi
l
ikazi
est
abl
i
shedhi
snewcapi
tal
atI
nyat
hiandabsor
bedt
heShonapeopl
e

[
c].
Expl
ainwhyMzi
li
kazi
wasabl
etol
eadt
heNdebel
eforsol
ong

Fact
orswhyMzi
l
ikazi
wasabl
etol
eadf
orsol
ong:

[
i]
.-
Super
iormi
l
itar
ytact
ics

-
Mil
i
tar
yleader
shi
pofMzi
l
ikazi

-
Ast
rongmi
l
itar
ysetupt
hatemphasi
zedl
oyal
tyt
oMzi
l
ikazi

-
Def
eat
edgr
oupswer
eincor
por
atedi
ntoNdebel
esoci
ety

-
Hadsuper
iorweapons

-
Anononsensest
rongmanofunpar
all
eledabi
l
iti
es

[
II
].
-Hadf
ri
endl
yrel
ati
onswi
thRober
tMof
fat

-Tr
ust
edbyhi
speopl
ewhom hel
edf
ormanyy
ear
sandexper
iencedpr
obl
emst
oget
her

-Thr
eat
sfr
om enemi
eskeptt
hem t
oget
her

[
NOV2003]

34.
[a]
.Li
stsi
xact
ivi
ti
est
hatf
ormedt
hebasi
soft
heNdebel
eeconomy
. [
6]

Cr
opcul
ti
vat
ion

Rear
ingofcat
tl
e

Tr
ade

Page51of51
 Rai
dingt
henei
ghbour
ingar
eas

Tr
ibut
epay
ment

Mi
ning

Hunt
ing

Cr
aft
wor
k-[
blacksmi
thi
ng,
pot
ter
y]

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heeconomi
candsoci
alst
ruct
ureoft
heNdebel
est
ate. [
11]

[
i]
Economi
c

Cr
opcul
ti
vat
ionpr
act
icedespeci
all
ybyf
ormerShonamember
soft
hesoci
ety

Gr
ewmi l
l
et,
rapokoandlatt
ermaize.Eachvil
lagehadacommonf
iel
dfort
heki
ng
whosepr
oducewentstr
aightt
other oyal
granary

Rear
ingofcat
tl
epl
ayedamajorrol
eint
heeconomy .aperson’sweal
thwas
measuredbyt
henumberofcat
tl
etheypossessed.Mostcatt
lebel
ongedtot
heki
ng

Tr
ade-
ivor
y,gol
d,cat
tl
eandgr
ainexchangedf
orcl
oth,
beadsandguns

Rai
dsofnei
ghbour
ingar
easy
iel
dedweal
thsuchasgr
ainandcat
tl
e

Tr
ibut
epai
dbysubj
ect
sandsubduedst
ateswhopai
dtoav
oidbei
ngr
aided

Mi
ningofgol
dandi
ronal
soi
mpor
tant
/bl
acksmi
thi
ng

[
ii
].
Soci
al

Ndebel
esoci
etyhad3cl
asses

Zansi
-pur
eNguni

Enhl
a-Sot
ho,
Tswanawho wer
eincor
por
atedwhi
l
einSout
hAf
ri
ca

Hol
e-Shonawhower
econquer
edandi
ncor
por
atedi
ntot
heNdebel
esoci
ety

For
m ofcast
esy
stem pr
act
iced-
lowercl
assmenpr
ohi
bit
edt
omar
ryuppercl
ass
women

Rel
i
gioussy
stem/
pol
ygamy
/ukul
agi
sa

Zansi
prov
idedt
her
uli
ngcl
ass

I
nter
mar
ri
agepr
act
iced,
languageandi
nter
mar
ri
agepr
omot
eduni
ty,
age-
set
s

Lowercl
asspeopl
ewer
enotal
l
owedt
ori
sei
nthemi
l
itar
yranks

[c]
.Wasthesoci
alst
ruct
urebenef
ici
alt
oal
lthepeopl
eint
heNdebel
est
ate?Expl
ainy
our
answer.

[
i]
BENEFI
TS:

Ukul
agi
sa–f
orgeduni
tyandal
l
egi
ance

Languageandi
nter
mar
ri
agepr
omot
eduni
ty

Page52of52
 Al
lpeopl
eint
heexpect
edt
ofol
l
owNdebel
ecust
omsandspeakNdebel
elanguage

Ndebel
eadopt
edShonar
eli
gion

Age-
set
s-al
sopr
omot
eduni
ty

[
ii
]NON-
BENEFI
TS:

Cast
esy
stem wasdi
vi
siv
e

Rai
dingwasdi
vi
siv
e

Shona/
Hol
enotal
l
owedt
ori
set
ohi
ghmi
l
itar
yranks

Hol
epr
ohi
bit
edt
omar
rycl
asswomen

[
NOV2004]

35.
[a]
.I
dent
if
yanysi
xgr
oupswhi
cht
heNdebel
efoughtont
hei
rwayt
owest
ernZi
mbabwe.
[
6]

-
Zul
u,-
Kor
a,-
Gri
qua,-
Taung,-
Tswana,-
Boer
s,-
Kol
olo,-
Sot
ho.

[
b].
Giveanaccountoft
heNdebel
emi
grat
iont
owest
ernZi
mbabwebet
ween1822and
1840.
[11]

Mzi
l
ikaziwasl
eaderoft
heKhumal
owi
thi
ntheZul
ust
ate

In1821Mzi l
i
kazir
efusedtohandhandoverbootyt
oTshakaasr equi
red.Tshakasent
anar mytopuni
shMzi l
il
kazi
whichresul
tedi
nawar .Mzi
li
kazi
fledint
ot heinter
ior
crossingt
heDrakensburgwit
haKhumal ogroupofnotmoret
han300peopl e.

Set
tl
edatEkuphumul
eniinabout1824,
rai
dedl
ocal
peopl
e,capt
uri
ngwomenand
chi
l
dreni
nordertoi
ncreasehi
speople

Sot
hor
efer
redt
othem asmat
abel
e-or
igi
noft
hei
rname

Bet
ween1825and1829Mzil
i
kazi
mov
edf
rom ekuphumul
eni
toCent
ral
Transv
aal
,
set
tl
edatEmhl
ahlandl
ela

Foughtwi
tht
heZul
usentbyDi
ngane,
Gri
qua,
Boer
sandot
hergr
oups

MetRober
tMof
fatatKur
uman

Set
tl
edatMosegabetween1833and1837.
For
cedt
ofl
eebecauseofat
tacksby
Boer
s,Tswana,
Gri
quasandZului
n1838

Bef
orecrossingtheLi
mpopoRiver
,theNdebelespl
iti
ntotwogroups,
onegroupled
byMzil
i
kazi whichwentvi
atheTswanacountr
y,andthesecondgroupledbyan
i
ndunaNdiweni Gundwanewasthebiggerwi
thNkulumane,hei
rapparent

Thegroupl
edbyNdiweni
arr
ivedi
nwest
ernZi
mbabwei
n1840andsubduedt
he
l
ocalpeopl
e-Rozv
ioft
heMoyotot
em

Mzil
i
kazi
’
sgr ouparr
ivedlateraft
eraboutay
earandr
euni
tedwi
tht
heot
hergr
oup
af
terabit
terciv
ilwar,executi
onofrebel
s

Est
abl
i
shednewcapi
tal
atI
nyat
hi

Page53of53
[
c].
Towhatext
entwer
etheKhumal
oaf
fect
edbyt
hismi
grat
ion?

Mar
ri
age-
womenofot
hergr
oupsj
oinedt
hem

Col
lect
ivenameofthest
atebecameNdebel
efr
om t
henamegi
vent
othem bySot
ho.
Thi
savoideddi
vi
sionandfost
ereduni
ty

War
swi
thmany–becameawar
eoft
heef
fect
sofguns

Est
abl
i
shedf
ri
endshi
pwi
thRober
tMof
fat
-aChr
ist
ianmi
ssi
onar
y

Adapt
edt
ocul
tur
alpat
ter
nsofot
herpeopl
eespeci
all
ytheshona

Languagekepti
ntact
,wi
thmi
noraddi
ti
ons

Mai
ntai
nedt
hei
rsuper
ior
it
y-t
heZansi
group,
butcr
eat
edt
woot
hergr
oups

Ar
myt
act
icsandt
ypeofweaponsst
il
lusedwhent
heyar
ri
vedi
nwest
ernZi
mbabwe

Mzi
l
ikazi
sti
l
lthel
eader
,andr
emai
nedoneunt
il1868

Becamel
essandl
essdependentonr
aidi
ngandset
tl
eddownt
osubsi
stencef
armi
ng

Tr
adedi
srupt
ed/
dist
urbed

Const
antf
earofr
ebel
l
ionsf
rom t
heabsor
bedgr
oups

Execut
ionofr
ebel
s

[
NOV2005]

36.
[a]
.Li
stanysi
xgr
oupst
hatMzi
li
kazif
oughtSout
hoft
heLi
mpopoRi
verupt
o1836.
[
6]

-
Dzudza,
-Kwena,-
Pedi
,-
Hur
utse,
-Gr
iqua,
-Boer
,-Sot
ho,
-Tswana,
-Kor
a,-
Tlapi
ni

[b]
.Out
li
net
hef
act
orswhi
chledMzi
li
kazit
oabandont
hev
ari
ousset
tl
ement
ssout
hoft
he
Limpopo Riv
er[
11]

Ndebel
eset
tl
ement
satekuphumul
eni

Wasneart
heupperOl
i
fant
sRi
ver

I
nNdzundzaar
ea

Ekuphumul
eni
wast
ooneart
heZul
uandt
hePedi

Wasmeantasr
est
ingpl
ace

Lackedenoughpast
ureespeci
all
yaf
terdr
oughtof1823

Al
soabandonedbecausei
twast
oocl
oset
oZul
uland.Zul
uwar
ri
orsat
tacked
Ndebel
ein1830

Ot
herNdebel
eenemi
esi
ncl
udedKor
a,Gr
iqua,
andRol
ongwhohadguns

Nex
tNdebel
esett
lementswasMosegaar
oundt
heMar
icoR,
Placewascl
oset
o
Mzi
li
kazi
’
sfr
iendRober
tMoffat

Wasgoodcat
tl
ecount
ry,
her
eNdebel
ewer
eat
tackedbyGr
iquaandKor
aaswel
las

Page54of54
 t
rekBoer
s-underHedr
ickPot
giet
er-
1837

Final
lyat
tacksfr
om Boer
s,Gr
iqua,
Tlokwa,
Rol
ong-
for
cedMzi
l
ikazi
andt
heNdebel
e
tocrossLimpopoint
omodernZimbabwe.

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dtheseset
tl
ement
scont
ri
but
etot
hebui
ldi
ngoft
heNdebel
enat
ion?

[
i]
.I
mpor
tantofset
tl
ement
sinbui
l
dingofNdebel
enat
ion.

Aroundtheset
tl
ementsMzi
l
ikazi
haddefeat
edl
ocali
nhabi
tant
s-Hur
utse,
Kwena,
Sotho-
Ndzundzaabsor
bedt
hem toswel
lupnumber
sofhisgroup.

Khumal
o-gi
venNdebel
ebySot
ho-
Tswana

Rai
dsonnei
ghbour
syi
eldedcat
tl
e,gr
ainf
orNdebel
eeconomy

Boy
sofmi
l
itar
yagef
orhi
sage-
regi
ment
s

[
ii
].
Otherf
act
ors;

Mzi
l
ikaziwasageni
usasami
l
itar
yleader

Al
sohadpol
i
tical
wisdom

Weaknessesofot
hergr
oupi
ncor
por
ated

Mar
ri
ageal
l
iances,
languageuni
tedt
hepeopl
e

Cont
inuoushar
dshi
pshel
pedt
hem t
obui
l
duni
ty

Hi
sfr
iendshi
pwi
thR.Mof
fat

[
JUNE2006]

37.
[a]
.NamethethreeNdebel
esoci
alcl
assesandt
hegr
oupsofpeopl
ewhi
ch
belongedtoeachofthem.
[6]

Zansi
-or
igi
nal
Nguni
orKhumal
ofr
om Zul
uland

Enhl
a-Sot
ho–Tswanaabsor
bedsout
hofLi
mpopoRi
ver

Hol
e-Kal
anga/
Shona/
Rozv
iabsor
bedi
nZi
mbabwe

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heShona-
Ndebel
erel
ati
onsbet
ween1840and1868.
[
11].

Tr
ibut
aryrel
ati
ons-
Shonachi
efdoms–semi
independentpai
dtr
ibut
eassecur
it
yto
pr
eventr
aids

Warsofconquest
s-Ndebel
eexpl
oit
edShonadi
vi
sions-
butal
sot
radedwi
thShonat
o
getgr
ain

Shonei
nNdebel
ecent
ral
stat
eident
if
iedwi
thNdebel
e,wer
eregar
dedasl
owcl
ass
ser
vant
sofNdebel
e

Cattl
eal
l
iances-
Ndebel
eki
ngl
oanedcatt
let
oShonachi
efst
omai
ntai
npeace/
ensur
e
accesst
otraderout
esi
nZambeziVal
l
ey

Page55of55
 Tr
ibutar
ychi
efdomsalsosuppl
i
edNdebel
ewi
thl
abourandboy
sofmi
l
itar
yageas
well
asbeauti
fulwomen

Ndebel
egov
ernor
s-puti
nchar
geoft
ri
but
arychi
efdoms

I
nrar
ecasest
rust
edt
ri
but
arychi
efsr
ecogni
zedasi
ndunas

I
nter
mar
ri
age

Rai
dingar
ea-
Shonachi
efs;

Raidedi
nareasofMangwende,
Mashay
amombe,
Chi
namor
a,Masv
ingoet
cforboot
y
suchasgrai
n,cat
tl
e,women

1850-
Mut
inhi
ma-
Rozv
ihei
rral
l
iedShonat
oresi
stNdebel
edemandsf
orl
abour

1868-
Mzi
l
ikazi
final
l
ysubduedRozv
icapt
uri
ngSi
bambamu,
thel
astRozv
ihei
r

Ndebel
eadopt
edShonar
eli
gion

[c]
.Howf
arwer
ether
elat
ionsbet
weent
heShonaandt
heNdebel
edet
ermi
nedbyNdebel
e
economi
cneeds?

Ndebel
eShonar
elat
ionsandNdebel
eeconomy

Ndebele-
Shonar
elati
onslar
gelydict
atedbyNdebel
eeconomi
cneedse,
gtr
ibut
ary
chi
efdomspaidt
ribut
e,suppli
edlabourtoNdebel
e,boy
sofmi
li
tar
yage

Cat
tl
eal
l
iancesensur
edpast
uresf
orNdebel
ecat
tl
e

Annual
rai
dsonShonaf
orboot
y,cat
tl
e,women,
grai
n

Accesst
otr
ader
out
es

Ot
herf
act
ors

Cat
tl
eal
l
iancesser
vedt
opr
eventconf
li
ct/
peacef
ulcoexi
stence

Tr
ibut
arychi
efdomsspar
edr
aids

Rai
dsonShonaal
someantt
oremov
ethr
eat
sofat
tack

Shoneeconomi
cneedsal
sonecessi
tedr
aidsofNdebel
e

Cat
tl
e–r
eli
giousneeds,
Ndebel
eadopt
edShonar
eli
gion,
egr
ainmaki
ngcer
emoni
es

[
NOV2006]

38.(
a)Listanysi
xit
emst
hatt
heNdebel
eKi
ngr
ecei
vedast
ri
but
efr
om nei
ghbour
ing
chi
efdoms.(6)

Gr
ain,
gold,
skins,cat
tl
e,goat
s,i
ront
ool
s,guns,
clot
h,l
abour
,ost
ri
chf
eat
her
s,beads,
women,boys,
chinaware,i
vor
y

(
b)Descr
ibet
hesoci
alandr
eli
giouspr
act
icesoft
heNdebel
eupt
o1893.
(
11)

Soci
al

Page56of56
 Marr
iage-pol
ygamypract
iced.Menal
l
owedt
omar
ryaf
terbei
ngsuccessf
uli
nwar
.
Cat
tl
eusedi nmarr
iage

Inxwala-a0t
hanksgi
vi
ngcer
emonyf
orgoodcr
opst
obeobser
vedbyev
ery
onei
nthe
state

Soci
etydi
vi
dedi
ntocl
asses-Zansi
Enhl
aandAmahol
e

Peopl
eint
hest
ateencour
agedt
ospeakt
heNdebel
elanguage

Mar
ri
agebetweentheZansi
andot
hercl
assesnotal
l
owed,
buti
npr
act
icepeopl
e
mar
ri
edacrosscl
asses

Ukusi
sa

Set
tl
ementpat
ter
n

Pat
ri
li
nealsoci
ety
[l
ineage]
,
ext
endedf
ami
l
y

Di
vi
sionofl
abour

Rel
i
gious

Beli
evedinancest
ral
spi
ri
ts(
amadl
ozi
)whi
cht
heybel
i
evedl
ookedaf
tert
hem and
broughtr
ain

Bel
i
evedi
ntheGr
eatGod,
Mli
moorMwar
i

Seni
ormember
soft
heKhumal
obel
i
evedt
obei
mpor
tantr
ainmaker
s

Ndebel
erespect
edmedi
umsoft
hegr
eatShonaspi
ri
ts-
pai
dtr
ibut
etot
hem

I
nxwal
acer
emoni
es

Ki
ngasar
eli
giousl
eader

Khumal
oadopt
edandmadeuseoft
heShonar
ainmaki
ng

Tr
adi
ti
onal
woul
dfor
ti
fyt
hear
mybef
oregoi
ngt
owar

(
c)Howf ardi
dtheNdebel
erel
igi
ouspr
act
icescont
ri
but
etot
heUni
tyoft
hest
ate?
Expl
ainyour Answer.
(
8)

(
i)Rel
i
giouspr
act
icescont
ri
but
iont
ouni
ty

I
nxwal
acer
emoni
esbr
oughtpeopl
e

Abl
etor
enewt
hepoweroft
heki
ngwi
tht
radi
ti
onal
medi
ums

Commonbel
i
efsi
nMl
i
mobr
oughtpeopl
etoget
her

Ndebel
eandShonawor
kedt
oget
herasar
esul
tofcommonbel
i
efandr
espectf
or
gr
eatShonaspi
ri
ts

(
ii
)Ot
herf
act
orsal
socont
ri
but
ed

Pol
i
tical
organi
zat
ion

Page57of57
 Ukusi
sa

Local
trade

i
nter
mar
ri
ages

Agesetr
egi
ment
s

Speaki
ngofNdebel
elanguage

Di
str
ibut
ionoft
ri
but
eandr
aidedi
tems[
boot
y]

[
NOV2009]

39(a)Identi
fyanysi
xgr
oupswhi
chcl
ashedwi
tht
heNdebel
edur
ingt
hei
rmov
ementf
rom
Zul
uland.(
6)

(a)Zul
u,Hur
utshe,
Sotho,Khoi
san,
Boer
s,Kor
a,Tswana,
Thl
api
n,Gr
iguas,
Kwena,
Pedi
,
TLokwa,Rol
ong,Ndzundza

(
b)Descr
ibet
heNdebel
emov
ementf
rom Mosegat
owest
ernZi
mbabwe
(
11)

(
b)Mov
ement

Ndebel
eatMosegaadv
isedbyMof
fatt
omov
eNor
th

Ndebel
ewer
eat
tackedbyacombi
nedf
orceofBoer
s,Gr
iguasandSot
ho,
Zul
u

Topr
otecthi
speopl
e,Mzi
l
ikazi
mov
edaway

Ndebel
espl
i
tint
otwo;
onegr
oupl
edbyMzi
l
ikazi
wentv
iapr
esentdayBot
swana

Thesecondgr
oupl
edbyGundwanet
rav
ell
edN/
Ecr
ossi
ngt
heLi
mpopo(
1838)

Mzi
l
ikazi
andhi
speopl
ewentasf
arasZambezi

Gr
oupdecidednottopr
oceed:
dif
fi
cul
ttocr
osst
heZambezi
;fearoft
hekol
oloand
at
tacksbytset
sefl
y

Gundwane’
sgr
oupset
tl
edi
nWest
ernZi
mbabweamongt
heShonawhodi
dnotr
esi
st
much

Aft
ermorethantwoyear
sofsepar
ati
on,Gundwane’
sgr oupt
houghtMzi
l
ikaziwoul
d
notcomebacksoitwasdeci
dedtochooseanot
herking.Nkul
umane,Mzil
ikazi
’
s
el
destsonbecame

WhenMzi
li
kazir
ejoi
nedt
hegr
oupi
n1840,
her
egar
dedt
hisactast
reason.Heki
l
led
t
hoser
esponsi
ble

Mzi
l
ikazi
set
tl
edatI
nyat
hi

(
c)Whydi
dtheNdebel
eset
tl
einWest
ernZi
mbabwe? (
8)

(
c)i
.Pul
lfact
ors

Tset
sef
reear
ea

Weakshone

Page58of58
 Goodpast
ures

I
nter
nal
trade

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofr
esour
cese.
gwi
l
dli
fe

I
iPushf
act
ors

Dr
ivenawaybyenemi
ese.
gBoer
s,Kor
ana,
Gri
guas,
Zul
uet
c

Exhaust
ionf
rom pr
evi
ouswar
s

Adv
isedbyRober
tMof
fat

[
NOV2007]

40.
[a]
.Li
stanysi
xit
emsusedbyt
heShonat
opayt
ri
but
etot
heNdebel
eKi
ng. [
6]

Li
vest
ock[
catt
le,goat
s],
grai
n,ani
mal ski
ns,i
ront
ool
s,t
obacco,f
ir
ewood,l
abour
,gol
d,i
vor
y,
pot
ter
y,copper,
youngboysandgirl
scloth,
seashel
l
s

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalandsoci
alsy
stemsoft
heNdebel
eSt
ate [
11]

[
i]
.Pol
i
tical
syst
em;

Ndebel
est
atehi
ghl
ycent
ral
i
zed,
l
essv
asti
nar
ea

Thekingwasanabsol
uterul
er,
highestj
udge,
commander–i
n-chi
efoft
hear
my,
rel
i
giousleaderanddi
str
ibut
orofland

Kingrul
edwit
hhel
poftwoadv
isorycounci
ls-t
heMphakathiofsel
ect
edchi
efsand
royal
famil
ymembersandt
heizi
khuluconsist
ingofal
lchi
efs

Stat
edivi
dedintoregi
mentalsett
lementsordi
str
ict
seachunderani
nduna.Di
str
ict
s-
fel
lundercont
rolofoneofthefourprov
inci
ali
ndunaenkul
u

Regi
onal
gov
ernor
sinf
ormedki
ngonaf
fai
rsofpr
ovi
nces

Conquer
edShonagr
oupspai
dtr
ibut
e

Ther
ewasast
andi
ngar
my,
200wi
ves,
elect
edashi
sey
esear
s

[
ii
].
Ndebel
eSoci
alsy
stem

Ndebel
esoci
etywasdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreecl
asses/
cast
s:

TheZansi
-t
hehighestcl
ass–t
heor
iginal
Ngunifr
om Nguni
l
and;theEnhl
a-consi
sti
ng
oft
heSothoandTswanaf r
om t
heTransvaal
andthel
owestcl
ass-t
heHole-capt
ured
i
nZimbabwe[Shona/Rozvi
]

Mar
ri
ageacr
osscast
eli
nedi
scour
agedbutmar
ri
aget
ookpl
ace

Ndebel
ebel
i
evedi
nHi
ghGod-
Nkul
unkul
u

Al
sobegant
owor
shi
pSot
ho-
godMl
i
moandt
hei
rancest
ors-
Madl
ozi

Adopt
edShonaMhondor
orai
nmaki
ngr
eli
giouspr
act
ices

Pr
act
icedI
nxwal
a-f
ir
stf
rui
tscer
emony

Page59of59
 Ukusi
sa

Owner
shi
pofcat
tl
ewasast
atussy
mbol
,pay
mentofl
obol
a,earpi
erci
ng

Ndebel
erecogni
zedast
heof
fi
cial
language

Di
vi
sionofl
abour

Pat
ri
li
neal
soci
ety

Pol
ygamy

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dtheNdebel
esoci
alsy
stem cont
ri
but
est
otheuni
tyoft
hest
ate?

[
i]
.Cont
ri
but
ionofsoci
alsy
stem t
ouni
ty

Inxwal
aceremony
-at
tendedbyr
epr
esent
ati
vesf
rom al
lgr
oups,
wasauni
fyi
ng
ceremony

Maf
iascat
tl
eensur
edl
oyal
tyofdef
eat
edShonachi
efst
oNdebel
eki
ng

Adopt
ingofShonaMhondor
ocul
tsy
stem al
souni
tedNdebel
eandShona

I
nter
mar
ri
ages

UseofNdebel
elanguage

[
ii
].
Otherf
act
ors:

Age-
setr
egi
ment
s-uni
tedal
lboy
sofmi
l
itar
yageassol
dier
soft
heki
ng

Tr
ibut
epay
ment

Speaki
ngofNdebel
elanguagemadeal
lpeopl
etor
egar
dthemsel
vesasNdebel
e

Tr
ade

(
Nov2010)

41.
(a)
.Nameanysi
xgr
oupst
hatt
heNdebel
efoughtsout
hoft
heLi
mpopoRi
ver
. (
6)

Zul
u,Pedi
,Boer
s,Gr
iqua,
Hur
utse

Taung,
Kor
a,Sot
ho,
Tlokwa

Tswana,
Rol
ong,
Khoi
san,

Kwena,
Tlapi
n,Gwaket
se.

(
b).
Descri
betheNdebel
emigrat
ionf
rom t
heTransv
aalandthei
rset
tl
ementi
n
Wester
nZimbabwebetween1837and1840. (11)

Ndebel
edef
eat
edbyacombi
nedf
orceofBoer
s,Gr
iqua,
Kor
aandTl
okwa.

Rai
dedbyDi
ngane’
sZul
u

Mzil
ikazi
div
idedhi
speopleint
otwogroups;maingr
oupledbyI
nduna
GundwaneNdiweni
,incl
udedoldpeopl
e,chi
l
dren,Mzi
li
kazi
’
swiv
esand

Page60of60
 l
ivestock.I
talsoincludedMzil
i
kazi
’ssons-
Nkulumane, t
hehei rappar
entand
Lobengula.Thegr oupfoll
owedashort
errout
e,crossingtheMacl out
si Ri
ver
,
andShasheRi ver
, andfoll
owedMzingwaneRiverval
ley.Sett
ledatGibixhegu
nearMat oposHil
ls.Hav i
ngdespai
redoffi
ndi
ngMzi l
ikazithegroupinstal
led
Nkulumaneaski ng.

Thesmal l
ergroupwasl edbyMzi li
kazi andMaqhekeni Sthol
eandot her
chi
efs.Travel
ledwestwardsthroughNgwat oterri
tory
.Theyt ur
ned
nor
thwardst otheZambezi i
npur suitoftheKololo.Fail
edtodefeattheKolol
o.
Tur
nedsout hwardsinordert omeett hemaingr oup.Mzili
kazihear
dof
i
nstal
lati
onofNkulumaneaski ng.Her ushedtoGi bi
xhegu.Ndiweniandother
chi
efsresponsibl
eforinst
all
ingwer eexecutedf ortr
eason.Nkulumane’sfate
i
sunclearbutsomesayhewasexi led.

Mzi
l
ikazi
est
abl
i
shedhi
scapi
tal
atI
nyat
hinearmoder
nBul
away
o.

Mzi
li
kazimarri
edNy
amazana,
aNgoni
leaderwhohadbr
okenawayf
rom
Zwangendaba.

Bl
owtoRozvi
,thelocal
Shonapeopl
eof
fer
edl
essr
esi
stanceandf
ell
under
Mzi
li
kazi
’
scontrol
.

(c)
.DidtheNdebeleset
tl
ementi
nwest
ernZi
mbabwebr
ingsecur
it
ytot
heNdebel
est
ate?
Explai
ny ouranswer
.(8)

Secur
it
y

Set
tl
edi
ntheRozv
icount
rywher
ether
ewasl
i
ttl
eresi
stance

Mar
ri
edNy
amazana,
aNgoni
leaderwhohadki
l
ledt
heRozv
iki
ng,
Chi
ri
samur
uii

Abl
etocr
ushi
nter
nal
rebel
l
ions

Nei
ghbour
ingTswanawer
eweak

Tr
adewi
tht
hel
ocal
peopl
e

Farawayf
rom Boer
s,Gr
iquaorZul
us.

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofr
esour
ces,
past
ures,
fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
e,f
ert
il
esoi
l
s.

Fr
eef
rom t
set
sef
li
es

I
nsecur
it
y

Rozv
iresi
stedNdebel
eint
rusi
on-somemov
edaway
.

I
ndependentShonachi
efdomst
otheeastr
esi
stedNdebel
erai
ds.

Conf
li
ctswi
tht
heNgwat
oov
erpast
ures.

Ndebel
ewer
erai
dedbyt
heBoer
sfr
om Tr
ansv
aal

Ar
eawaspr
onet
odr
ought

I
nfi
l
trat
ionoft
rader
s,hunt
ers,
expl
orer
sandconcessi
onseeker
s.

I
nvasi
onbyBSAC.

Page61of61
 [
Nov2011]

42.
[a]
.Namethreeset
tl
ementsestabl
ishedbytheNdebelesouthoftheLi
mpopor
iver
,and
anyonegroupofpeopl
etheyfoughtateachoftheseset
tlements. [
6]

Ekuphumul
eni
—Ndzudza,
Pedi

Mhl
ahl
andl
ela—Sot
ho,
Tswana,
Kor
a,Kwena,
Gri
qua,
Rol
ong,
Zul
u

Mosega-
--
--
--
--
Hur
utse,
Boer
s,Gr
iqua,
Zul
u,Khoi
san

Enqugwi
ni-
--
-Zul
u,Hur
utse,
Gri
qua,
Boer
s

Eni
naneni
--
-Zul
u,Hur
utse,
Gri
qua,
Boer
s

Egabeni
—Kkor
a,Sot
ho,
Tswana,
Zul
u.

Tsweny
ane—Hur
utse,
Boer
s,Gr
iqua,
Zul
u,Kor
a,Khoi
san.

[
b].
Outli
nethepr
obl
emsf
acedbyt
heNdebel
edur
ingt
hei
rmi
grat
ionf
rom Nguni
landt
o
wester
nZimbabwe. [
11]

Lackofgr
azi
ngar
eas

Lackoff
ood

Dr
ought
s

War
swi
tht
hePedi
,
Zul
u,Gr
iqua,
Rol
ong,
Boer
set
c

Lossofl
i
vest
ockegCat
tl
e

Lossofl
i
ves.Manypeopl
ewer
eki
l
leddur
ingwar
s

Ndebel
ehomeswer
ebur
nt

Rebel
l
ions

Di
seseasese,
gMal
ari
a

Tset
sef
lypr
obl
em

At
tacksf
rom wi
l
dani
mal
s

Di
str
upt
ionoft
radeandf
armi
ngact
ivi
ti
es

Dr
inki
ngwat
er

Li
vedi
nconst
antf
earofat
tacks

Popul
ati
onr
educed

Longdi
stancesl
edt
ofat
igue

Cr
ossi
ngmount
ainse,
gDr
akensbur
gwasapr
obl
em

Capt
ureofwomen,
Chi
l
drenbyot
hergr
oups

Langugepr
obl
emsduet
oincor
por
ati
onofmanygr
oups

Page62of62
 I
nfer
ior
it
yofweaponst
oot
hergr
oupsegBoer
s.

Pr
obl
emscr
ossi
ngl
arger
iver
s

Cul
tur
aldi
l
uti
on-l
anguagepr
obl
emsonmi
xi
ngwi
thot
her
s.

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dwar
swi
thot
hergr
oupsuni
tet
heNdebel
e? [
8]

Uni
tyasar
esul
tofwar

Cr
eat
eaf
ormi
dabl
edef
ence

Pr
otectt
hei
rpr
oper
ty

Cr
eat
east
rongr
aidi
ngar
my

Fearofat
tacksf
rom t
heZul
u

Est
abl
i
shast
rongnat
ion

Uni
tycausedbyot
herf
act
ors

Fewi
nnumber
s/numer
ical
inf
eri
ori
tybr
oughtuni
ty

I
nxwal
afest
ival

FearofMzi
l
ikazi

Language

Abl
eleader
shi
pofMzi
l
ikazi

Weaknessofconquer
edl
ocal
groups

I
nter
mar
ri
ages

Tr
ibut
e

Har
dshi
pst
hatt
heyf
aced

Tr
ademaf
iassy
stem

PORTUGUESEI
NZI
MBABWE
[
Speci
men]

43.[
a].
Ident
if
ysi
xtr
adecent
resest
abli
shedbythePor
tugueseontheMozambi
can
coast andinthei
nter
ioroft
heMutapaStat
e.
[6]
.

Sof
ala

Bei
ra

Quel
i
mane

Luanze

Bukut
u

Page63of63
 Sena

Tet
e

[
b].Descr
ibet
hetradebetweent
hePor
tugueseandt
heZi
mbabweansoci
eti
esi
n
t
h
t
he16 and17t hcentur
ies. [
11]
.

Port
uguesetr
ader
smadecont
actwi
thMut
apast
atei
n1505whent
heybui
l
t
for
tSofal
a.

Atf
ir
stt
radewast
hrought
heSwahi
l
iort
hei
ragent
s,t
hev
ashambadzi
.

Gol
dwasmai
nex
por
tfr
om Mut
apaki
ngdom

Port
uguesedevel
opedi
nter
estt
oent
ert
hei
nter
iort
ocont
rol
thesour
cesof
thegol
dtrade

Por
tugueset
radedwi
tht
heki
ngofMut
apacont
rol
l
edt
rade.

Port
uguesebr
oughtcl
oth,
beadsandcer
ami
cs,
whi
chwer
edesi
redi
nthe
i
nter
ior
.

Port
ugueset
henwentint
othei
nter
iort
oest
abl
i
sht
heownt
radecent
resl
i
ke
SenaandTet
einthe1830s.

Lat
ert
radegoodswer
eexpandedt
oincl
udesal
t,copperi
ron,
mai
zeseed.

Tradebazaar
swer eest
abl
ishedwer
esomet
imespr
ivat
etr
adet
ookpl
ace
behindt
heMut apa’
sback.

LaterPor
tuguesebegant
oof
fergunst
osub-
chi
efswhol
atert
urnedagai
nst
theMutapa

I
nthe17thcentur
ytheMutapaswerebegi
nningt
ober el
uct
antwi
ththei
r
goodsespeci
all
ygold,
andthePor
tuguesehadtoresor
ttousef
orce.

[c]
.Towhatext
entwasthepol
it
ical
stabi
li
tyoft
heZi
mbabweansoci
eti
es
aff
ectedbythi
str
ade?

Por
tugueseact
ivi
ti
esl
edsomesub-
chi
eft
obedi
sloy
alt
otheMut
apa

Int
roduct
ionofgunsgav
epowert
othewr
ongpeopl
ewhobegant
orebel
againstt
heking

Compet
it
ionf
orf
orei
gngoodsal
socausedet
hni
cwar
sasAf
ri
cansf
oughtf
or
thel
i
on’
sshar
eofthetr
ade

Port
ugueseal
socreat
edsomepuppetchi
efse,
gMamv
urawhi
chl
edt
othe
decl
ineoft
hestat
e.

Por
tuguesewar
lor
dsemer
gedwhocr
eat
edst
ateswi
thi
nthest
ateusi
ng
Achi
kundas
Br
eakawayal
sooccur
redasar
esul
tofPor
tuguesei
nter
fer
encei
nthei
nter
ior

Page64of64
 Theambiti
onofcert
aingr
oupsegtheRozvi
alsocr
eat
edi
nst
abi
l
ityast
heyl
ed
rebel
l
ionandat
tackontheMutapast
ate.

Cal
ibr
eofleaderswhorul
edthestateinthe17thcent
urywaspoorandt
hey
l
ackedcharact
ertohol
dthestat
et oget
her.

[
Nov2003]

44.[
a].
Listthenamesoft hr
eePor t
uguesepeoplewhov i
sit
edtheMut
apaki
ngdom
andthreetradecommodi ti
esthatthePort
uguesebroughtint
otheMut
apa
Kingdom inthe16thcent
ury.

Ant
onioFernadez,GonzalodaSil
vei
ra,Fr
anci
scoBarret
o,VascoHomen.Dona
Kat
ari
no,AntonioCaido,DiogoMadeir
a,Per
eir
a,GasperBocarr
o.

Guns,
cl
oth,
beads,
jewel
l
ery
,kni
ves,
mai
zeseed,
alcohol
/spi
ri
ts,
frui
ttr
ees,
rice.

[
b].
Descri
betheeconomi
cact i
vi
ti
esoft
hePor
tuguesei
ntheMut
apaki
ngdom
t
h
dur
ingthe16 and17centur
ies. [
11]
.

Trade-broughtguns,cl
oth,beads,j
ewell
ery
,kni
ves,
cer
ami
csi
nexchangef
or
goldivor
y,catt
le,goat
s,sheep,grai
n,et
c

Usedpai
dAf
ri
canl
abouri
nmi
ningandagr
icul
tur
e

Por
tugueseint
roducedt
hepr
azosy
stem,
newcr
opswer
eint
roducedsuchas
mai
ze/fr
uit
s

For
cedAf
ri
canst
opayt
ri
but
etot
hem andi
ntr
oducedf
orcedl
abour

I
nit
ial
l
yPor
tuguesepai
dtr
ibut
ecur
vat
otheMut
apa

Mi
ninggol
d,hunt
ingf
ori
vor
y.

Sl
aver
y

[c]
.Towhatext
entdi
dthepeopl
eoft
heMut
apaki
ngdom benef
itf
rom Port
uguese
activ
iti
esi
nthi
speri
od? [
8].

[
i]
.Benef
it
s:

Newcr
ops

Newweapons

Newgoods,
clot
hes

Newf
armi
ngandmi
ningmet
hods

[
ii
].
Demer
it
s:

Pol
i
tical
int
erf
erence

Af
ri
canswer
eexpl
oit
eddur
ingt
rade

Page65of65
 Depl
eti
onofAf
ri
canr
esour
ces

Af
ri
cancul
tur
edi
stur
bed

Lossofl
and

For
cedl
abour

AbuseofAf
ri
canwomen

Sl
aver
y

[
June2004]

45.
[a]
.Gi
vesi
xai
msoft
hePor
tuguesei
ntheMut
apaSt
ate. [
6].

Tocheckt eadofI
hespr slam.
Toest
abl
i
sht
radi
ngcent
res/
mar
ket
s/f
eir
as
Tor
epl
aceSwahi
l
iast
radi
ngpar
tner
soft
heShona

Tospr
eadChr
ist
iani
ty

Tocol
oni
set
heMut
apaSt
ate

Tomi
negol
d

Tomakecont
actwi
thl
egendar
yChr
ist
ianr
ulerPr
est
erJohn

[b]
.Descri
bet
hepol
it
icalandsoci
alact
ivi
ti
esoft
hePor
tuguesei
ntheMut
apaStat
e
uptot he17t
hcent
ury. [11]
.

[
i]Pol
i
tical

I
ncreaseofPort
ugueseinv
olv
ementi
ntheMut apaSt
ate’
saf
fai
rs-
especi
all
y
f
oll
owingdeat
hofFatherGonsal
odaSi
lvei
ra-
1561

Puni
ti
veexpedi
ti
onsent1569—1572-
underFr
ansi
scoBar
ret
o

Set
tl
edi
nMut
apaaf
terbei
nggr
ant
edpr
azos

I
nter
venedi
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
esi
nMut
apaSt
ate

1628f
oughtanddef
eat
edMut
apaKapar
ari
dze

I
nst
all
edpuppetr
uler
sli
keMamv
uraont
het
hrone–pr
ovoki
ngopposi
ti
on
f
rom t
heRozvi

Ref
usedt
opayt
ri
but
easMut
apal
ostpol
i
tical
power

Hadincr
easedpowert
hroughtrai
ningpr
ivat
ear
mieswi
thgunse,
gwar
lor
ds
l
ikeGouvei
awit gchi
hbi kundaarmy

[
ii
].
Soci
al:

I
ntr
oduct
ionofChr
ist
iani
ty-
Sil
vei
rabapt
isedMut
apaMapuzugut
aandsome

Page66of66
 f
oll
ower
s-butt
hisdi
dnotl
astl
ong

Por
tuguesepr
act
isedsl
aver
ytoobt
ainl
abourf
ort
hei
rpr
azos

Pr
act
isedf
orcedl
abour

I
ntermarri
agesbetweenPortuguesemenandAfr
icanwomenpr
oduci
ng
peoplecal
ledMulatos[
inShonavanaSi
nyoro]
AbuseofAf
ri
canwomenbyPor
tuguesemen

[c]
.Wer
ethePor
tugueset
obl
amef
ort
hedecl
ineoft
heMut
apaSt
ate?
Expl
ainy
our
answer
. [
8]

[
i]
.Por
tuguesel
argel
ytobl
amef
ort
hedecl
i
neoft
heMut
apaEmpi
re

I
nter
fer
edi
nlocal
pol
i
ticssuppor
ti
ngr
ival
clai
mant
stot
het
hrone

Thi
scauseddi
sput
esandci
vi
lwar
se,
gGat
siRuser
e,Kapar
ari
dze

Cr
eat
edpuppetr
uler
sli
keMamv
ura

Ref
usedt
opayt
ri
but
e-f
orcedt
heMut
apat
opayt
ri
but
etot
hem

Rai
dedAf
ri
canv
il
lagesf
orsl
aves

Under
mini
ngAf
ri
cansel
f-
respect

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofgunsbr
oughtbyt
hePor
tuguesegr
eat
lyweakenedMut
apaSt
ate

[
ii
].
Howev
er,
theMut
apast
ate’
sdecl
ine

Wasal
soengender
edbyi
tsv
astsi
zewhi
chmadecommuni
cat
iondi
ff
icul
t.

Successi
ondi
sput
esi
nher
enti
nther
uli
ngf
ami
l
y

Ri
seofnewandpower
ful
Rozv
iSt
ate

Al
sosuccessi
ont
othr
onebyweakl
eader
s

Natur
aldi
sast
erse,
gser
iesofdr
oughtleadi
ngt
opoorhar
vest
s,at
tacksf
rom
nei
ghbour
ssuchastheSotho–Tswana.

Swahi
l
iinf
luencewasal
sodet
ri
ment
alt
ouni
tyi
ntheEmpi
re.

[
Nov2004]

46.
[a]
.St
ateanysi
xreasonsf
orPor
tuguesepenet
rat
ionoft
heZambeziv
all
ey.
[6]

Cont
rol
mini
ngofgol
d

Cont
rol
trader
out
esi
ntot
hei
nter
ior

Est
abl
i
sht
radi
ngpost
s

Tospr
eadChr
ist
iani
ty

Page67of67
 Tocont
rol
landi
ntheZambezi
val
l
eyf
oragr
icul
tur
alpur
poses

Tocont
rol
theMut
apast
ate

Tosear
chf
ort
hel
egendr
yPr
est
erJohn

Toav
enget
hedeat
hofGoncal
odaSi
l
vei
ra

Todi
slodgeMosl
emsf
rom t
hei
nter
ior

I
nvi
tat
ionbyGat
siRuser
e

[
b].
Descri
bet
hepr
azosy
stem i
ntr
oducedbyt
hePor
tuguesei
ntheZambezi
v
all
ey.
[11]
.

Landt
akenbyPor
tugueseusi
ngt
reat
ieswi
tht
heMut
apa,
andbyf
orce

Af
ri
cansusedasl
abour
ersont
hepr
azos

ThePor
tuguesel
i
vingi
nluxur
y

Sl
avel
abourcommonont
hepr
azos

ThePor t
ugueseco-habi
tat
ionwithAfr
icanswascommonont
hef
armswhi
ch
resul
tedinacolour
edpopul at
i hemul
on–t at
os
Por
tugueseont
hepr
azosal
socont
rol
l
edt
rade—useofpr
ofessi
onal
tr s-
ader
vashambadzi
.
Por
tugueseont
hepr
azosusedpr
ivat
ear
miesknownaschi
kunda
Pr
azosal
soasour
ceofsl
avesdur
ingt
hesl
avet
rade

Pr
azer
os-
taki
ngov
err
olesoft
radi
ti
onal
leader
s

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dthepr
azosy
stem assi
stt
hePor
tugueset
ocont
rolt
hear
ea?
[
8]

[
i]Pr
azosy
stem usedt
ocont
rol
theMut
apast
ate:

Reducedl
andscont
rol
l
edbyMut
apast
ate

Manypeopl
enowowedal
l
egi
ancet
othepr
azer
os,
soweakenedt
heMut
apa
st
ate

Pr
azeroscont
rol
l
edgol
dpr
oduct
ionandt
rade–sour
cesofweal
thi
nthe
Mutapa

Pri
vat
earmiesAchikundasnowpower
ful
int
heZambezi
val
l
eysor
educed
poweroft
heMut apa

Sl
avet
radeweakenedt
heMut
apast
ate

[
ii
].
Otherf
act
orsal
soi
mpor
tanti
nthecont
rol
oft
heMut
apast
ate:

Di
rectpol
i
tical
int
erf
erencebyPor
tuguesei
ntheMut
apast
ate

Page68of68
 Thei
ntr
oduct
ionofChr
ist
iani
ty

Weakpol
i
tical
leader
sint
heMut
apast
ate

Successi
ondi
sput
es

TheMut
apast
atenowt
oobi
gtobecont
rol
l
edbyt
heMut
apa

I
nfl
uenceofSwahi
l
i/Ar
abs

[
Nov2005]

47.[
a].
Listanysixcr
opst
hatwer
egr
owni
nthepr
azosi
ntheZambeziv
all
eyf
rom
th
the16 cent ur
y.
[
6]

Sorghum,Mil
let
,Mai
ze,
Beans,
Squash,
Mel
ons,
Pepper
,Cassav
a,Ri
ce,
Sugar
cane,Cof
fee

[b]
.Descr
ibet
hedev
elopmentoft
hepr
azosy
stem i
ntheZambeziv
all
eyi
nthe16th
and17thcent
ury
. [11]

Pr
azosy
stem:

Pr
azohol
der
scal
l
edpr
azer
os/
senhor
s

SomePor tuguesegotl
andfr
om weakMut
apasasr
ewar
dforhel
pingt
hem i
n
successi
ondi sput
esandci
vi
lwars.

MutapaNogomogav
ePor
tuguesecapt
ainl
andont
heZambezi
val
l
eybef
ore
deat
hin1589

Gatsi
Ruseregavelandt
oTetetr
aderDiogoMadei
rai
n1607.
Becamea
powerful
sett
lerwi
th4000Achi
kundas
Mamv ur
awasaPor tuguesepuppetandwasfor
cedtogiv
ehiswhole
ki
ngdom toPor
tuguesecrownin1629asprizef
orPort
uguesehel
p.

Rul
erofUtev
egav
elar
gear
east
oDi
asBay
ao-
areast
ret
chedf
rom Pungwet
o
Zambezi

Port
ugueseconfi
rmedprazosystem bygivi
ngoff
ici
all
andt
itl
estoindi
vi
dual
pr
azeros.Por
tuguesewantedprazerostobecent
resofPor
tuguese
ci
vi
li
sati
onandcommer cialagr
icul
ture

Tr
adi
ti
onal
pat
ter
nofshi
ft
ingagr
icul
tur
ewaspr
act
ised

Ther
ewasl
i
mit
eduseofl
andandl
owout
put

Theycul
ti
vat
edsor
ghum,
mil
l
etmai
ze,
etc

Coff
eegrewwi
l
dinf
orest
sandwasusedt
opayt
ri
but
ebyt
heAf
ri
can
popul
ati
on

Gol
d,copperandi
ronmi
nedandexpor
tedbypr
azer
os

Page69of69
 Sl
avesal
soexpor
tedt
oBr
azi
l

Por
tuguesef
ail
edt
oest
abl
i
shat
hri
vi
ngeconomy

Af
ri
cani
sat
ionoft
heEur
opeani
nst
it
uti
ons

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dtheShonapeopl
ebenef
itf
rom t
hePr
azosy
stem? [
8]

[
i]
Benef
it
s:

I
ntr
oduct
ionofnewcr
ops-
mai
zeet
c

Newmat
eri
alse,
gcl
oth,
beads,
etc

Many
ikacopi
edPor
tuguesewor
dsl
i
ke“
Wada’
’

Ver
yfewAf
ri
cansbecameChr
ist
ians

[
ii
].
Negat
iveef
fect
s:

Chr
ist
iani
tybr
oughtdi
vi
sionsamongShona

Pr osusedAchi
azer kundast
orai
dAf
ri
canki
ngdomsf
orsl
aves

Prazer
osparti
cipat
edi
nci
vi
lwar
sandsuccessi
ondi
sput
esi
ntheMut
apaand
causedinst
abi
li
ty

Lossofl
and

Lossofpol
i
tical
power

Dest
ruct
ionofAf
ri
cancul
tur
e

AbuseofAf
ri
canwomen

[
June2006]

48[a]
.St
ateanysi
xreasonsforthePort
uguesepenetr
ati
onint
othear
eabet
ween
t
h
theZambeziandLi
mpopor i
versduri
ngthe16 centur
ies.
[
6]

Cont
rol
tradei
ngol
dandi
vor
ywi
thAf
ri
canChi
efs

Tov
eri
fyr
umour
sofki
ngSol
omon’
smi
nes.

Tospr
eadChr
ist
iani
tyanddi
spl
aceI
slami
crel
i
gion

Tol
ookf
ort
hel
egendar
y[Pr
est
erJohn]

Tor
evengemur
derofGoncal
odaSi
l
vei
ra

Tocr
eat
epr
azos

Tocol
oni
set
hei
nter
ior

[
b].
Out
li
nePor
tuguesepenet
rat
ioni
ntot
hear
eabet
weent
heZambeziandLi
mpopo

Page70of70
r
iver
sdur
i he16thand17thcent
ngt uri
es. [
11]
.

Missi
onar
yGoncalodaSilv
eir
areachedChi
takoChangony
o[mtFur
a]dur
ing
MutapaNogomo’srei
gn.Conver
tedNogomo, wi
feand500Shona.
Kil
l
edand
t
hrownint
oMsengeziriv
er

Mi
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
onsdespat
chedt
orev
engeSi
l
vei
ra’
sdeat
h

Franci
scoBar
ret
o’sexpedi
ti
onof1569f
ail
edduet
onaganaf
ever
.Li
tt
lef
ood
suppli
es

Expedi
ti
onofVascoFer
nadezHomen1574al
sof
ail
ed

Por
tuguesesentf
orcest
ohel
pGat
siRuser
einsuccessi
ondi
sput
es

Bocarr
o’sj
our
ney
[1616]i
nsear
chofsi
l
vermi
nes-
didnotf
indv
aluabl
esi
l
ver
deposi
ts

JoaodosSantosaDomi
nicanpr
iestcameaf
terdaSi
l
vei
rat
oZambezi
Vall
ey.
Spent10year
s

Jesui
tscamei
n1607-expandedbey
ondZambezi
Val
l
eyi
ntot
hei
nter
ior

Al
l
iancesy
stem wi
thRuser
eandMamv
ura

Penet
rat
ionofFer
nadez

Buil
tFei
rasatDambar
are,
Masapa,
LuanzeandMasequesewher
ePor
tuguese
tr
adersset
tl
ed

Por
tuguesepri
estsv
isi
tedisol
atedchur
chesofMashonal
andandMani
cal
and
tomini
stert
ofoll
owersandfoundedsmallschool
s

d17th–aPor
Mi tuguesedel
egat
iont
otheKi
ngdom ofBut
ua/
Rozv
iSt
ate

Rozv
iMambochoset
odeal
wit
hPor
tuguesev
iaVashambadzi

Pr
azosy
stem

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dPor
tuguesei
nfl
uencecont
ri
but
etot
hedecl
ineoft
heRozv
i
St
ate?

Li
ttl
eim pactmil
i
tar
il
y.Rozv
iact
uall
ydrov
ethePor
tuguesef
rom pl
ateau.
Rozvii
ndir
ectl
ytr
adedwithPort
uguese

Rozv
idecl
inedmainl
yduetointernalpr
obl
emsandext
ernal
fact
ors.I
nter
nal
-
dr
ought
,successi
ondisput
es,decli
neingol
dmini
ng

Ext
ernalf
act
ors-decl
i
neint
radewit
hPor
tugueseasgol
dmi
ningdecl
i
ned.
goodstoRozviwereofl
owerval
ue

At
tackbyMf
ecanegr
oupsegNgoni
,
Ndebel
e,et
c

Por
tuguesei
nci
tedv
assal
Chi
efst
orebel

Page71of71
 [
Nov2006]

49[a]
.Nameanysi
xPor
tuguesenati
onal
swhopenet
rat
edt
heZi
mbabweanpl
ateau
t
h t
h
bet
weenthe16 and17 centur
ies. [
6].

AntonioFernadez
,GoncalodaSil
vei
ra, Fr
anci
scoBar
ret
o,VascoHomen,
DiogoMadei r
a,Miguel
Fernandez
,AntonioCai
ada,
GasperBocar
ro,
Joaodos
Santos,Di
agodeMenesi s,
DonaKatarina

[
b].
Outl
inet
hePoli
ti
calandsocial
acti
vit
iesoft
hePor
tuguesei
ntheZi
mbabwean
t
h t
h
Pl
ateaudur
ingt
he16 and17 cent ur
ies.
[
11]

[
i]Soci
al

TheJesui
tsFat
herGoncal
odaSilv
eir
avisit
edMut apaNegomoconv
ert
edhi
m,
hi
swifeand500other
s.Murder
edattheinsti
gat
ionofMoslems

ADominicanpri
estcal
l
edJoaodosSant
osspent10y
ear
sinZambezi
Regi
on
af
terSi
l
veira’
sdeath

Missionar
yworkspreadwidel
yaf
ter1627whenPor
tugueseassi
steda
convertofther
oyal
famil
ycall
edMamv urat
obecomeMut apa

Heencour
agedMi
ssi
onar
ywor
k

Af ewpr i
estscamet oi
sol
atedchurchesofMashonal
andandManical
and,
preachingandr unni
ngsmallschool
s.SonsofMut
apaandSeni
orChiefssent
tolargerschoolsatSenaandTeteorTheologi
cal
Coll
egeatMozambique
I
sland

Abuseofwomen

Pr
act
isedsl
aver
y

Degr
adadosegAnt
oni
oFer
nandezmar
ri
edAf
ri
canwi
ves

[
ii
]Pol
i
tical

Deat
hofSi
l
vei
rapr
ovokedmi
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
ons

Par
ti
cipat
edi
nci
vi
lwar
s

1569expedi
ti
onunderFr
anci
scoBar
ret
o

Rai
sedpr
ivat
ear
mies

1574-
expedi
ti
onunderVascoFer
nandezHomen

Ref
usedt
opayt
ri
but
e

I
nter
fer
edi
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
es.
e,
gAssi
stedGat
siRuser
etopoweri
n1596

Pr
azosbecamei
ndependentchi
efsanddi
dpayt
ri
but
ebutr
efusedl
att
er

Page72of72
 Al
sohel
pedMamv
urat
opoweri
n1628

Chi
efsbecamepuppet
sofPor
tuguese

[
c].
DidthePoli
ti
calact
ivi
ti
esofthePort
uguesecont
ri
but
etot
hedecl
ineoft
hei
r
i
nfl
uenceintheregi
on?Explai
nyouranswer.
[
8]

Par
ti
cipat
ioni
nci
vi
lwar
s

Successi
ondi
sput
es

Sl
aver
yandsl
avet
rade

Ref
usedt
opaycur
va

AbuseofAf
ri
canwomen

Pr
azosy
stem

Pr
azer
osr
ebel
l
edagai
nstpor
taut
hor
it
y

Ledtoincreaseofinf
luenceofPort
ugueseintheMutapaStat
easthey
i
nterf
eredinsuccessiondisput
esandinst
all
edpuppetMutapas.
Thi
sledt
o
them unpopularandl
edt othei
rul
ti
mateexpulsi
on

Tookl
and

Gotl
andconcessi
ont
ocr
eat
epr
azos

Pol
i
tical
def
eat
sinRozv
iSt
ate

Poli
ti
calacti
vit
iespar
tl
ycont
ri
but
edt
othedecl
i
neofPor
tuguesei
nfl
uenceas
Rozvidr
ov ethem away

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Ri
seofst
rongandpower
ful
leader
soft
heMut
apaegMukumbi
re

Rev
ival
ofMut
apaaut
hor
it
y

Decl
i
nei
ngol
dtr
ade

[
Nov2007]

50[
a].Nameanysi
xrul
ersoft
heMut
apaSt
atewhohadcont
actwi
tht
he
Por
tuguese[
6]

Chi
kuy
oChi
samar
engu[
a.k.
aKakuy
okoMuny
aka]

NenshangweMunembi
re[
nephewofChi
kuy
o]

Chi
vher
eNy
asor
o[sonofChi
kuy
o]

NegondoMapunz
agut
u[a.
k.aChi
ri
samhur
uorSebast
ian]
[1543-
1589]

Page73of73
 Ny
amboKapar
ari
dze[
sonofGat
siRuser
e][
1623-
29]

Gat
siRuser
e[succeededNegomo]

Mamv
ura[
a.k.
aFel
i
peorMav
uraMhande]
[1580s-
1652]

Mukombwe[
Kamhar
apasuMukobwe{
Alf
onso}
]

Ny
akunembi
re

Chi
oko

Dambamut
upe

Mut
apaMukombo

[
b].
Descri
betheatt
emptsbythePor
tugueset
ogaincont
roloft
hegol
dtr
adewi
th
t
h th
t
heMut apaStat
eduri
ngthe16 and17 cent
uri
es.
[
11]

1505Port
uguesecapt
uredcoast
alt
ownofSof
alawhi
chwast
heout
letf
or
Shonaexpor
ts.Thi
ssever
edthegol
dtr
ade

1507Port
ugueset
ookcont
rol
ofMozambi
queI
slandasgat
ewayt
othe
i
nter
ior

1511-15Port
uguesesentAntoni
oFer
nandez–toBarwe,
Manyika,
Dande,
Guruuswa,Mbir
e,Harar
e,Chegut
utolocat
ethesour
ceofgol
d

1530Port
ugueseest
abl
i
shedt
r ngFei
adi rasatTeteandSenaontheZambezi
ri
ver
.al
soopenedsomeatDambarar
e,Masekesa,
Massapa,
Luanze,
Baccut
o

Dr
ivi
ngawayoft
heSwahi
l
i

1560-
61Por
tugueseCathol
icpr
iestGoncal
odaSi
l
vei
raconv
ert
edt
heMut
apa
[
Negomo]andcourtoff
ici
als

1569-71PortuguesearmiesunderBar
retosentt
oavengeSil
veir
a’sdeat
hand
totakecontr
ol ofgol
dtrade.
Expedi
ti
onfail
edduetoMalari
a,Shona
resi
stanceandnaganaaswel lasBarr
eto’
sdeathatSena

Anot
herpuni
ti
vemissi
onunderVascoFer
nandezHomen-conquer
edMany
ika
andUtev
ebutfoundli
tt
legol
d

Port
uguesesi
gnedatreat
ywi
thGat
siRuser
ein1607,
giv
enl
andandmi
ning
ri
ght
s,tr
adeconcessi
ons

Por
tuguesedef
eat
edKapar
ari
dzein1628,
concl
udedt
reat
ywi
thMav
ura-
1632
-
giv
entradi
ngandmini
ngconcessi
ons

[
c].
Towhatextentwer
ether
uler
soft
heMut
apaSt
ateabl
etor
esi
stt
heseat
tempt
s
i
ntheper
iod?
[
8]

[
i]Resi
stancet
oPor
tugueseat
tempt
s/Success:

Page74of74
 Mur
derofSi
l
vei
rai
n1561-
preci
pit
atedr
epudi
ati
onofChr
ist
iani
ty

Lackofco-
oper
ati
onl
edt
ofai
l
ureofBar
ret
o’sexpedi
ti
on

Homen-af
terconquer
ingMany
ikaandUt
evewasshownonl
ywor
kedout
mines

[
ii
]Fai
l
uret
oresi
stPor
tuguese:

1607-Por
tugueset
reat
ywi
thGat
siRuser
egr
ant
edt
hem l
and,
tradi
ngr
ight
s,
ri
ghtstominegold

Alsoattemptst
odriv
eoutthePor
tuguesebyMut
apaKapar
ari
dzel
edt
othe
defeatofKapar
ari
dzein1628

1632Tr
eat
ywi
thMav
uraMhandemadeMut
apa–v
assal
ofPor
tugal

Tr
eat
ygav
ePor
tuguesecompl
etef
reedom t
omi
ne,
preachandt
rade

[
Nov2008]

51[a]
.Nameanythr
eePor
tuguesepr
azer
osandanyt
hreet
radi
ngpost
sint
he
ZambeziVal
ley
.
[
6]

[
i]Pr
azer
os

Vi
ncenteJoseRiber
o,Manuel
Antoniodesouse,kuvhey
a,DiogoSimoes
Madei
ra,Si
snandoDiasBay
ao,Rodr
igoLobo,
Matakenya,DonaKatar
ina

[
ii
]Post
s

Luanze,
Tet
e,Sena,
Dambar
are,
Massapa,
Zumbo,
Many
ika,
Mat
ekeny
a,Mukut
o

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hePr
azosy
stem i
ntheZambeziVal
ley
. [
11]

Ori
ginalprazosPort
uguesemen[
someofI
ndi
anor
igi
n]gi
venl
andasr
ewar
ds
ofmili
taryservi
ce

Gai
nedcont
rol
ofl
owerZambezi
thr
ought
reat
iesorf
orce

‘
Owned’gol
dmi nesnearZambezi
riv
erandl
andal
ongsout
hbankf
rom Tet
e
downtheri
ver

Por
tuguesedi
vi
dedl
andi
ntopr
azos[
est
ates]sanhos/
mazungu/
lor
ds

Prazosgiventosett
lerowner
scal
l
edpr
azer
osPor
tuguesegr
ewdagga,
tobacco,
riceonprazos

Sl
aver
ybeganonpr
azosandmi
nes

Tr
ust
edsl
avesr
ecr
uit
edi
ntoper
sonal
armi
esofpr
azer Achi
os[ kundas]
Ar
miesusedt
orai
dchi
efst
ocapt
urel
andswi
thmi
ner
als

Tr
adedwi
thandr
aidedAf
ri
cannei
ghbour
s

Page75of75
 Mal
esl
avesusedassol
dier
sandf
emal
esl
avesascul
ti
vat
ors/
concubi
nes

Pr
azer
osbecameAf
ri
canchi
efsdemandi
ngt
ri
but
efr
om peopl
eont
hei
rlands

Or
igi
nal
Eur
opeans/
Asi
anpr
azer
os

Suppl
ant
edbyMul
l
atos/
Eur
afr
icanchi
l
drenaspr
azochi
efs

MostEur
afr
icanpr
azer
oswer
ewomencal
l
ed“
blackdonnas”

Por
tugueseusedol
dfeudal
lawst
ogov
ernpr
azos

Por
tugueseper
for
medr
it
ual
sandwer
econsul
tedbyAf
ri
cans

[
c].
Towhatextentdi
dthepr
azosy
stem cont
ri
but
etot
hegr
owt
hofsl
aver
yint
he
ZambeziVal
ley
?

[
i]
.Cont
ri
but
ionofPr
azosy
stem i
ngr
owt
hofsl
aver
y

Gr
owthofpl
antat
ionssuchasZambezi
prazos[
ri
ce,dagga,
tobaccoet
c]
whi
chdemandedincr
easingnumber
ssl
avelabour
ers

Mi
ningact
ivi
ti
esofgol
dinpr
azosr
equi
redsl
avel
abour

Needf
orsl
avear
mi Achi
es[ kundas]
Por
tuguesesuper
ior
it
ycompl
exl
edt
othegr
owt
hofsl
aves

[
ii
].
OtherFact
ors:

Theinst
it
uti
onofdomest
icslav
eryal
soexi
stedi
npr
e-col
oni
alsout
her
n
Afr
icanStat
ese,
gMutapaState

Warcapt
ivesbecamedomest
icsl
aves

Cr
imi
nal
sandwi
tchesal
sot
reat
edasdomest
icsl
avesbef
orepr
azosy
stem

I
vor
ytr
ader
equi
redsl
avel
abourt
ofer
ryi
vor
ytot
het
radepost
sandcoast

[
Nov2009]

52[
a].Nameanysi
xtr
adi
ngtownsest
abl
ishedbyt
hePor
tuguesei
ntheZambezi
t
h
Val
leyuptot
he18 cent
ury
. [
6]

Tet
e,Massapa

Sena,
Luanze

Masekesa,
Dambar
are

Chi
coa,
Buccut
o/Bukut
o,Zumbo

[
b].
Descr
ibether
elat
ionsbet
weent
heMut
apaSt
ateandt
hePor
tugueseupt
othe
t
h
18 cent
ury.
[
11]

Page76of76
Mut
apa-
Por
tugueser
elat
ions:

Trade–exchangegoodsegcl
oth,
guns,
alcohol
,tobaccof
orgol
d,i
vor
y,
animalski
ns

Est
abl
i
shmentoft
radi
ngcent
res

Por
tuguesepai
dcur
vat
otheMut
apa

Chr
isti
ani
ty–G.daSil
vei
racamein1560tospr
eadthewordofGod,some
l
ocalsbapt
isedincl
udi
ngthebutt
hisendedwi
tht
hekil
li
ngofSil
vei
rain1561

Mar
ryi
ngandr
api
ngofAf
ri
canwomen

War;Por
tuguesesentanarmyunderF.
Barr
etoandV.Homentoav engethe
ki
l
li
ngofSilvei
ra-Thei
nvasi
onwasunsuccessf
ul[
Fer
nandezexpediti
ons]

Poli
ti
cali
nter
fer
ence:t
hePortugueset ookadvantageofsuccessiondi
sput
es
toal
ignthemsel
veswithsomel eaders.Foregtheyhel
pedGat siRuser
eand
Mavuratobecomekings.Thi
scausedt hesel
eaderstodependentonthe
Port
uguese.ThePort
ugueseinr et
urnwer egi
venlandandmi nes

Por
tuguesecont
rol
l
edmostt
radi
ngact
ivi
ti
es

Demandf
ort
ri
but
ebyt
hePor
tuguese

Por
tuguesenol
ongerr
espect
edt
heMut
apa

Or
dinar
ypeopl
efor
cedt
owor
kforPor
tuguesei
nthei
rpr
azos.

Achi
kundasusedf
orr
aidi
ngsl
aves

I
n1663Mukombwemadeaneff
ortt
orev
ivet
hepoweroft
heMut apawith
t
hehelpoft
heRozv
i.
TheMut
apawasabl
etodri
vet
hePort
uguesefrom t
he
Hi
ghvel
d.

[
c].
Towhatextentwasmi
li
tar
ypoweri
mpor
tanti
nPor
tuguesecont
roloft
he
MutapaSt
ate? [
8]

[
i]
.I
mpor
tanceofmi
l
itar
ypower
.

Por
tugueseusedgunst
oinst
ilf
ear

Mi
l
itar
ypowerweakenedt
heMut
apast
atei
nthe1570S

Abl
etocont
rol
chi
efsi
ntheZambezi
val
l
ey

Usedt
orai
dformanpower
/sl
aves

Usedf
orpr
otect
ionf
rom at
tacks

[
ii
].
Otheri
mpor
tantf
act
ors:

Chr
ist
iani
tyusedt
ogai
ninf
luenceont
heMut
apa

Weakl
eader
swhoaskedf
orPor
tuguesehel
pdur
ingsuccessi
ondi
sput
esand

Page77of77
 becamepuppet
s

St
atewast
oobi
g,soPor
tuguesewer
eabl
etocont
rol
dist
antchi
efdoms

Por
tuguesemonopol
i
sedt
rade

Pr
azosy
st eChi
em wher kundawer
ekept
Por
tuguesenowgott
ri
but
e[cur
va]
(
Nov2010)

53.
(a)
.Nameanysi
xPor
tugueset
radi
ngpost
s(f
eir
as)i
ntheMut
apast
ate. (
6)

Massapa,
Bukut
u,Dambar
are.

Zumbo,
Mar
amuca\
Remuka

Chi
rambor
uwi
zi
,Luaze,
Masekesa,

Sena,
Tet
e,

(
b).
Out
li
net
het
ermsoft
heal
li
ancesbet
weent
hePor
tugueseand

(
i)Mut
apaGat
siRuser
e,

(
ii
)Mut
apaMmv
ura. (
11)

(
i)
.

Por
tuguesehel
pedRuser
etoachi
evet
het
hronei
n1596

Banni
ngofMusl
i
m

Port
uguesetoRuser
eagainstat
tacksf
rom t
heMar
avi
kingdom andt
o
suppr
essrebel
l
ionswit
hinthest
ate.

Ruser
einr
etur
n,gav
ethePor
tugueset
her
ightt
omi
negol
dandt
otakel
and

Por
tugueset
otaket
hehei
randf
oll
ower
sfort
rai
ningi
nIndi
a

Por
tugueset
otr
adef
reel
y

(
ii
)

Port
uguesehelpedMamv
urat
othet
hronei
n1629af
terdef
eat
inghi
sri
val
Kaparar
idzei
n1628

Mamv
uramadel
andgr
ant
stot
hePor
tuguese

Por
tugueseal
l
owedt
otr
adef
reel
yint
heMut
apast
ate

Por
tuguesemissionar
ieswer
eal
l
owedt
obui
l
tchur
chesandt
opr
each
wherev
ertheyl
iked

TheCaptai
nofMassapawasgi
venaut
hor
it
yov
erev
ery
onei
nthear
ea-
black
andwhit
e

Page78of78
 ThePor
tuguesewoul
dmai
ntai
nMamv
uraont
het
hrone

Openi
ngofschool
s,Por
tuguesedemandedt
ri
but
efr
om Mamv
ura.

(
c).
Didt
heal
li
ancesbenef
itt
hepeopl
eoft
heMut
apast
ate?(
8)

Benef
it
s

Pr
otect
ionf
rom ext
ernal
att
acks

Tempor
arypeace

Por
tuguesegoodsf
rom t
rade

Pr
otect
ionf
rom i
nter
nal
att
acks

Li
ter
acy

Spr
eadofChr
ist
iani
ty

Non-
Benef
it
s

Lossofcat
tl
e

Lossofl
and

Er
osi
onofcul
tur
ee,
gspr
eadofChr
ist
iani
ty.

For
cedl
abourandsl
aver
y

For
cedpay
mentoft
ri
but
etot
hePor
tuguese

Lossofi
dent
it
y

Lossofr
esour
cesl
i
keGol
d

Lossofpol
i
tical
independence

[
June2011]

54[
a]Li
stanysixt
radeit
emsbroughtbyt
hePor
tuguesei
ntot
heMut
apaSt
ate
t
h t
h
dur
ingt
he16 and17 centur
ies.

Guns,
Clot
h,Gl
assbeads

Kni
ves,
Mai
zeseed,
Alcohol

Cowr
ieshel
l
s,Sugar
,Chi
nawar
e

Tobacco,
Jewel
l
ery
,Fr
uit
se,
gmangoes,
guav
as

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heeconomicandsoci
alact
ivi
ti
esoft
hePor
tuguesei
ntheMutapa
St
atedur
ingt
hisper
iod. [
11]

Economi
cact
ivi
ti
es

Cr
edi
tsy
stem,
creat
ionoft
hepr
azoes

Page79of79
 Keepi
ngl
i
vest
ock,
grewcr
ops,
e,gmai
zeandpr
act
isedcr
opr
otat
ion

Col
l
ect
edt
ri
but
efr
om t
heMut
apaandhi
speopl
e

Mi
ning,
especi
all
ygol
d

Pr
act
isedf
orcedl
abour
,hunt
ingel
ephant
sfori
vor
y

Tr
adewi
tht
hel
ocal
sthr
ought
heVashambadzi
agent
s

Pr
act
isedsl
aver
yandsl
avet
rade

Fi
shi
ng,
est
abl
i
shedf
eir
as

Soci
alact
ivi
ti
es

Spr
eadofChr
ist
iani
ty,
AbuseofAf
ri
canwomenr
esul
ti
ngi
nthebi
rt
hof
Mulat
oes(
Por
tuguesecol
our
eds)

Pr
ivat
efar
msi
nwhi
cht
heyi
l
ltr
eat
edAf
ri
cans

Di
srupti
onofAf
ri
cancul
tur
e,Por
tugueseper
for
medAf
ri
canr
it
ual
se,
grai
n
makingcer
emonies

Openedsmal
lschool
sforchi
l
drenofRoy
alf
ami
l
ies

Mar
ri
edAf
ri
canwomen,
e,gAnt
oni
oFer
nades

Pr
act
isedsl
aver
y,of
err
edmedi
cal
ser
vices

[
c].
Towhatextentdi
dthepeopl
eoftheMut
apaSt
atebenef
itf
rom t
he
Port
ugueseact
ivi
ti
esduri
ngthi
speri
od?

Posi
ti
veef
fect
s

I
ntr
oducednewf
armi
ngandmi
ningmet
hods

Newcr
opswer
eal
soi
ntr
oducede,
gmai
zer
ice

Recei
vedgunst
hrought
rade,
someAf
ri
cansbecameChr
ist
ians

Af
ricansbenef
it
edi
nfor
m ofnewgoodssuchascl
othes,
jewel
l
ery
,cer
emi
cs
et
cf r
om tr
ade

Chi
efsandmi
ddl
emenbenef
it
edf
rom sl
avet
rade,
educat
ion,
heal
thser
vices,
employ
ment

Negat
iveef
fect
s

Af
ri
cancul
tur
ewasdi
srupt
ed/
dist
ort
edt
hroughChr
ist
iani
ty

Afr
icansl
ostt
hei
rland,
Por
tuguesei
nfl
uencedci
vi
lwar
s,t
heyal
sor
efusedt
o
paycurva

Por
tugueseunder
minedAf
ri
canaut
hor
it
iesandobt
ainedl
andbyf
orce

Page80of80
 Tr
adebet
weenPor
tugueseandAf
ri
canswasunf
air

Af
ri
canr
esur
cesdepl
eted,
abuseofAf
ri
canwomen

Af
ri
canswer
eengagedi
nfor
cedl
abour
,impr
isoned,
il
lt
reat
ed

[
Nov2011]

55[
a].
Listanysi
xdut
iesoft
heCapt
ainoft
heGat
esi
ntheMut
apast
ate.[
6]

Ensur
edthatthePor
tugueseobey
edt
heMut
apaKi
ngbyensur
ingt
hatt
he
Port
uguesepaidt
ri
bute

Super
visedpay
ingoft
axesonPor
tuguesegoods

Adv
isedt
heMut
apaki
ngonmat
ter
sconcer
ningt
hePor
tuguese

I
nfor
medt
hePor
tuguesegov
ernmentonact
ivi
tesi
ntheMut
apaSt
ate

Cont
rol
l
edt
radebet
weent
hePor
tugueseandt
heMut
apaSt
ate

Li
nkedt
hePor
tugueseandt
heMut
apa

Ser
vedasani
nter
pret
er

Repr
esent
edt
hePor
tugueseGov
ernmenti
ntheMut
apa

Set
tl
eddi
sput
esbet
weenPor
tugueseandAf
ri
cans

Handi
ngov
ergi
ft
sfr
om Por
tuguesegov
ernmentt
otheMut
apa

[
b].Out
li
net
hemet
hodsusedbyt
hePor
tugueset
ogai
ncont
roloft
heMut
apa
st
ate[11]

Di
spl
acedAr
abt
rader
s

For
cedt
heki
ngt
oexpel
theSwahi
l
i

Est
abl
i
shedt
radepost
sint
heMut
apaSt
ate

Tookcont
rol
oft
radei
ntheMut
apaSt
ate

Cont
rol
l
edmi
ningusi
ngf
orcedl
abour

I
ntr
toducedcr
edi
tsy
stem

Conv
ert
edMut
apaGat
siRuser
eandsomeofhi
ssubj
ect
s

Encour
agedandi
nter
venedi
nci
vi
lwar
s

Mut
apasonssentt
oGoai
nIndi
a

Useofbr
utal
i
ty

Page81of81
 Hel
pedRuser
etof
ightMar
ava

I
nvol
vedi
nsl
avet
radeandsl
aver
y

Adopt
ionofMut
apar
eli
gion

Tookov
ert
her
oleofr
eli
giousl
eader
s

Hel
pedt
oinst
alv
assal
chi
efs

Si
gnedt
reat
iesandconcessi
ons

Cr
eat
edpr
ivat
ear
miesi
,
eChi
kundasy
stem

Est
abl
i
shedpr
ivat
epr
isons

Tookl
argear
easofl
andf
rom Af
ri
cans

Tookov
eradmi
nist
rat
ivedut
iesi
ntheMut
apast
ate

Lat
terr
efusedt
opayt
axes

UseofPor
tuguesenames

Mar
ri
edMut
apawomen

For
cedMut
apat
opayt
ri
but
e

For
cedl
abour
.

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dthesemet
hodscont
ri
but
etot
hef
alloft
heMut
apaSt
ate?[
8]

Cont
ri
but
ionofPor
tuguesmet
hods

Lef
tShonawi
thoutenoughl
and

Causeddecl
i
nei
ngol
dtr
ade

Mut
apa’
sweal
thdecl
i
ned

Encour
agedci
vi
lwar
swhi
chcauseddi
vi
sionsanddeat
hs

Cr
eat
edpuppetl
eader
swhower
enotr
espect
edbymostoft
hei
rsubj
ect
s

Sl
averypr
ohibi
tedAf
ri
cansf
rom engagi
ngi
nthei
rowneconomi
cact
ivi
ti
est
o
cr
eatewealt
h

Chr
ist
iani
tycauseddi
vi
sionsi
nthest
ate

Cont
ri
but
ionofot
herf
act
ors

I
nfl
uenceofI
slam

Ri
seoft
heRozv
i

Depl
eti
onofnat
ural
resour
ces

Page82of82
 Successi
ondi
sput
esi
ntheMut
apaSt
ate

Nguni
incur
sions

Di
suni
tyamongMut
apapeopl
e

Lossoft
radi
ti
onal
aut
hor
it
y

WeaknessofMut
apal
eader
s

Dr
ought
s

Di
seases

Zi
mbaandMar
avi
att
acks

Vast
nessoft
heSt
atemi
l
itat
edagai
nstef
fect
ivecont
rol

Ci
vi
lwar
s

Mi
ssi
onar
iesi
nZi
mbabwe
[
Speci
men]

56[a]
.Li
stanysi
xpr
obl
emsf
acedbymi
ssi
onar
iesi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and
1900.[6]

Di
seases

Poort
ranspor
tandcommuni
cat
ion

Opposi
ti
onofAf
ri
canl
eader
s

Opposi
ti
onofMosl
ems/
Swahi
l
i

Languagebar
ri
er

Tr
adi
ti
onal
rel
i
gion

Foodsuppl
i
eswer
escar
ce

[
b].
Descr
ibethewor
kofmi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
ionswhi
choper
atedi
nZi
mbabwe
1850and1900. [11]

Londonmissi
onar
ysoci
etycamet
oMat
abel
elandaf
tersomeear
li
ercont
act
s
southofLi
mpopo

1859J.
S.Mof
fatest
abl
i
shedami
ssi
onatI
nyat
hi

Openedachur
chandaschool
toconv
ertandt
eacht
heNdebel
eSoci
ety

1870LMSopenedanot
herst
ati
onatHopeFount
ainf
ort
hesamepur
poses

Missi
onari
esi
nvol
vedbesi
desMof
fatwer
eThompson,
Sykes,
Char
lesHel
m
andDavidCar
negi
e

Page83of83
 1882t
heRomanCat hol
icscametoMat
abel
elandwhent
heJesui
tsopened
Empandeni
underf
atherBart
hol
omewknoot

1879acat
hol
i
cmi
ssi
onwasest
abl
i
shedbyFrLawatMzi
l
abuti
tlat
erf
ail
ed

1891theAngli
canChurchledbyKnightBr
ucecamet
oMashonal
and.Thei
r
fi
rstmissi
onstat
ionatStAugust
ines

Lat
ert
heJesui
tsest
abl
i
shedami
ssi
onatChi
shawasha

TheAmeri
canBoardofthechur
chofChri
stcametoEast
ernZi
mbabweand
openedamissi
onstat
ionatMtSel
i
nda[Chi
ri
nda]

Ot
hermissi
onar
ygr
oupswhocamewer
etheMet
hodi
sts,
whoseear
li
est
mi
ssionwasOldMut
are.

Between1860and1890mi ssionari
esr
epresent
ingtheDRC,Par
isEv
angel
i
cal
Missi
onandtheBerl
i
nMi ssionarySoci
etytowork,e,
gtheDRCwaswell
repr
esent
edintheMasvi
ngoar ea.

Mainactiv
iti
esofthemi ssionar
iesincludedconversi
ontoChri
sti
ani
ty,
educati
on[3Rs],t
ransl
ations,medicine,techni
cal
wor k,
mediat
ingbet
ween
Afr
icansandotherEuropeans.

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dthemi
ssi
onar
iessucceedi
nthei
rwor
kint
hisper
iod?
[8]

Educati
ondev
elopedi
nar
easwher
etheAf
ri
cansoci
etywasnott
ight
ly
contr
oll
ed

I
nMatabel
elandmissi
onari
esonl
ymadi
n-r
oadsaf
terLobengul
awascr
ushed
i
nthe1893Anglo-
Ndebelewar

Ast
echni
cianst
heydi
dmuchev
eni
nMat
abel
eland,
e,
grepai
rguns.

Atf
ir
stf
ewAf
ri
cansaccept
edChr
ist
iani
ty,
bet
terr
ecept
ioni
nMashonal
and

Manyhospi
tal
swereopenedandser
vedAf
ri
canswhower
ethensi
del
i
nedby
t
heGovernmentaf
ter1890.

ManyAf
ri
cansremainedscept
ical
oft
hemi
ssi
onar
iesandi
nsomear
east
hey
madenoprogr
ess.

InMatabel
elandt
heyt
ookt
hei
rrol
easl
inkpeopl
ewi
thotherEur
opeanstoan
extr
eme.Theybecamemai
nagent
sint
heplotst
odi
slodgetheNdebel
eand
occupyZimbabwe.

[
Nov2003]

57.[
a].
Listanysi
xai
msofmi
ssi
onar
ieswhocamei
ntoZi
mbabwebet
ween1850
and1900.[6]

Tospr
eadChr
ist
iani
ty

Topr
omot
elegi
ti
mat
etr
ade

Page84of84
 Toendsl
aver
y,endci
vi
lwar
s

Toci
vi
li
set
hel
ocal
peopl
e

Tot
eachpeopl
etor
eadandwr
it
e

Topr
omot
eEur
opeanr
ule

Tot
eachnewf
armi
ngmet
hods,
newski
l
lse,
gcar
pent
ry

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heact
ivi
ti
esoft
hemi
ssi
onar
iesi
nachi
evi
ngt
hei
rai
ms? [
11]

TheLondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
etyest
abl
i
shedI
nyat
hiMi
ssi
oni
n1859l
edbyJ.
s
Moff
at

I
n1870LMSopenedanot
hermi
ssi
onatHopeFount
ain

Att
hemi
ssi
onst
hemi
ssi
onar
iest
aughtandpr
eachedt
hegospel

Booksi
nNdebel
ewer
epr
int
ed

Theygr
ewf
oodcr
ops

TheRomanCat
hol
i
cChur
chal
soopenedmi
ssi
onsatEmpandeni
near
Bul
awayo

Afr
icanev angel
i
stsandcatechist
sfrom TransvaalandLesot
hosent
missionari
estoMashonalande,gtheDutchRef ormedChurch,Ber
li
n
MissionarySoci
etyandtheParisEvangel
icalMission.Somepermanent
missionstati
onswereestabl
ishede,gatChivi,
Mat ibe,
Mposi
.AtChivii
twas
shortli
ved.

Angl
icanchur
chest
abl
i
shedt
heDi
oceseofMashonal
andi
n1882l
edby
Kni
ghtBruce

After1890somestati
onswer eest
abli
shedalongtheeast
ernborders:
Mt
Chiri
ndaMutambaraMi ssion,
MaryMount,StAugusti
nes,
Ny anga[Mari
st
Brother
s]Missi
ons,
Regi naCoelMissi
on.

[
c].
Howsuccessf
ulwer
ethesemi
ssi
onar
iesi
nachi
evi
ngt
hei
rai
ms? [
8]

[
i]Fai
l
ures:

Suspect
edconv
ert
swer
epuni
shed

Year
nedf
ordest
ruct
ionofNdebel
est
atewhi
chr
esi
stedChr
ist
iani
ty

Af
ri
cansunwi
l
li
ngt
oabandont
radi
ti
onal
rel
i
gion

[
ii
].
Successes

J.
S.MoffatandC.Hel
m hel
pedC.
J.Rhodest
ocol
oni
seMashonal
andand
Matabel
eland

Page85of85
 Pr
omot
edt
radebet
weenWhi
tesandAf
ri
cans

Bet
ween1890and1900conv
ert
sst
art
edt
oincr
easei
nnumber
s

Est
abl
i
shedf
ewmi
ssi
ons

Taughtf
ewpeopl
etor
eadandwr
it
e

Conv
ert
edf
ewt
oChr
ist
iani
ty

[
June2004]

58.Namethr
eemi ssionar
yorgani
sat
ionsandt
hei
rrespect
ivemi
ssi
onsst
ati
onsi
n
t
h
Zimbabweinthe19 cent ur
y. [
6]

LondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
ety–I
nyat
hi,
HopeFount
ain.

RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch-
Empandeni

TheDut
chRef
ormedChur
ch-
Mor
genst
erMi
ssi
on

[
b].
Describet
hewor
koft
hreemi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
ionsi
nZi
mbabwei
nthi
s
per
iod.
[11]

1859J.SMoffat
,sonofMzi l
ikazi
’
sfri
endRober tMoff
at,al
lowedtoopen
Missi
onstat
ionatInyat
hinearBulawayo.Lobengulal
aterall
owedtheLondon
Missi
onar
ySocietytofur
theropenanothermissionatHopeFountain.

Mi
ssi
onar
iesoft
heLMSengagedi
nteachi
ng,
preachi
ngandl
i
ter
arywor
k

i
siNdebel
ebookswer
epr
int
ed

mor
eLMSmi
ssi
onar
iesl
i
keThompson,
Sykes,
Hel
m andCar
negi
ear
ri
ved

LMSmissionari
esweregiv
enlandtogrowcropsandt
orepai
rguns,
i
nocul
ate
cat
tl
e,t
reatthesickwri
teLobengul
a’
slet
ter
s

I
ntur
nmi
ssi
onar
ieswer
eal
l
owedt
opr
eachamongt
heNdebel
e

TheRomanCat hol
icChurch‘sJesuit
smi ssionari
esf oundedami ssi
onat
Empandeni un1887nearpr esentdayPlumt ree.Undertheleadershi
pofPeter
Prest
igeandAndr eHart
mann, t
heirmissionstruggledwithveryli
mited
success.Thisf
orceditt
ocl osein1889, onl
yt ore-openthemi ssi
onin1895
aft
erdefeatandconquestoft heNdebelekingdom

Thi
sfol
l
owedFrBKr
oot
’sv
isi
ttoLobengul
ain1882

TheJesui
tssubsequent
lyest
abl
i
shedanot
hermi
ssi
onst
ati
onnearBul
away
o

TheJesui
tsal
soengagedi
nteachi
ng,
preachi
ngandl
i
ter
arywor
k

TheDutchRef
ormedChur
chofSout
hAfri
canev
angel
i
sts-t
otheEast
ernpar
t
ofMashonal
andbet
ween1860and1890

Af
ri
canev
angel
i
stswer
eusedbecauseoff
ear
sthatLobengul
awoul
dnot

Page86of86
 wel
comewhi
tes

DRCevangel
ist
swer
eMi
chael
Buy
s–appr
oachedt
heGov
eraChi
ef,
Zimut
o
[
thesecond]
.

Subsequent
lyest
abl
i
shedmi
ssi
onatMor
genst
erMi
ssi
onnearMasv
ingo

[
c].
Howf
arwer
ethemi
ssi
onar
iessuccessf
uli
nthei
rwor
k?

Missi
onar
ieswer
elar
gel
yunsuccessf
uli
nespeci
all
yconv
ert
ingpeopl
eto
Chri
sti
ani
ty

LMSmi ssionar
iesi
nMat abel
elandmadeli
tt
leheadwaybecauseChri
sti
ani
ty
wasincompat i
blewi
thNdebelecult
ureandNdebeler
eli
gionwasint
erwoven
wit
hpolit
icsandmi l
i
tar
yr egi
ments

Ndebel
eeconomy–par tl
ysust
ainedbyrai
dingwhi
chal
sowasi
ncompat
ibl
e
wi
thChrist
iani
typr
eachedbymissions.

Henceconv
ert
swer
esuspect
edandof
tenpuni
shed

Ndebelesociet
ywasor gani
sedoncast
ebasi
swhi chmil
it
atedagai
nst
Chri
sti
anprinci
pleofequali
ty,
maki
ngtheChr
ist
ianit
yunaccept
able

Al
soi
nMashonal
andmi
ssi
onar
ieswer
enotv
erysuccessf
ul

Missi
onar
ieswer
ewelcomei
nMashonal
andar
oundMasv
ingobutl
ater
ar
rest
edbyLobengul
a

However
,missi
onar
iesmadesomeheadwayi
nli
ter
arywor
kandt
eachi
ng
,r
eadi
ngandwrit
ing

Mi
ssi
onar
ywor
kbegant
omakeheadwayaf
tercol
oni
sat
ion.

[
Nov2004]

59[a]
.I
dent
if
yanysi
xmi
ssi
onar
ieswhowor
kedi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and
1900.
[6]

Rober
tMoffat
,J.
S.Moffat
,Char
lesHel
m,FrancoisCoil
lar
d,Wil
l
iam Sy
kes,
ThomasM Thomas,FrRober
tLaws,Kni
ghtBruce,FrLaw,FrKr
oot.

[
b].
Descr
ibet
her
olepl
ayedbymi
ssi
onar
iesi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe.
[11]

1836-Mzi
li
kazisi
gnedatr
eat
ywit
hRober
tMoffat
-est
abl
i
shi
ngal
ongt
erm
fr
iendshi
pthathel
pedt
heBri
ti
shi
nthe1880s

TheMof f
atAgr eementi n1888-inwhichLobengul awaspersuadedtodrop
theGrobl
erTr eaty–Lobengul aagr
eedt obeafriendoftheBri
tishQueenand
nottoenterintoanyagr eementwithouttheknowledgeoftheBr i
ti
sh.
Lobengul
at houghtJ.S.Mof fatwastrustwor
thy.Thist
reat
ysignedbya
missi
onaryledt othesigningoftheRuddConcessi on.

Dur
ingnegoti
ati
ons,l
eadi
ngtotheRuddConcessi
on,RevCharl
esHelm
pl
ayedaleadi
ngrolei
npersuadi
ngLobengul
at osi
gntheconcessi
on

Page87of87
 Missionar
iesusual
lypl
ayedanimpor t
antr
olei
nthel
i
nkbet
weenconcessi
on
seekersastheyspokelocal
languages.

Theest
abli
shmentofmissi
ons,
e,gI
nyat
hiandEmpandeni,hel
pedt
hosewho
vi
sit
edZimbabwetofi
ndaplacetost
ay[
fl
agfol
lowedcross]

Thef ai
lur
eofMi ssi
onar i
estoconver
tmanyl ocalpeopl
et oChri
sti
ani
ty
result
edinsomeMi ssionar
iese,
gJ.S.Moffat,
tohatetheNdebeleState..
..
”i
t
willbeablessi
ngt othewor l
dwhent heyarebrokenup”.Soinaway
encouragedtheBSACt ousewart odestr
oytheNdebeleSt at
einorderto
l
oosengr iponpotentialconver
ts

Missi
onar
yroadtothenort
hf r
om Sout
husedbywhi
tes,
trade–encour
aged
byMissi
onar
ygroupsatt
ractedwhit
es.

[
c].
Howimport
antwast
her
olepl
ayedbyMi
ssi
onar
iesi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionof
Zi
mbabwe?[8]

[
i]I
mpor
tanceofMi
ssi
onar
ies

Hel
pedi
nthesi
gni
ngoft
reat
ies

Pl
ayedasal
i
nkbet
weenRhodesandLobengul
a

Est
abl
i
shmentofmi
ssi
onswhi
chl
att
erbr
oughtl
i
ter
acy

Hadknowl
edgeoft
hecul
tur
eoft
hel
ocal
peopl
e

Gav
eAf
ri
cansf
alsesenseofsecur
it
y

[
ii
]Ot
heri
mpor
tantFact
ors:

Rol
eoft
rader
s,hunt
ersandexpl
orer
s

Rhodesandhi
sBSACr
egar
dedt
heNdebel
eSt
ateasofst
rat
egi
cimpor
tance

Thescramblef
orSout
her
nAf
ri
cai
ncr
easedcompet
it
ionf
orZi
mbabweasan
arear
ichingol
d

Lackofuni
tyi
nthest
ate[
Ndebel
e]

Weaknessoft
hel
ocal
peopl
emi
l
itar
il
y

Lackofuni
tyamongt
heShona.

[
Nov
2005]

60[a].
Identi
fyanysi
xai
msofChr
ist
ianmi
ssi
onar
iesi
nMat
abel
elandi
nthe19th
centur
y .[
6]

Toconv
ertheat
hen/
spr
eadChr
ist
iani
ty

Toci
vi
li
set
heAf
ri
cans

Tot
urnsubsi
stencecul
ti
vat
orsi
ntoi
ndependentcommer
cial
producer
sand

Page88of88
 cr
aft
smen

Todev
elopani
ndi
genousmi
ddl
ecl
asst
omai
ntai
nandst
affchur
ches

Topr
omot
elegi
ti
mat
etr
ade

Todecampai
gnsl
avet
rade

Topr
omot
eequal
i
ty/
uni
ty

Tocol
oni
se/
pav
ewayf
orcol
oni
sat
ion

[b]
.Describet
hewor
kofChr
ist
ianMi
ssi
onar
iesi
nMat
abel
elandi
nthe19th
century
.[11]

Mzi
li
kaziall
owedJ.
S.Mof
fatt
oest
abl
i
shami
ssi
onatI
nyat
hinear
Bul
awayo[1859]

Lobengul
aal
l
owedL.
MSt
oopenHopeFount
ainMi
ssi
on[
1870]

I
nyathiandHopeFount
ainmi
ssi
onar
iest
aught,
preachedandwr
ote
I
siNdebelebooks

Cul
ti
vat
edcr
opsonl
andgi
venbyLobengul
arespect
ivel
y

Mi
ssi
onar
ieshel
pedMzi
l
ikazi
andLobengul
ato:

Repai
rguns

I
nocul
atecat
tl
e

Tr
eatt
hesi
ck

Wr
it
eki
ng’
sdi
plomat
icl
ett
ers

OpenedEmpandeni
nearBul
away
o

Mi
ssi
onar
iesact
edasi
nter
pret
ersandadv
isor
s

Pav
edt
hewayt
ocol
oni
sat
ione,
gChar
lesHel
m

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dthemi
ssi
onar
iessucceedi
nthei
rwor
kdur
ingt
hisper
iod?

[
i]
Successes[
li
mit
ed]
:

Setupmi
ssi
onst
ati
ons

I
ntr
oducedl
i
ter
acy

I
ntr
oducedbet
terf
armi
ngmet
hods

Thosewhoshowedi
nter
esti
nmessagesentt
odi
stantpl
acesorpuni
shed

[
ii
]Fai
l
ures:

Ti
ll1894whenMatabel
elandwascol
oni
sedbyB.S.
AC,missi
onar
ies
pr
oducednofol
lowingamongNdebel
eafter30y
earsef
for
t.
Page89of89
 Ndebel
ehadownr
eli
gion

Ndebel
eeconomybasedonr
aidi
ngy
etChr
ist
iani
typr
omot
edpeace

Ndebel
esoci
etyhadcast
esy
etmi
ssi
onar
iespr
eachedequal
i
ty

Pot
ent
ialconv
ert
spuni
shed/sentt
or emoteareas/
thosewhoshowedi
nter
est
i
nChri
sti
anmessageweresenttodistantpl
acesorpunished

LMSandJesui
tst
hencampai
gnedf
ordest
ruct
ionofNdebel
eSt
ate

[
Nov2007]

61[
a].
Namesi
xear
lymi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
ionsi
nZi
mbabwedur
i he19thcent
ngt ury
[
6]

LondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
ety

RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch

Dut
chRef
ormedChur
ch

TheAngl
i
canChur
ch

ThePar
isEv
angel
i
cal
Chur
ch

TheBer
li
nMi
ssi
onar
yChur
ch

Amer
icanBoar
dofFor
eignMi
ssi
onar
y

Met
hodi
stChur
chofZi
mbabwe

[
b].
Descr
ibethewor
koft
hemi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
ioni
nMashonal
andbet
ween
1850and1900.
[
11]

Dut
chRef
ormedChur
ch

Af
ri
canev
angel
i
stswer
etr
ained

Francoi
sCoil
l
ardoft
heP.E.M.wi
thevangel
istSehahabane/
setupa
permanentst
ati
onatChi
vibutwasshortli
ved

Ber
li
nMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
ety

Mati
beandMposistat
ions-setupbyev
angel
i
stsMadzi
maandSamuel
who
di
dthegroundwor
k

In1886/
7Ger manmissi
onarieswereKnotheandSchel
lnusl
atercameand
enj
oyedsomesuccesses,preachi
ng,t
eachingski
l
lssuchasreadi
ngand
wri
ti
ng,agr
icul
tur
e,car
pentr
y

Bui
l
dingofhospi
tal
s

Tr
ansl
ati
ngt
hebi
blei
ntol
ocal
languages

Page90of90
 I
nocul
ati
ngcat
tl
e,r
epai
ri
ngguns,
croppr
oduct
ion,
tradi
ng,
let
terwr
it
ing

Publ
i
shi
ngbooks

Pav
edwayf
orcol
oni
sat
ion

Di
scour
agi
ngt
radi
ti
onal
pract
ices

RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch

In1879,FrLaw,tri
edtoestabl
i
shamissionst
ati
oninChi
efMzil
a‘slandin
theborderr
egionbetweenZimbabweandMozambique,
thesewereaskedto
conver
totherAfri
cans

MichaelBuysopenedast
ati
onatZi
mut
onearMasv
ingounderChi
efMugabe
[
Mor genst
er]

Anot
herst
ationwasopenedatChi
efChi
vi
’scapi
tal
andar
esi
dentmi
ssi
onar
y
wasappoi
nted

Theymanagedt
opr
each,
teachanddi
dli
ter
arywor
k

Par
isEv
angel
i
cal
Missi
on

Afri
canevangel
istsandcatechi
stsf
rom Lesot
hodi
dmuchoft
hework
,becauseitwasfearedLobengul
awouldnotall
owwhi
temi
ssi
onar
iest
oent
er
Mashonaland

Ev
angeli
stexpedi
tionsr
eachedMati
be,Mposi,
Mudavanhu,Chingoma,
Nyamhondo,Chiv
i,Mugabe,Chi
l
imanzi
andDzikeinsout
heaster n
Mashonal
andstati
onswereopenedatthesepl
acesandpreachingwasdone

Angl
i
canChur
ch

Kni
ghtBr
uceledanexpl
orat
oryexpedit
iontot
heZambezii
n1888.Hevisi
ted
manyShonachi
efs.
In1891establ
ishedtheDi
oceseofMashonal
and;
a
st
ati
onwasopenedatStAugusti
nes.

Chur
chofChr
ist

Establ
ishedamissi
onstati
onatChi
koreandMtSel
i
nda[
Chi
ri
nda]i
nthe
easter
npr ov
inceofManical
and[
Chi
pinge]

[C]
.WereMissi
onar
iessuccessf
uli
nthei
rwor
kdur
ingt
hisper
iod?Expl
ainy
our
answer
.[
8]

[
i]Successes

Managedt
oconv
ertsomeAf
ri
canst
hought
oal
i
mit
edext
ent

Pr
int
edbooks

Taughtpeopl
etor
eadandwr i
te,t
echni
cal
ski
l
lswer
eimpor
tede,
gMposi
,Morgenst
er,
Mzil
a,StAugust
ine

Page91of91
 Tr
adi
ti
onal
pract
icesl
i
kepol
ygamyet
cwer
edi
scour
aged

I
ntr
oduct
ionofnewcr
opswi
denedt
heeconomy

Medi
cal
ser
viceswer
emadeav
ail
abl
e

[
ii
].
Fai
l
ures

Somemi
ssi
onar
ieswer
eat
tackedandl
eftt
hear
ea

Onl
yconv
ert
edv
eryf
ewAf
ri
cans

Att
ackedAfr
icant
radi
ti
onsanddi
vi
dedAf
ri
cans-Chr
ist
iansandnon-
Chri
sti
ans

Powerofchief
sunder
minedbecausechi
efsdi
scour
agedconv
ersi
ont
o
Chr
ist
iani
ty

Fami
ne

di
seases

[
Nov2008]

62[a]
.Nameanysi
xmi ssi
onst
ati
onsest
abl
ishedbyear
lyEur
opeanmissi
onar
iesi
n
Zimbabwebef
ore1900. [6]

Mi
ssi
onSt
ati
on

I
nyathi
,Empandeni
,Mzil
a,HopeFountai
n,Mashayamombe, Chi
shawasha,St
August
ines,
MtSeli
nda,OldMut
are,Pendamatenka,Rusi
tu,
HolyCross,
Zimut
o,
Gokomere,Mposi
,Chiv
i,Ber
nar
dMi zeki
,Morgenster

[
b].
Out
li
net
hewor
kofCat
hol
icmi
ssi
onar
iesi
nZi
mbabweupt
o1900.

Jesuit
sledbyFrBar
thol
omewKr
ootopenedMi
ssi
onatEmpandeniand
Bulawayo

UsedbyNdebel
etor
epai
rguns,
treatt
hesi
ckandwr
it
etheki
ng’
slet
ter
s

Mi
ssi
onar
iespr
eachedt
othepeopl
e

Missi
onari
esal
sotaughtandcarr
iedoutl
it
erar
ywor
kegSi
ndebel
ebooks
werepri
ntedf
orNdebelechi
ldr
entoread

Depel
chi
nledJesui
tst
oZambeziVall
eyandsetupastat
ionat
Pandamat
enka,
hebuil
tthe“
Resi
denceoftheHol
yCross”

Chi
washawashawasf
oundednearSal
i
sbur
yin1892

Onl
yinthe1895whenmanymor
emi
ssi
onsopenedwer
emanyconv
ert
s
made,aft
ercol
oni
sat
ion

Bui
ltnumer
ouschur
chesandmanyconvert
smade,
bui
l
tnumer
ouschur
ches
andmanyconver
tsaccept
edChr
ist
ianst
andar
ds

Page92of92
 Bui
l
tschool
sthatt
aughtr
eadi
ngandwr
it
ing

Theypr
oducedgrammarbooks,
transl
atedr
eli
giousandeducat
ional
books
i
ntover
nacul
ars

Newcropsandv
eget
ableswer
eint
roducedandnewcr
aft
sandski
l
ls
pr
act
isede,
gcar
pent
ryatChi
washawashaetc

Tr
adedwi
thl
ocal
peopl
e

Pav
edwayf
orcol
oni
sat
ion

CondemnedAf
ri
canr
eli
gion

Newf
armi
ngmet
hods

I
ntr
oducedl
i
vest
ockbr
eedi
ng

FrPr
est
igesuppor
teddest
ruct
ionoft
heNdebel
est
ate

[
c].
Howsuccessf
ulwast
hewor
kofCat
hol
icMi
ssi
onar
iesi
nZi
mbabwei
nthi
s
per
iod?
[8]

Successes:

Est
abl
i
shedmi
ssi
onst
ati
ons

Inocul
ati
onofcat
tl
etr
ansf
ormedAf
ri
canl
anguaget
owr
it
tenf
rom [
Sindebel
e
andShona]

Tr
ansl
atedr
eli
gionsandeducat
ional
books

I
ntr
oducednewcr
opsv
eget
abl
es

Newcr
aft
sandski
l
lspr
act
ised

Knowl
edget
ousenewi
mpl
ement
se,
gSai
ntsandpl
oughs

Est
abl
i
shedschool
s

Setuphospi
tal
s,t
reat
edt
hesi
ck

I
ntr
oducedl
i
vest
ockbr
eedi
ng

Gotsomenewconv
ert
s

Assi
stedi
ncol
oni
sat
ion

Fai
l
ures:

Bef
orecol
oni
sat
ioni
n1890madel
i
ttl
eimpactt
oconv
ertNdebel
eShona

Sl
averaidi
ngandclasssy
stem amongNdebel
einf
luencedNdebel
eki
ngst
o
di
scourageconv
ersion

Pr
obl
emsofdi
seasesandpoorcommuni
cat
ion

Page93of93
 Opposi
ti
onf
rom Musl
i
ms

[
Nov2009]

63[a]
.Nameanythreemi
ssionar
ysoci
eti
esandt
hei
rrespect
ivel
eader
swhocame
i
ntoZimbabwebetween1850and1900. [6]

LondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
ety
---
-J.
S.Mof
fat
,CHel
m,Pr
ice,Sy
kes,
Thomas

Angl
i
can-
Kni
ghtBr
uce

Ber
li
nMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
ety
-Madzi
maandSamuel

RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch—FrBar
thol
omewKr
oot
,FrLaw,
Depel
chi
n

Dut
chRef
ormedChur
ch-
Michael
Buy
s

Par
isEv
angel
i
cal
Missi
on-
Coi
l
lar
dandSehahabane

[b]Out
li
net
hepr
obl
emsexper
iencedbymi
ssi
onar
iesi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850
and1900. [11]

Tr
opi
cal
diseases

Languagepr
obl
emsast
heyt
ri
edt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
thl
ocal
s/wi
tht
hei
rhome
countr
ies

At
tacksbyani
mal
s

Local
sresi
stedChr
ist
iani
ty

Tr
anspor
tpr
obl
ems

Shor
tageoff
oodt
heywer
eusedt
o

Pr
essur
efr
om pol
i
tical
leader
stobei
nvol
vedi
ncol
oni
sat
ion

Caughtupi
nthecompet
it
ionamongt
heEur
opeancount
ri
es

Shor
tageofmedi
cines

Opposi
ti
onf
rom Af
ri
canr
uler
s

Humanr
esour
ceshor
tage[
manpower
]

Accommodat
ionpr
obl
ems/
shel
ter

[
c].
Towhatext
enthadmi
ssi
onar
iessol
vedt
hesepr
obl
emsby1900? [
8]

Met
hodst
osol
vepr
obl
ems

Mi
ssi
onar
iesbr
oughtmedi
cine

Useofsi
gnl
anguage,
int
erpr
eterf
rom Sout
hAf
ri
ca

Setupschool
s

Page94of94
 Assi
stedi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionsot
hatt
hei
rwor
ktospr
eadChr
ist
iani
tywas
madeeasy

Cr
eat
edr
oads

Gr
ewt
hei
rowncr
ops

Bui
l
tmi
ssi
onst
ati
ons

UsedAf
ri
cancat
echi
stsandev
angel
i
sts

Fr
iendshi
pwi
thAf
ri
canchi
efs

Cheat
edsomechi
efs

[
I]Successes

Hadassi
stedi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe

St
ati
onsbui
l
tandcl
i
nicsbui
l
t

Wer
egr
owi
ngowncr
ops

Rapi
dsuccessaf
terNdebel
ehadf
all
en

Appoi
ntedsomeAf
ri
cancat
echi
stsatsomeChi
efs’
cour
t

[
ii
]Fai
l
ures

Fewpeopl
econv
ert
edt
oChr
ist
iani
ty

Notmanyr
oadscr
eat
ed

Shor
tageofdr
ugs

Somechasedoutoft
hecount
ry-
Coi
l
lar
d

Somemi
ssi
onsabandonede,
gPandamat
enka

Somemi
ssi
onar
ieski
l
ledeg,
Ber
nar
dMi
zeki

Af
ri
canr
eli
gionr
emai
nedst
rong

(
Nov2010)

64.
(a)
Nameanythr
eepioneermi
ssi
onar
iesandanyt
hreepi
oneermi
ssi
onst
ati
ons
t
h
i
nZimbabwedur
ingthe19 cent
ury. (6)

Pi
oneerMi
ssi
onar
ies:

JohnSmi
thMof
fat
,M.
ThomasMor
gan,
Fat
herBar
thol
omewKr
oot

Char
lesHel
m,Ber
nar
dMi
zeki
,Madzi
maSamuel

Pi
oneerMi
ssi
onSt
ati
ons:

I
nyat
hi,
HopeFount
ain

Page95of95
 Mor
genst
erMi
ssi
on,
Empandeni

chi
shawasha

(b)
.Whatpr
oblemsweref
acedbypioneermi
ssi
onar
iesi
nthei
rwor
kinZi
mbabwe
t
h
duri
ngthe19 Cent
ury
? (
11)

Cul
tur
aldi
ff
erences–e,
gChr
ist
iani
tyhaddi
ff
icul
ti
esi
nconv
ert
ingpeopl
e

Dist
rust
edast heypr
eachedagai
nstcust
omssuchaski
l
li
ngt
wins,
pol
ygamy
,
cast
esy st
em andrai
dingsyst
em

Communi
cat
ionpr
obl
ems-
dif
fer
encesi
nlanguage

Lackofsuppl
i
esofEur
opeangoods-
food,
medi
cine,
tool
s,cl
othes

Tr
opi
cal
diseasessuchasmal
ari
a

Host
il
it
yofl
ocal
peopl
e

Ki
l
li
ngofconv
ert
sorexi
l
ingt
hem,
egi
ntheNdebel
eKi
ngdom

War
far
eandr
aidi
ngcr
eat
edf
earamongt
hemi
ssi
onar
ies

Lackofr
oads-
tr
anspor
tdi
ff
icul
ti
es

Bei
ngembr
oil
edi
nlocal
pol
i
ticse,
gsuccessi
ondi
sput
es

Manpowershor
tages

Associ
atedwi
thcol
oni
ser
s

Cl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons

Li
ter
acy

Compet
it
ionwi
thot
herr
eli
gions

At
tackf
rom wi
l
dani
mal
s

Communi
cat
ionwi
thmot
hercount
ri
es

Ki
l
li
ngofmi
ssi
onar
ies

(
c).
Towhatext
entwer
ethemi
ssi
onar
iesabl
etosol
vet
hesepr
obl
emsatt
hatt
ime?
(8)

Teachi
ngnati
vechi
ldr
ent or
eadandwr
it
e,l
ear
ningnat
ivel
anguagesai
ded
communicat
ionandpreachi
ng

Cl
ear
ingr
oads

Fr
iendshi
pwi
thl
ocal
chi
efs

Bui
l
dingcl
i
nicsf
orcur
ingt
ropi
cal
diseases

Gr
owi
ngcr
opsf
orf
ood
Page96of96
 Tr
aini
ngofAf
ri
cancat
echi
sts

Tr
ansl
ati
ngofbooksi
ntov
ernacul
ar

Pr
omot
ingcol
oni
sat
ion

Unsol
ved

Af
ri
cansst
il
lat
tachedt
othei
rtr
adi
ti
onal
rel
i
gionandcul
tur
e

Ndebel
eti
l
lcher
ishedcast
eandr
aidi
ngsy
stems

Roadsandt
elephonesst
il
lrar
e

Af
ri
canssuspi
ci
ousofEur
opeansorMi
ssi
onar
ies.

[
June2011]

65[
a].
Nameanysi
xmi
ssi
onst
ati
onsest
abl
ishedi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and
1900.[
6]

Empandeni
,HopeFount
ain,
Iny
athi
,Chi
shawasha,
Mor
genst
er

Chi
vi
,Mat
ibi
,Mposi
,Zi
mut
o,Har
tzel
,Howar
d,MountSel
i
nda

StAugust
ine,
StDomi
nics,
Mut
ambar
a,Nhowe,
Ber
nadMi
zeki

[
b].
Outl
inethewor
koft
heLondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
ety(
LMS)i
nMat
abel
elandint
he
t
h
19 Centur
y. [11]

I
n1859JSMof
fatest
abl
i
shedI
nyat
himi
ssi
on

LMSopenedHopeFountai
nin1870,
att
hemi
ssi
onst
hemi
ssi
onar
iest
aught
andpr
eached,
grewt
heirownfood

JSMof
fatsi
gnedt
heMof
fatTr
eat
ywi
thLobengul
ainFeb1888

RevCHel
m per
suadedLobengul
atosi
gnt
heRuddConcessi
oni
nOct1888

Mi
ssi
onar
iesi
nMat
abel
elandencour
agedt
radebet
weenNdebel
eandwhi
tes

Est
abl
i
shedschool
s,hospi
tal
sandchur
ches

Conv
ert
edNdebel
eint
oChr
ist
iani
ty

Repai
redt
heki
ng’
sguns,
wrot
eki
ng’
slet
ter
s,t
reat
edt
hesi
ck

Di
scour
agedandunder
minedAf
ri
canr
eli
gionandt
radi
ti
on

TaughtNdebel
esnewski
l
sssuchascar
pent
ry,woodwor
k,met
alwor
ket
c

Act
easi
nter
pret
ers(
transl
ator
s)

Pr
omot
edl
i
ter
acy(
Ndebel
ewer
etaughthowt
oreadandwr
it
e)

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwast
her
olepl
ayedbyt
heLMSi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionof
Zi
mbabwe?
Page97of97
Rol
epl
ayedbyLMSi
ncol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe.

InFeb188,JSMoffatsi
gnedtheMof
fatTreat
yonbehal
fofRhodes.
Lobengul
aagreedt
ocanceltheGr
obl
ertr
eaty

Oct1888RevCHel
minf
luencedLobengul
aint
osi
gni
ngt
heRuddConcessi
on

CHel
mrecommendet
hedest
ruct
ionoft
heNdebel
est
ate

Mi
ssi
onar
ieshost
edur
opeanv
isi
tor
sfr
om Eur
ope

Mi
ssi
onar
yroadbecamegat
ewayi
ntot
hei
nter
iorofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca

Ot
herf
act
ors

I
nfl
uenceofexpl
orer
s,hunt
ers,
trader
sandot
herambi
ti
ouspeopl
e

Rhodes’
Capet
oCai
rodr
eam

Toexpl
oitmi
ner
alr
esour
ces(
secondr
andexpect
edi
nzi
m)

Pr
est
ige,
needsf
ormar
ket
sandr
awmat
eri
als

Needtoinv
estsur
pluscapi
tal
,newt
echnol
ogyenabl
edt
heBr
it
isht
ocont
rol
f
orei
gnlands

Compet
it
ionamongt
heBoer
s,Por
tugueseandGer
mans

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofcheapl
abouri
nZi
mbabwe

Fer
ti
lel
andsandf
avour
abl
ecl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
onsf
orEur
opeanset
tl
ement

[
Nov2011]

66.[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xreasonswhyt
helocal
peopl
eresi
stedmi
ssi
onar
yinf
luencei
n
Zimbabwebet
ween1850and1900. [6]

Mi
ssi
onar
yfor
mal
educat
ionwasmeani
ngl
esst
oAf
ri
canwayofl
i
fe

Lackofmat
eri
algai
ns

Di
dnotwantt
oabandont
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onal
rel
i
gion

Fear
edt
hei
rtr
adewoul
dbedi
stur
bed

Di
dnotwantt
olear
nanewl
anguge

Chr
ist
iani
tydenouncedaspect
ssuchasr
aidi
ng

At
tackedAf
ri
canadmi
nist
rat
ivesy
stems

Suspect
edmi
ssi
onar
iesofhav
ingcol
oni
alai
ms

Page98of98
 I
nfl
uencef
rom t
radi
ti
onal
leader
s/r
eli
giousl
eader
s

I
nfl
uenceofi
sl
am

Whi
tesbl
amedf
ornat
ural
cal
ami
ti
esegDr
ought
,di
seases,
fev
er

[b]
.Out
li
net
hewaysisedbyl
ocalpeopl
etor
esi
stmi
ssi
onar
yinf
luencei
n
Zi
mbabwebetween1850and1900. [
11]

Mov
edf
arawayf
rom mi
ssi
onar
yset
tl
ement
s

Cont
inuedt
opr
act
iset
radi
ti
onal
rel
i
gion

Rai
dscont
inued

Ref
usedt
oat
tendschool
s

Ki
l
ledsomemi
ssi
onar
ies

Ref
usedt
ogi
vef
oodt
omi
ssi
onar
ies

Accusedsomemi
ssi
onar
iesofspi
es

Puni
shedorki
l
ledpot
ent
ial
conv
ert
s

Accusedmi
ssi
onar
iesofusi
ngf
orbi
ddenr
out
es

Expul
si
onofmi
ssi
onar
ies

SomeAf
ri
canscont
inuedt
ofol
l
owi
slam

Somecont
inuedt
otr
adewi
thMusl
i
ms

Mov
ementofmi
ssi
onar
ieswasr
est
ri
cted.

Ref
usedt
owor
kfort
hemi
ssi
onar
ies

Af
ri
canl
eader
sdi
scour
agedpeopl
efr
om at
tendi
ngchur
ches.

[c].
Werethesepeopl
esuccessf
uli
nresi
sti
ngmi
ssi
onar
yinf
luenceatt
hatt
ime?
Explai
nyouranswer. [8]
.

Successes

Manypeopl
enotconv
ert
ed

Fewpeopl
eat
tendedschool
s

Ki
l
ledsomemi
ssi
onar
ies

Someconv
ert
swer
eki
l
led

Ref
usedt
olear
nthenewl
anguage

Expul
si
onofmi
ssi
onar
ies

Somepoi
ntsi
nBappl
i
es.

Page99of99
 Fai
l
ures

Hospi
tal
swer
ebui
l
t

Somepeopl
ewer
econv
ert
ed

Ot
herpeopl
ewer
eeducat
ed

Mi
ssi
onst
ati
onswer
eest
abl
i
shed

School
swer
ebui
l
t

Al
lmi
ssi
onar
ysuccesseswer
efai
l
uresbyAf
ri
canst
oresi
st.

I
NDUSTRI
ALREVOLUTI
ONI
NBRI
TAI
N
[
Nov2003]

67[a]
.Stat
eanysi
xfact
orst
hatmadeBr
it
aint
obet
hef
ir
stcount
ryi
nthewor
ldt
o
i
ndustri
ali
se. [
6]

Encl
osur
eofl
and

Ani
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
on

Cont
rol
ofi
nter
nat
ional
trade

Theeconomywasst
rong

Theemer
gencyoft
hemi
ddl
ecl
asswhi
chhadmoneyt
oinv
est

Thegov
ernmentwasst
abl
eandcount
ryenj
oyedpeace

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofi
ronandcoal
int
hecount
ry

Possessi
onofcol
oni
esf
orr
awmat
eri
alse,
gcot
tonf
ort
ext
il
es

[
b].Whatwer
ether
esul
tsofi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ioni
nBr
it
ain? [
11]

Useofmachi
nes/
acci
dent
s

Goodswer
epl
ent
yandcheapert
hanbef
ore

Manypeopl
ebegant
oli
vei
nur
banar
eas

Wor
kingcl
assandcapi
tal
i
stsbecamet
hemai
ncl
asses

Manyi
nvent
ionsmade-
tel
ephone,
mot
orcar
s,gr
amophones,
radi
os,

Wor
kingandl
i
vingcondi
ti
onswer
egener
all
ybad

I
mpr
ovementoft
ranspor
t-
tar
redr
oadsandr
ail
way
s.Useofst
eam engi
nes

Needf
orcol
oni
esassour
cesofr
awmat
eri
alsandmar
ket
s

Al
abourbasedpol
i
tical
par
tywasf
ormed

Page100of100
 Bet
tersci
ent
if
icknowl
edgewasused

Unempl
oyment
,Chi
l
dlabour

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwast
hisi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ioni
nthescr
ambl
eforSout
her
nAf
ri
ca?[
8]

[
i]I
mpor
tanceofi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
iont
othescr
ambl
einSout
her
nAf
ri
ca

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
alsandmar
ket
s

Newt
echnol
ogyenabl
edt
hem t
oconquermor
elands

Av
ail
abi
l
ityoff
undst
oinv
esti
nnewl
ands

Tocont
rol
str
ategi
car
easf
ort
radeatt
heCape

Thei
nvent
ionofst
ream shi
pmademov
ementeasi
er

Tor
eset
tl
etr
oubl
esomewor
ker
sorci
ti
zens

[
ii
]Ot
herf
act
orsf
orscr
ambl
e

Spr
eadofChr
ist
iani
ty

Pr
est
ige

Tost
opsl
aver
yandsl
avet
rade

Pol
i
tical
cont
rol
ofnewl
andsassuper
iorr
ace

Pr
eci
ousmi
ner
alsl
i
kegol
danddi
amonds

Hunt
ingexpedi
ti
ons

I
nfl
uenceofexpl
orer
sandambi
ti
ouspeopl
e

Goodcl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons,
fer
ti
lesoi
l
s

[
June2004]

68[
a].
Ment
ionanysi
xinv
ent
ionsmadedur
ingt
heI
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
oni
nBr
it
ain.[
6]

Seeddr
il
l,
Rai
l
way
s,Spi
nni
ngmachi
nes[
fl
yi
ngshut
tl
e,spi
nni
ngj
enny
]

St
eam engi
ne,
tel
egr
aph.

Mot
orcar
s

Weav
ingmachi
nes

[b]
.Describet
hemethodsusedbyt
hewor
kingcl
assi
nBr
it
aint
oresi
stcapi
tal
ist
exploi
tat
ionupto1870.

Wor
ker
sst
agedst
ri
kesanddemonst
rat
ions

Workersbr
okemachinesf
ortaki
ngawayt
heirwor
k,e,gLUddt
es-
1813broke
machinesunderl
eader
shi
pofNedLuddsuchasknit
ti
ngframesshear
ing

Page101of101
 machi
nesandweav
ingmachi
nes.

Pol
i
tical
prot
est

Af
terf
ail
ureofmachi
nebr
eaki
ngbecauseofgov
ernmentr
epr
essi
on,

Wor
ker
susedmor
epower
ful
met
hodsofpr
otestsuchast
hepeopl
e’
sChar
ter

Pet
it
ionedgover
nmentthroughcol
l
ect
ionofmi
l
li
onsofsi
gnat
uresofpeopl
e
wanti
ngchangein1839,
1842and1848

Pet
it
ionswer
erej
ect
ed

Between1850and1860skil
ledworker
sbegantoorgani
setradeuni
ons–t
o
fi
ghtfori
mprovedcondi
ti
ons,def
endthei
rri
ght
sforimprov
edwages

Br
it
isht
radeuni
onswer
eaggr
essi
vet
ocapi
tal
i
sm

[
c].
Whywer
ethewor
ker
slar
gel
yunsuccessf
uli
nachi
evi
ngt
hei
rai
ms? [
8]

Wor
ker
swer
elar
gel
yunsuccessf
uli
nreal
i
singt
hei
rai
msmai
nlybecause:

Thegover
nmentwhi
chincl
udedcapi
tal
istsusedf
orceagai
nstwor
ker
swho
brokemachi
nest
oprot
ectcapi
tal
i
stfactori
es

Ar
rest
ed,
impr
isonedandexecut
edmachi
nebr
eaker
s

Gov
ernmentr
eject
eddemandsofChar
ti
stsbecausesomeoft
hegov
ernment
wer
efact
oryowners

Al
sogov
ernmentf
orbadef
ormat
ionoft
radeuni
onsf
orsomer
easons

[
i]Al
soi
nit
ial
l
ywor
ker
swer
euneducat
edandnotuni
ted

Lackedi
deasandpr
ogr
ammesf
orchange

Wor
ker
slackedpol
i
tical
powert
ofor
cet
hegov
ernmentt
omakechanges

Hencegov
ernmentusedr
epr
essi
onagai
nstmachi
nebr
eaker
s

Wor
ker
swer
enotr
epr
esent
edi
npar
li
ament

[
Nov2005]

69[a]
.Giveanysi
xfact
orst
hatmadeBr
it
aint
hef
ir
stcount
ryi
nthewor
ldt
o
i
ndustri
ali
se.
[6]

Theencl
osur
esy
stem

Ani
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
on

Cont
rol
ofi
nter
nat
ional
trade

Asoundeconomy

emer
genceofami
ddl
ecl
asswi
thsur
plusofr
awmat
eri
als

Page102of102
 Adev
elopedbanki
ngsect
or[
loans]

I
mpor
tantt
echnol
ogi
cal
inv
ent
ions

Tr
anspor
trev
olut
ion

[b]
.Descr
ibetheeconomi
ceff
ect
sofi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
iononBr
it
ainwhi
chl
edt
othe
scrambleforSout
hernAf
ri
ca.

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
als

Needf
ormar
ket
s

Needf
orcol
oni
est
oinv
estsur
pluscapi
tal

Toexpor
ttr
oubl
esomewor
ker
s

I
mpor
tantt
echnol
ogi
cal
innov
ati
onsf
aci
l
itat
edcol
oni
sat
ion

Fast
erst
eam shi
ps

Needt
opr
otectst
rat
egi
car
eas

Cheapl
abour

Sear
chi
ngf
orl
and

Popul
ati
oni
ncr
ease

Maxi
m gun

Medi
cal
adv
ances[
Qui
nine]

[
c].
Howfardi
dtheeffect
sofi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ioni
nBr
it
aincont
ri
but
etot
heScr
ambl
e
f
orSout
hernAfr
ica?

Abov
eeconomi
cfact
orsl
edt
o/cont
ri
but
etot
hescr
ambl
eforSout
her
nAf
ri
ca

Ot
herf
act
ors

Tospr
eadr
eli
gion

St
rat
egi
creasons

Pol
i
tical
riv
alr
y

Humani
tar
ianr
eason

Pr
est
igi
ousr
easons

WeaknessesofAf
ri
cans

Needt
ocont
rol
gol
danddi
amondsi
nSout
her
nAf
ri
caet
c

(
Nov2010)

70(
a).
Stat
eanyt
hreecl
assesandt
hei
rdut
iesdur
ingt
heI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ioni
n

Page103of103
Br
it
ain.
(6)

Wor
ker
s\Pr
olet
ari
at-
--
--
--
wor
kingi
nfact
ori
es

Peasant
s--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-wor
kingi
nfi
elds

Landl
ords-
--
--
--
--
--
--
ownedl
and

Capi
tal
i
sts-
--
--
--
--
--
--
owner
soff
act
ori
es

Ar
ist
ocr
acy
---
--
--Rul
i
ngcl
ass.

(
b).
Descri
bet
heeconomi
candsoci
alpr
obl
emscausedbyheI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ion
i
nBrit
ain. (11)

Economi
c:

Shor
tageofr
awmat
eri
als

Peasant
s–wer
elandl
essandpoor
\pov
ert
y

Longwor
kinghour
s

Lowwages

St
ri
kes,
demonst
rat
ionsandr
iot
sbywor
ker
sresi
sti
ngcapi
tal
expl
oit
ati
on

Pr
oduct
ioni
nfact
ori
esdi
srupt
ed

Chi
l
dlabour
-exposedt
ounpr
otect
edmachi
nesandunv
ent
il
atedf
act
ori
es

Womenal
sowor
kedi
nthehar
shcondi
ti
ons

Wi
despr
eadunempl
oymentandpov
ert
y

Shor
tagesoff
ood,
mar
ket
,sur
pluscapi
tal
,l
ackofi
nvest
mentoppor
tuni
ti
es

Soci
alPr
obl
ems:

Wor
ker
swer
eaccommodat
edi
npoor
lyl
i
tanduni
nvent
il
ateddor
mit
ori
es

Cr
owdedcondi
ti
ons-
out
breakofdi
seases,
prost
it
uti
onandcr
ime

I
nsani
tar
ycondi
ti
ons-l
ackofpi
pedwat
er,
commont
oil
ets

Pol
l
uti
onwashi
gh

Unempl
oyment

Soci
ali
nequal
i
tiesbet
weenr
ichandpoor

Cl
assst
ruggl
es

Lackofeducat
ionandheal
thf
aci
l
iti
es

Poor
lyl
i
tst
reet
s

Page104of104
 I
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
on

Hi
ghdeat
hrat
es

(c)
.Towhatextentdi
deconomi
cpr
obl
emscont
ri
but
etot
heScr
ambl
efor
Souther
nAfri
ca?(8)

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
alsbyi
ndust
ri
ali
sts

Needf
ormor
elandneedf
orcheapl
abour

Needf
ornewar
easf
ori
nvest
ment

Needf
ormar
ket
s,f
ert
il
esoi
l
s

Ot
herf
act
ors

St
rat
egi
creasons

Humani
tar
ianr
easons

Pr
est
iger
easons

Expl
orer
sencour
agedcol
oni
sat
ion

Publ
i
copi
nionandpr
essur
e

Whi
ter
egar
dedt
hemsel
vesassuper
iorwhoshoul
drul
eAf
ri
ca

Sur
pluspopul
ati
oni
nEur
ope

Spr
eadofChr
ist
iani
ty

WeaknessesofAf
ri
cans

Cl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons

[
June2011]

71[
a].
Listanysixprobl
emswhi
chaf
fect
edf
act
orywor
ker
sinBr
it
ainduri
ngt
he
I
ndust
ri
alRevoluti
on. [
6]

Deat
hs,
over
crowdi
ng,
dust

Lowwages,
loudnoi
se,
hi
ght
emper
atur
es

Longwor
kinghour
s,l
ackofv
ent
il
ati
on,
Chi
mneysmokes

Nopr
otect
ivecl
othi
ng,
oper
ati
ngdanger
ousmachi
nesl
eadi
ngt
oinj
uri
es

Chi
l
dlabour
,womenl
abour
,poorl
i
ght
ing

Noi
nsur
ancecov
eragai
nstacci
dent
s,l
ackofeducat
ion

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heeconomi
cef
fect
soft
heI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ioni
nBr
it
ain[
11]

Ledt
othescr
ambl
eforsout
her
nAf
ri
ca

Page105of105
 Pr
oduct
ionofpl
ent
yandcheapergoods

Useofnewi
nvent
edmachi
nes

Hi
ghr
ateofunempl
oyment

Needf
orcol
niesassour
cesofr
awmat
eri
als,
mar
ket
s,newi
nvest
mentar
eas

Tr
anspor
timpr
ovement
s-r
oads,
rai
l
way
,canal
s

PoorWor
kingcondi
ti
ons

Useofsci
ent
if
icmet
hodse,
gcr
opr
otat
ion

Newi
nvent
ions-
radi
os,
car
s,t
elephones

Capi
tal
i
stcl
assandwor
kingcl
assemr
gedasmaj
orcl
asses

Col
l
apseofcot
tagei
ndust
ri
es

[
c].
HowfarwastheI
ndusr
ti
alRRev
olut
ionr
esponsi
blef
ort
hecol
oni
zat
ionof
Sout
her
nAfri
ca?
[
8]

I
nfl
uenceofI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ion

Needf
ormar
ket
s,r
awmat
eri
als

Easi
ert
rav
ell
i
ngduet
otheuseofst
eamshi
p

Newt
echnol
ogyl
edt
otheconquestofnewl
ands

Di
scov
eryofqui
nineenabl
edEur
opeanst
oset
tl
einmal
ari
ainf
est
edar
eas

Needf
orl
andst
oinv
estsur
pluscapi
tal

Ot
her
tfact
ors

Spr
eadofChr
ist
iani
ty

Goodcl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons,
prest
iger
easons

St
opsl
avet
radeandsl
aver
y,i
nfl
uenceofi
ndi
vi
dual
se,
gRhodes

St
rat
egi
creasons,
local
weaknesses

[
Nov2011]

72[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xeconomi
cbenef
it
sthatt
heBr
it
ishgotf
rom t
heI
ndust
ri
al
Revol
uti
on.[
6]

Empl
oymenti
ntheI
ndust
ry

Foodbecamecheaper

Page106of106
 St
andar
dofl
i
vingi
mpr
oved

Wor
kbecameeasi
erandf
ast
er

Ther
ewasdev
elopmentofbet
tert
ranspor
tsy
stem,
egr
oads,
rai
l
way
s

Cl
othi
ngbecamecheaper

Ther
ewasmasspr
oduct
ionofgoods

Goodswer
ereadi
l
yav
ail
abl
e

Technol
ogi
cal
impr
ovement

Mar
ket
s

I
ncr
easedexpor
ts

[
b].Descr
ibet
hesoci
alef
fect
soft
hei
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
oni
nBr
it
ain. [
11]

Wor
ker
swer
eov
ercr
owdedatwor
kandi
nthei
rhomes

Di
seasesl
i
keT.
B.wer
ecommonpl
aceandwoul
deasi
l
yspr
eadamong
worker
s

Wor
ker
sli
vedi
nshant
iesandsl
ums

Sani
tar
ycondi
ti
onswer
epoor
,egt
hebucketsy
stem

Fact
ori
eswer
epoor
lyv
ent
il
ated

Chi
l
dlabourwasr
ampant

Ther
ewashi
ghcr
imer
ate

Ther
ewasimmorali
ty–decayi
nmor al
sasworker
swoul
dengagei
nact
ivi
ti
es
l
ikepr
ost
it
uti
on,
theft
,gambli
ng,andal
cohol
i
sm.

Popul
ati
oni
ncr
eased

Ther
ewasi
mpr
ovementi
nmedi
cal
faci
l
iti
esandmedi
cat
ion

Ther
ewasr
educt
ionofi
nfanti
nfantmor
tal
i
ty

I
mpr
ovementi
neducat
ion

Womenl
abourwasr
ampant

Dev
elopmentofsoci
ali
nequal
i
ty

Ur
bani
sat
ion/
growt
hofci
ti
esandt
owns

Peopl
es’
li
feexpect
ancywassi
mpr
oved

Poormedi
cat
ionf
orpoorsoci
ety

Unempl
oyment

Page107of107
 Pov
ertanddest
it
uti
on

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dtheseef
fect
scont
ri
but
etot
hescr
ambl
eforSout
her
nAf
ri
ca?[
8]

Cont
ri
but
ionofSoci
alEf
fect
stoScr
ambl
eforSout
her
nAf
ri
ca.

Cr
eat
ioofr
if
f-r
aff(
soci
almi
sfi
ts)
,egMozambi
que

Needt
ofi
ndset
tl
ementar
easf
orexcesspopul
ati
on

Discoveryofqui
nineenabl
edpeopl
etol
i
vei
nmal
ari
ainf
est
edar
easof
southernAfri
ca

Medi
calr
ecommendati
onsfort
hei
l
ltol
i
vei
nwar
m ar
easofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca
t
hanthewetar
easofEurope

Cont
ri
but
ionofot
herf
act
ors

Mi
ssi
onar
yrequest

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
als

Sear
chf
ori
nvest
mentoppor
tuni
ti
es

Seasr
chf
ormar
ket
s

Ambi
ti
ousi
ndi
vi
dual
sli
keRhodes

Fer
ti
lel
ands/
soi
l
s

Cheapl
abour
,Pr
est
ige,
Str
ategi
creasons

Whi
tesupr
emacy

Ci
vi
li
sat
ion

Sl
avet
rade,
Sui
tabl
ecl
i
mat
e,r
oleofhunt
ersandt
rader
s

Technol
ogi
cal
gap,
weaknessesofl
ocal
s

Col
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca
[
Speci
men]

73(
a)Li
stt
hreepoli
ti
calandt
hreeeconomicr
easonswhyEur
opeancount
ri
es
scr
ambl
edforter
ri
toryi
nSouther
nAfrica. [
6]

St
rat
egi
creasons

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
als

Needf
ormar
ket
s

Needf
ori
nvest
mentar
eas

Powert
oinf
luenceev
ent
sinEur
ope

Page108of108
 I
nfl
uenceofpol
i
tical
andi
mper
ial
i
stspeopl
eli
keRhodes

(
b)Descr
ibethepar
tpl
ayedbyCeci
lJohnRhodesi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionof
Souther
nAfr
ica.
[
11]

Rhodesspear
headedt
heBr
it
isht
hrustt
oacqui
ret
err
it
ory

Heusedhi
sweal
thf
rom hi
sDi
amond/
Gol
dadv
ent
urei
nSout
hAf
ri
ca

Hewant
edtheCapetodomi
nat
eauni
tedSout
hAf
ri
cawhi
chl
edt
oacl
ash
wi
tht
heBoerst
ates

1881heent
eredt
heCapePar
li
ament

Usedhi
sti
met
her
etocal
lforBr
it
ishexpansi
onnor
thwar
ds

Reali
sedthebar
ri
ercausedbyt
heexi
stenceoft
he2Boerr
epubl
i
csnor
th
oftheVaal

Aft
erfail
i
ngtogetr
eadyco-oper
ationfr
om theBoerst
ateshel
eda
campaigntoest
abl
ishBr
it
ishinf
luenceint
oBechuanal
and.

I
deawast
ost
opBoernor
thwar
dexpansi
on

1886t
heBechuanal
andPr
otect
orat
ewasest
abl
i
shedwi
thRhodes’
hel
p.

Rhodesalsoadvancedt
heCapet
oCai
rot
heme.Campai
gnedf
orBr
it
ish
expansi
onNorthoftheLi
mpopo.

Sentenv
oyst
omakenegot
iat
ionswi
tht
heAf
ri
cansnor
thoft
heLi
mpopo.

1888gott
heRuddconcessi
onf
rom Lobengul
aki
ngoft
heNdebel
e.

1889gotaRoyal
Char
terf
rom t
heBr
it
ishQueengi
vi
ngt
her
ightt
ooccupy
thear
eaofZi
mbabwe.

1890thepioneercol
umnwassentf
rom Bechuanal
andandt
hear
eawas
occupi
edinSeptember1890.

Thuskeptcorr
idorforBri
ti
shexpansi
onopen,i
.e.cl
osedfr
om Port
uguese
Westwardexpansion,Ger
manEast war
dexpansionandBoerNort
hward
expansi
on

1890-
1900Br
iti
shi
ncreasedt
hei
rint
enti
ont
ocontr
olall
Sout
hAfri
cawit
h
somepushfr
om RhodeswhoseB.S.
A.Cowasnowrunni
ngRhodesi
a.

1899-1901thesecondBoerl
edtot
heuni
onofS.
A.i
n1910underBr
it
ish
rul
e,whichhadbeenRhodes’ambi
ti
on

(
c)Howsuccessf
ulwashei
ngai
ningt
err
it
oryi
nthi
sregi
on? [
8]

Hei
ncr
easedt
heBr
it
isht
err
it
ori
ali
nter
esti
nSout
her
nAf
ri
ca

GotBechuanal
andaheadoft
heGer
mansandt
heBoer
s.

Page109of109
 Secur
edRhodesi
aaheadoft
heGer
mans,
Por
tugueseandBoer
s

Usedtacttooutmanoeuvrer
ival
s,i.
e.tr
ickedl
ocall
eader
sand
under
mi nedr
epresent
ati
vesofothernati
onali
ti
es.

St
rat
egyofenclosi
ngt
heBoer
swor
kedwhenl
atert
hesewer
e
di
spossessed.

Hi
sef
for
tledBr
it
isht
err
it
oryt
oexpandev
enNor
thoft
heZambezi

Ger
mansendedupgai
ningGer
manSout
hWestAf
ri
caonl
y

ThePortuguesest
il
lmanagedt
ogaintwolar
geterr
it
ori
esi
n
Por
tugueseeastAfri
caandPor
tugueseWestAf
rica

Thesesuccesseswereani
ndi
rectr
esul
tofRhodes’
campai
gnson
behal
foftheBrit
ish

[
Speci
men]

74[
a].Namesixdif
fer
entpr
ofessi
onsoft
heear
lyEur
opeanset
tl
erswhocame
to souther
nAfri
ca [ 6]
.

Doct
ors

Mi
ssi
onar
ies

Engi
neer
s

Educat
ors

Tr
ader
s

Mi
ner
s

Far
mer
s

[b]
.Descr
ibethepoli
ti
cal,
social
andeconomi
cchangesbr
oughtuponAf
ri
cansi
n
Sout
hernAf r
icabycol
onisati
on.[11]

Af
ricanslostterr
it
oriesegGri
qual
andWestwasannexed;
Ger
manyW.
A.
westcolonisat
ion,andRhodesi
awasoccupi
ed.

Afr
icanchief
swer
edethroned,
eit
herthr
oughtreat
iesort
hrough
conquest
[KhamaandLobengul
arespect
ivel
y]

Afr
icanpeopl
elostf
reedom becausecol
oni
alr
ulewasnotasl
ooseast
he
rul
ebytheAfri
canchief
s

Af
ricansweretosomeextentmadeint
osomekindofuni
tyespeci
all
y
wheretheysoughtt
oresi
stthepushofcol
oni
sat
ion.

Afri
cansincol
oni
sedar
easlosteconomi
cal
l
ye,
glostcat
tl
e,l
ostl
and,
lost
tr
adefreedom,l
ostt
hei
rmines.

Page110of110
 Theywer
edi
spl
acedandf
ami
l
iessepar
atedduet
olabourneedsby
col
oni
ser
s

Theyof
tenr
ecei
vedpoort
reat
ment
,e,
glowwages,
badl
i
vingcondi
ti
ons,
havi
ngtoworkf
orl
onghours

Undercol
oni
algov
ernment
stheAf
ri
canssuf
fer
edr
aci
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ion

ManyfacetsofEuropeancul
tur
ewer
eint
roduced,
e,gl
anguage,
dress,
educat
ionandrel
igion

Col
oni
sat
ional
socreat
edthecasheconomyamongt
heAf
ri
canswhi
ch
camewit
hthecul
tur
eofhavi
ngtopaytaxes

Afr
icanswerei
ntr
oducedt
onewway
sofsust
enancee,
gnewt
ypeof
healt
hserv
ices

[
c].
Wer
ethesechangesbenef
ici
alt
otheAf
ri
cans?Expl
ainy
ouranswer
.[8]

Mostchangeswer
enotbenefi
cial
tot
heAf
ri
cansast
hechangesbr
oughtmanynew
pr
obl
emsanddisadvant
ages.

Poli
ti
cal
l
yhandi
cappede,
gnopar
li
ament
aryr
epr
esent
ati
on,
nov
ote,
noci
vi
l
ri
ghts

Casheconomycausedl
abourmi
grat
ionsandbr
eakdownoff
ami
l
yuni
t,l
edt
o
moraldecadence

Unf
airl
abourpr
act
icesaf
fect
edt
hem adv
ersel
y.

Cul
tural
changesweretosomeextentbenef
ici
ale,
gnewheal
thfaci
l
iti
es,
bet
terdress,
bet
terf
ood,bet
tereducat
ionsy
stem t
houghl
i
mited

Moder
ndevelopmentt
hroughtheworkofpeopleli
keengi
neer
sbr
oughtsome
i
mprovementfort
heAfr
icans,
e,gt
ranspor
t,houses.

Far
mingmet
hodswer
eimpr
ovedandl
aterl
edt
oincr
easedf
oodsuppl
y

Theemphasi
softheSouthAfr
icanGover
nmentofapol
icyofdiscr
imi
nat
ion
causedwhat
everbenef
it
stheAfri
cansmi
ghthavest
oodtogaintoremai
n
mostli
mit
ed

[
Nov2005]

75[a]
Listanysi
xwar
sofAf
ri
canr
esi
stancet
ocol
oni
ali
sm i
nSout
her
nAf
ri
ca
bet
ween1870and1890.

Angl
o-Zul
uwarof1879;
Bambat
arebel
l
ion;
Her
eroRi
sing;
NamaRi
sing;

Angl
o-Ndebel
ewar;Ndebel
e-Shona;
SothoRi
sing;
Thegunwar
;Gr
iqua-
Tl
hapi
ngr i
si
ng;Br
it
ish-
Pediwar;Por
tu-
Gazawar1895

[
b].
Outl
inegi
vingexampl
es,
themet
hodsusedbycol
oni
alpower
stopar
ti
ti
on
Sout
hernAfr
ica. [11]

Page111of111
 Warsofconqueste,
gtheAngl
o-Ndebel
ewarof1893andt
heAngl
o-Zul
uwar
of1879

Tr
eat
ies-
e,gRuddconcessi
on[
1888]

Of
fer
edpr
otect
ione,
gSot
ho,
Tswana,
Swazi

Decept
ion-
ver
bal
andwr
it
tent
ermsoft
heRuddconcessi
on

Theuseofconf
erencesegt
heBer
li
nconf
erences

Useofmi
ssi
onar
ies,
hunt
ers,
trader
s,expl
orer
s

Buy
ingofconcessi
onsegLi
pper
ttr
eat
y

Useofambi
ti
ousandpower
ful
leader
se,
gRhodes

Useofchar
ter
edcompani
es

Useofof
fi
cial
agent
s

[
c].
Howfardi
dtheeffect
sofi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
iononBr
it
aincont
ri
but
etot
hescr
ambl
e
f
orSout
hernAfr
ica?

Af
ri
canf
ail
uret
oresi
stpar
ti
ti
on

Whi
test
rengt
hs

Whi
tei
nvader
shadsuper
iorweaponsegMaxi
m gun

Bet
tercommuni
cat
ionegt
elegr
aphwi
res;
hor
ses

Bet
terdef
encese,
glaager
s

At
rai
nedar
my

Whi
ter
einf
orcement
s

Manyr
esour
ces

Af
ri
canweaknesses:

Disuni
ted,Somejoi
nedtheinv
aderanddidnotpar
ti
cipateinf
ight
ingoft
he
enemye, gShonadi
dnotsupportNdebel
ein1893war .SomeShonafoughton
si
deofwhi tesegMutasa/
Khamas/Ngwato

Poorweapons

Poorcommuni
cat
ionsy
stem e,
gfoot
ing

Mi
sledbyr
eli
giousl
eader
s

Poorst
rat
egi
es

[
June2006]

76[
a].
Ident
if
y:

Page112of112
 [
i]t
hef
ourcol
oni
alpower
sinv
olv
edi
nthescr
ambl
eforSout
her
nAf
ri
ca,
and
[
4]

[
ii
]anyt
wol
ocalagent
sofcol
oni
ali
sm i
nSout
her
nAf
ri
ca.
[
2]

Br
it
ain-
Ceci
lJohnRhodes,
JohnMof
fat

Ger
many

Por
tugal
-Paul
Kruger
,Li
pper
t

Shi
ppar
dLaunder
ett
es

N.
B.AcceptHunt
ersMi
ssi
onar
iesandTr
ader
s.

[b]
.Out
li
net
heBr
it
ishef
for
tst
oacqui
recol
oni
esi
nSout
her
nAf
ri
cabet
ween1870
and1890

Br
it
ainusedthecl
aimt
odi
amondar
eaofKi
mber
lyt
ofoundt
hei
rGr
iqual
and
WestColony
.

Br
it
ainincor
por
atedBasut
olandi
ntoCapeCol
onyi
n1871.
Basut
olandsought
pr
otect
ionduetomissi
onar
yinfl
uence.

Swazi
landalsosoughtBr
it
ishpr
otect
ionf
rom Boer
sexpansi
oneast
war
ds
fr
om Transv
aal

Nat
alannexedbyBr
it
isht
opr
otecti
tfr
om Boert
rekker
s

Def
eatoftheZul
usandi
ncor
por
atedi
ntoNat
al(
labourf
ormi
nesand
pl
antat
ions)

Bri
ti
shsecuredr
oadtoCentralAfr
ica(1877-
86)bysecur
ingprot
ector
ateover
Bechuanal
andtostopBoer
sf r
om Transvaall
inki
ngupwithGermansfrom t
he
west(
RoleofRhodesandMissionari
es)

UseofMof
fat
,Rudd,
Char
terandMi
ssi
onar
ies

Pi
oneerCol
umn

Br
it
ishconquestanddi
sar
mamentofAf
ri
canSt
ates1877-
86,
Angl
o-Boerwar
,

Angl
o-Pedi
war

Zul
uunderCet
shway
o(1872-
84)

[
c].
Howf arwer
etheBr
it
ishef
for
tsi
nfl
uencedbyt
hedi
scov
eryofmi
ner
alsi
nSout
h
Afr
ica[
8]

Coloni
sati
onofGri
qual
andWest,
thesecondAngl
o-Boerfeder
ati
onand
occupati
onofMashonal
andal
li
nfl
uencedbydesi
retocontr
olgol
dand
di
amondr esour
ces.

Cr
ushi
ngoft
heZul
ust
ate,
Pedi
,et
cint
endedt
oenf
orcef
orcedl
abourt
o

Page113of113
 mi
nesi
nSout
hAf
ri
cabycr
eat
ingr
eser
ves

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Needt
ofi
ndr
awmat
eri
alsandmar
ket
s

Pr
est
igeegRhodesCapet
oCai
rov
isi
on

Tosecur
ethemi
ssi
onar
yroadt
othenor
th

St
rat
egi
creasons-
egRhodeswant
edt
oenci
rcl
etheBoer
s

Mi
ssi
onar
yinf
luence

Fer
ti
lesoi
l
sandpast
ures

[
Nov2006]

77[
a].
Name:

[
i]
.Thef
ivet
err
it
ori
est
hatf
ellunderBr
it
ishi
nfl
uenceand, [
5]

[i
i]
.onet
err
it
oryt
hatf
ellunderGer
mani
nfl
uence,
dur
ingt
hescr
ambl
efor
Sout
hernAfr
ica [
1]

Br
it
ain :
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and;
Sout
hAf
ri
ca;
Bot
swana;
Zimbabwe;
Zambi
a;
Malawi

Ger
many :Nami
bia/
S.W.
A

[
B].Out
li
net
her
easonsf
ort
hecol
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
nAf
ri
cabet
ween1870and
1890.

Desi
ref
ormar
ket
s

Demandf
orr
awmat
eri
als

Toi
nvestsur
pluscapi
tal

Needf
orl
and

Needf
orcheapl
abour

Ger
manyandI
tal
ywant
edcol
oni
esf
orpr
est
ige

Needf
ormi
l
itar
ybases

Topr
otectr
out
ese,
gmi
ssi
onar
yroad

Bet
tercommuni
cat
ion;
medi
cine;
fir
ear
ms

Ber
li
nconf
erencepr
eci
pit
atedt
hescr
ambl
e

Boernat
ional
i
sm i
nS.
A

Desi
ret
ost
opsl
avet
radeandsl
aver
y,Chr
ist
iani
tyandwest
ernci
vi
li
sat
ion

Page114of114
 Af
ri
cansmi
l
itar
il
yweakanddi
suni
ted

Rol
eofl
ocal
agent
s

Ger
many
’spar
ti
cipat
ionf
ordi
plomat
icr
easons

Room f
orsur
pluspopul
ati
on

[
c].
Towhatext
entwer
etheAf
ri
canst
obl
amef
ort
hecol
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
n
Afr
ica?[
8]

[
i]
.Af
ri
canbl
amewor
thi
ness:

Di
suni
ty

Mi
l
itar
yweaknessi
nvi
tedEur
opeans

Tr
ibalwars,e,
gTswanaandKorana[
bothusedBoermer
cenar
iesagai
nsteach
ot
her.Boersfi
nal
lygai
nedSt
ell
alandtoGoshen.

Someaskedf
orcol
onialpowerpr
otect
ionfr
om rai
dsbynei
ghbour
s,e,
g
Ngwat
ogotBri
ti
shprotect
ionf
rom Ndebel
erai
ds

I
ll
i
ter
acymadeAf
ri
cansv
ulner
abl
edur
ingt
reat
ynegot
iat
ions

[
ii
]Ot
herf
act
ors

For
cesofi
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm t
oost
ronge,
gBr
it
ainandGer
many

Eur
opeandet
ermi
nat
iont
ocol
oni
sehel
plessAf
ri
cans

Cheat
ingdur
ingt
reat
ynegot
iat
ions

I
ll
i
ter
acymadeAf
ri
cansv
ulner
abl
edur
ingnegot
iat
ions

Rol
eofmi
ssi
onar
ies,
hunt
ers,
expl
orer
sandt
rader
s

[
Nov2007]

78[
a].
Ident
if
y

[
i]any
fourar
eascol
oni
sedbyBr
it
ainand

[
ii
]thet
woar
eascol
oni
sedbyPor
tugali
nSout
her
nAf
ri
ca [
6]

Bot
swana,
Zimbabwe,
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and,
Sout
hAf
ri
ca,
Zambi
a,Mal
awi
,

Angol
a,Mozambi
que

[
b]Out
li
nethel
ocalf
actorst
hatcausedEur
opeanpower
stoscr
ambl
efort
err
it
ory
i
nSouther
nAfr
icabetween1870and1890.

WeaknessesamongstAf
ri
cansl
edt
ofai
l
ureofr
esi
stancet
ocol
oni
sat
ion

Di
suni
ty

Poorweapons

Page115of115
 Poorst
rat
egi
es

Discov
eryofmi
ner
alssuchasdi
amondsandgoldi
nSout
hAf
ri
capr
eci
pit
ated
scramblef
orZi
mbabwebetweenBoer
sandBri
tai
n

Pr
esenceofEur
opeanChri
sti
anmissi
onari
esinAfr
icanstat
espersuaded
Af
ri
canstat
estoacceptpr
otect
ionorsigntr
eat
ieswithEuropeangroups

Si
gni
ngoft
reat
ies

Bansl
aver
y

Str
ategi
creasons-
Bri
tai
ndeclar
ed“Prot
ect
orat
e”overBot
swanain1885to
keepmissi
onaryroadtothenor
thsecur
e-asgatewayi
ntoCent
ralAf
ri
ca

Exi
stenceofpeopleont
hespotsuchasRhodes,
andHar
ryJohnsonwho
usedthei
renergi
esandweal
thforcol
oni
sati
onofAf
ri
canst
ates.

Local
riv
alr
iesbet
weenEur
opeanpower
s

Goodcl
i
mat
e,past
ures,
cat
tl
e,cheapl
abour
,mar
ket
s,mi
ner
als

[
c].
Howf
arwer
eAf
ri
canst
atest
obl
amef
ort
hecol
oni
sat
ion?[
8]

Bl
amewor
thi
nessofAf
ri
cans

Di
suni
tywhi
chpr
event
edcol
l
ect
iveact
ionagai
nstEur
opeani
mper
ial
i
sm

AcceptanceofChri
sti
anmissi
onar
iesi
nthei
rter
ri
tor
ieswhol
ateract
edas
agentsofEuropeancol
oni
sati
on

Acceptanceoftr
aderswhoal
soper
suadedt
hem t
osi
gnt
reat
iesandknewt
he
geographyofthelandt
obecol
oni
sed

War
sbet
weenAf
ri
canst
atesweakenedt
hei
rcapaci
tyt
oresi
st

I
ll
i
ter
acy,
accept
anceofbr
ibes

Ot
herf
act
ors

Af
ricanst
atesnotast
echnol
ogi
cal
l
yadv
ancedasEur
opeansi
nter
msof
weapons

Eur
opeanfor
ceswer
emobi
l
east
heyusedhor
sesandchar
iot
stocar
ry
weapons

Afr
icaleader
swer
enoteducat
edandwer
eeasi
l
ydecei
vedbyEur
opean
agents

Decei
tsbyEur
opeanagent
s

Needforforei
gngoodssuchasclot
handjewel
l
eryforcedAfr
icanst
atesto
acceptt
radersandal
lowexpl
oit
ati
onoft
heirmi
ner
al weal
thbyEuropeans

Fat
eofAf
ri
canst
ateswasdeci
dedatt
heBer
li
nWestAf
ri
caConf
erence1884-

Page116of116
 85

[
Nov2008]

79[
a].
Ident
if
yanysi
xEuropeanagent
swhopar
ti
cipat
edi
nthescr
ambl
efor
Sout
hernAfri
ca [6]

Rhodes;Her
rLuder
it
z;JohnSmi
thMoffat
;Char
lesRudd;Pi
etGr
obl
er,
Fr
ancisThompson;Rochf
ordMagui
re,
SydneyShi
ppard.

[
b].
Out
li
net
her
easonsf
orEur
opeanscr
ambl
eforSout
her
nAf
ri
ca.[
11]

Rawmat eri
alsneededtosust
aint
heexpansi
onofEur
opeanI
ndust
ry
accel
erat
edbyt heindust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on

Toensur
econt
inuedsuppl
y,col
oni
ser
sscr
ambl
edf
ori
nSout
her
n
Af
ri
ca

Needformar
ket
sforpr
ocessedgoods.Sout
her
nAf
ri
caapot
ent
ial
market

Needt
oinv
estsur
pluscapi
tal
inSout
her
nAf
ri
ca

Discov
eryofgol
danddiamondssparkedscr
ambl
efort
err
it
ori
esnor
th
oftheLimpopo[
sear
chedforsecondr
and]

Protect
ioni
stt
endenci
esi
nEuropein1885madepowersscrambl
efor
ter
ri
tori
esbefor
erival
sgr
abbedthem andexcl
udet
hei
rtr
aders

Fer
ti
lesoi
l
s

Cheapl
abour

Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons

Ger
manswant
edapl
acei
nthesun

Rhodeshadt
heCapet
oCai
rodr
eam,
all
tobepai
ntedRed

Boer
ssoughttoext
endt
heirt
err
it
orybey
ondt
heLi
mpopor
ivert
oav
oid
bei
ngenci
rcl
edbytheBr
it
ish

Bri
ti
sh,
whoal
way
str
iedt
ocont
rol
them,
att
empt
edt
ost
opt
hem f
rom
doi
ngso

Por
tugueseexpansi
oni
stpol
i
cyt
othewest

Br
it
ish/
Rhodeswant
edt
okeept
he“
missi
onar
yroad’

Por
tuguesewantedt
oli
nkPor
tugueseEastAfri
cawithAngola.
Ger
manst ol
inkSout
hWestAfr
icawithTanzani
a/Tanganyi
ka.

Cont
rol
oft
heCapeofgoodHope

Tobr
ingwest
ernci
vi
li
sat
iont
oSout
her
nAf
ri
caanddi
scour
ageev
il

Page117of117
 pr
act
icessuchasr
aidi
ng

SomeChr
ist
iansbecameagent
sofi
mper
ial
i
sm e,
gChar
lesHel
m and
JohnSmi
thMoffat

Raci
sm

Tospr
eadChr
ist
iani
ty

Tospr
ead3Rs

Toendsl
aver
y

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwasi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ioni
nthecol
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca?[
8]

I
mpor
tanceofi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ion

I
ndustr
ial
i
sati
oninEuropeledt
odemandforr
awmat er
ial
sandmarketsin
Sout
hernAfr
ica.Col
onieswoul
dsuppl
yrawmater
ial
se,gcot
ton,
tobaccoetc

Excesscapi
tal
woul
dbei
nvest
edi
nmi
ningact
ivi
ti
esi
nSout
hAf
ri
ca

Technol
ogi
cal
adv
ancement

Empl
oyment

Di
scov
eryofmedi
cines

Ot
herf
act
ors

Pol
i
tical
reasonsf
ort
hescr
ambl
e

Di
suni
tyamongstAf
ri
cans

Humani
tar
ianf
act
ors

Poorweaponsf
ordef
ence

[
Nov2008]

80[
a].I
dent
if
yanysi
xAf
ri
canchi
efdomscol
oni
sedbyt
he Eur
opeansi
nSout
her
n
Afr
ica.
[6]

Ndebel
e,Makoni
,Mashayamombe, Chi
namhora,Chi
hot
a,Mangwende,
Zvi
mba,Mugabe,Mutasa,Zul
u,Xhosa,
Ngwato,Swazi
,Gaza,
Pedi
,Sotho,
Lozi
.

[
b].
Outl
inethemethodsusedbyEur
opeanpower
stocol
oni
sechi
efdomsin
Sout
hernAfri
caduri
ngthescrambl
e [
11]

Warf
are-e,
g1893Anglo-
Ndebel
eWar,
1896/
7Ndebele–Shonaupr
isi
ngs,
Angl
o-Zuluwar
,thewarofgunbet
weenBri
ti
shandSot
ho1884-5,
theBoer
-
Pedi
war .

Tr
eaty
-making/Dipl
omacy -e,
gMoffatTr
eat
yFebruary1888,
RuddConcessi
on
Oct
ober1888,LippertConcessi
on1890.
MutasaTreaty

Page118of118
 Granti
ngofChart
er-
egRhodesgr
antedChart
erbyQueent
oaut
hor
ise
coloni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe,ZambiaandMalawi

UseofChar
ter
edcompani
ese,
gZambezi
company
,B.
A.S.
C

Tri
cker
y-Lobengul
agi
venv
erbal
promi
sesi
ntheRuddConcessi
ont
hatwer
e
neverf
ulfi
l
led

Thepr
otect
orat
esy
stem i
nBar
otsel
andBasut
oland,
Bechuanal
andand
Swazi
l
and.

Bri
bery-
Lot
shewasbr
ibedt
oinf
luenceLobengul
atosi
gnt
heRudd
Concessi
on.

Theuseoft
rader
se,
gBai
nes

Theuseofhunt
erse,
gSel
ous

[
c].
WhyweretheEur
opeanssuccessf
uli
ncol
oni
singt
heAf
ri
canchi
efdomsdur
ing
t
hisper
iod? [
8].

Adv
ant
agesofEur
opeans/
Eur
opeanst
rengt
hs

Super
iorweapons,
bet
tercommuni
cat
ioni
nwar

Usedt
ri
cks

Usedbr
iber
y

Useddy
nami
te

Useofagent
s

Useofmi
ssi
onar
ies

Useoft
rader
s

Useofhunt
ers

Di
sadv
ant
agesofAf
ri
cans/
Weaknesses

Desi
ref
orf
orei
gngoods

I
nfer
iorweapons

Poorwarst
rat
egi
es

Poorcommuni
cat
ion

I
ll
i
ter
acy
[coul
dnoti
nter
prett
reat
ies]

Di
suni
tye,
gamongt
heShona

[
Nov2009]

81[
a].
Ident
if
yanysi
xwhi
test
hathel
pedi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca.[
6]

Page119of119
 Rhodes,
Kruger

Gr
obl
er,
DukeofAber
cor
n

J.
S.Mof
fat
,QueenVi
ctor
ia

Sel
ous,
Lor
dSal
i
sbur
y.

Hel
m,Penne-
fat
her
,Bi
smar
ck,
Jameson

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hecompet
it
ionf
ort
hecol
oni
sat
ionofsout
her
nAf
ri
ca.

Brit
ishandBoers-competedforcont
rol
oftheNdebeleasshownbythe
signingoftheGroblerandMoffatTr
eat
y.Bri
tai
nendedupasthewinner
saf
ter
thesi gni
ngoft
heRuddConcessi on

Bri
tai
nandBoerscompetedfort
hecontroloft
hediamondweal
thi
nKi
mber
ly.
Thi
sledtoBr
it
ishannexati
onofOrangeFreeStat
e.

Brit
ishdesir
etoaccessNguni l
abourf orceandtoencir
cletheBoer
sledto
annexati
onofNat alandt odeclareapr otect
orat
eoverBechuanal
andsoast o
preserv
ethe‘missionaryroad’andt hwartBoerexpansi
onwestwards.Boer
s
haddeclaredtwor epubl
icsofSt el
lalandandGoshen.

ThesecondAnglo-
Boerwarwaspar
toft
hest
ruggl
etocont
rol
thegol
dweal
th
att
heWi t
water
srand.

Br
itai
nandPort
ugalcompet
edf
ort
hecont
rol
ofMashonal
andwhi
chNdebel
e
cl
aimedtocont
rol

Port
uguesei
ntendedt
ojoinPor
tugueseEastAf
ri
ca[
P.E.
A]wi
thAngol
awhi
l
st
RhodeshadCapetoCair
odream

Expedi
ti
onst
oMut
asaandGazaSt
ate

Angl
o-Por
tugueseTr
eat
yof1891r
esol
vedboundar
iesbet
weenRhodesi
aand
P.
E.A.

Ger
manyandBr i
tain-Br
it
ishinfluencewasspreadi
ngfrom theSouthtot
he
Nort
hwhil
stGermanywasexpandi ngeastwardsf
rom theareashehadi,
e
S.
W.A.Br
it
aindeclaredapr otectoratei
nBechuanal
andi n1885tothwar
t
Ger
manexpansionandpr eservemi ssi
onar
yroad.

[c]
.Towhatext
entwer
ethepeopl
eofSout
her
nAf
ri
caaf
fect
edbyt
hiscompet
it
ion
upt o1900? [8]

Posi
ti
veEf
fect
s

Somestat
esgai
nedprot
ect
ionandremai
nedi
ntacte,
gLozi
ofLewani
ka;
Khama’
sNgwato;Sot
hoofMoshoeshoe

Somechi
efsr
etai
nedt
hei
rpowere,
gLewani
ka

Manymi
ssi
onar
iesv
isi
tedt
hest
atet
oconv
ertpeopl
etoChr
ist
iani
ty

Page120of120
 Tr
adewi
thf
orei
gner
sincr
eased

Endofet
hni
cwar
s(Ndebel
evsShonaorNgwat
o;Zul
u-Pedi
clashes,
etc)

Ndebel
est
ater
emai
nedi
ntactupt
o1893

Di
sadv
ant
ages

Lossofi
ndependence

Er
osi
onofAf
ri
cancul
tur
e

Lossofweal
the,
grawmat
eri
als

Col
oni
alwar
sandwar
sofdi
spossessi
ons

Hi
ghdeat
hrat
e(Maxi
m gunusage)

Cheat
edi
ntr
eat
ies

Ndebel
eki
ngspentt
imedeal
i
ngwi
thconcessi
onseeker
s

Taxat
ion

For
cedl
abour

Causesofupr
isi
ngs

[
Nov2003]

82[
a]Namet
hreeEur
opeancount
ri
est
hatwer
einv
olv
edi
nthescr
ambl
efor
Sout
hern

Af
ri
caandt
hear
east
heyoccupi
ed.
[6]

[
i]
Ger
many
-Nami
bia.

[
ii
]Br
it
ain—Zi
mbabwe,
Zambi
a,Bot
swana,
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and,
Sout
hAf
ri
ca,
Mal
awi
.

[
ii
i
]Por
tugal
—Mozambi
que,
Angol
a

[
b]Descr
ibethecompeti
ti
onfort
hecont
rol
ofSout
her
nAf
ri
cabyt
heEur
opean
powersbetween1870and1890. [
11]

Bri
tai
nandGer many -
Bri
tai
ninSout
hAfri
caandGer manyinSouthWestAf ri
ca
(Namibi
a)want edcontr
olofBot
swanaandNdebelecountry.Germany’s
eff
ort
sfrust
ratedwhenBr i
tai
noccupi
edBotswana-prot
ectorat
estatus.
Bri
tai
noccupiedMashonalandandMatabel
elandaftert
heRuddConcessi on
andtheAngloNdebel eWar.

Bri
tai
nandPortugalcompetedforthecont
rolofMashonal
andand
Manical
and.Port
ugalhadoccupiedMozambiqueandwant edtouseherl
ong
est
abli
shedrel
ati
onshipwit
htheShonat ocontr
olt
heseareas.Bri
tai
nfr
om
SouthAfr
icawantedtoreal
i
zeherdr eamsofCapetoCai r
oroute

Br
it
ainandt
heBoer
scompet
edf
orcont
rol
inSout
hAf
ri
ca.TheBoer
shad

Page121of121
 occupiedTr
ansvaalsowantedt oexpandnorthwards,Br
it
ainwasatt heCape,
wantedZimbabwe,toreali
seCapet oCairodream.Compet i
ti
onshownby
si
gningoftheGrobl
erTreatyin1887-Boers,
LobengulaandtheMof f
atTreat
y
i
n1888bet weentheBrit
ishandLobengula,Boersfail
edtoexpandwest war
ds
becauseofBechuanal
andPr otect
orateandtheRuddConcessi on.

[
c].
WasCecilJohnRhodesani
mpor
tantf
act
ori
nthescr
ambl
eforSout
her
nAf
ri
ca?
Expl
ainy
ouranswer. [
8]

Hi
simpor
tance

Rhodes–anambi
ti
ousandr
ichi
ndi
vi
dual
whowant
edt
opr
omot
eBr
it
ish
i
mperial
i
sm

Thehopet
ofi
ndt
hesecondr
and(
gol
d)t
othenor
thoft
heLi
mpopo

St
rat
egi
cimpor
tanceoft
heCape

Togetr
awmat
eri
alsandhav
emar
ket
s

Pol
i
tical
cont
rol
oft
her
egi
on

Rhodesimport
antinthatheper
sonal
l
yfi
nancedandencour
agedt
he
occupat
ionofareasnort
hoftheLi
mpopo.

Ot
herf
act
ors

Rol
eofmi
ssi
onar
ies

Por
tuguese

Boer
s/Ger
mans

[
Nov2004]

83[
a]Nameanysi
xAfri
canki
ngdomscol
oni
sedbyEur
opeansi
nSout
her
nAf
ri
ca
t
h
dur
ingt
he19 cent
ury
.

Ndebel
e,Zul
u,Sot
ho.

Swazi
,Ngwat
o,Kol
olo

Tswana,
Gaza,
Xhosa,
Pedi

[
b].
Describet
hev
ari
ousmet
hodsusedbyt
heEur
opeanst
ocol
oni
seSout
her
n
Afr
ica.[
11]

Tr
eat
iesandagr
eement
s-e,
gRuddConcessi
on,
Mof
fatTr
eat
y

Useoff
orceandwar
s–Angl
o-Zul
uwar1879,
Angl
o-Ndebel
ewar1893

Useofmi
ssi
onar
ies,
tr
ader
sandexpl
orer
s-RevHel
m,L.
M.S.
int
heZambezi
val
l
ey

Pr
otect
orat
est
ates-
Bot
swana,
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and

Page122of122
 Ambi
ti
ousi
ndi
vi
dual
s-C.
J.Rhodes

Useofcompani
es-
B.S.
S.C.

UseofConcessi
on–seeker
sandhunt
ersandbuy
ingagr
eement
s.

Br
iber
yofAf
ri
canchi
efs

Tr
icker
y

[
c].
Howef f
ect
ivewer
ethemet
hodsusedbyEur
opeansi
ncol
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
n
Afr
ica?[
8]

[
i] Ef
fect
iveasshownbyt
hecol
oni
sat
ionoft
hef
oll
owi
ngki
ngdoms

Tr
eat
ies-
Mof
fat
,RuddConcessi
on

War
s-Angl
o-Zul
uwar1897,
Angl
o-Ndebel
ewar1893

Pr
otect
orat
es-
Bot
swana,
Lesot
hoandSwazi
l
and

Useofchar
ter
edcompani
es

[
ii
]Ef
fect
ivet
oal
i
mit
edext
ent

RuddConcessi
onwhichdi
dnotresul
tinthecol
oni
sat
ionoft
heNdebel
est
ate,
warhadtobefoughtt
obreakupthestat
e

Pr
otect
orat
est
atusgav
ethecount
ri
essomemeasur
eofaut
onomy

[
Nov2004]

84[
a]Listanysi
xpr
obl
emsf
acedbyAf
ri
cansdur
ingt
hecol
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
n
Afr
ica.[
6]

War
swhi
chr
esul
tedi
nthedeat
hofmanypeopl
e

Shor
tageoff
oodaspr
oduct
ionoff
oodwasnegat
ivel
yaf
fect
ed

Heal
thdel
i
ver
yser
vicesdi
srupt
ed/di
srupt
ionofAf
ri
cancul
tur
e

Di
srupt
ionoft
rade

Fami
l
ieswer
edi
sor
gani
sed

Lossofl
and

Lossofcat
tl
e

Humi
l
iat
ionbywhi
tes

[b]
.Descr
ibet
hemet
hodsusedbyAfr
icanst
atesi
nSout
her
nAf
ri
cat
oresi
st
coloni
sat
ionupt
o1900. [
11]

Resi
stedbyf
ight
ingcol
oni
ser
s,e,
gZul
u,Ndebel
e

Si
gnedagr
eement
swi
thsomecount
ri
esagai
nstot
herpossi
blecol
oni
ser
s,e,
g

Page123of123
 t
heMof
fatAgr
eement
,Li
pper
tConcessi
on

Soughtpr
otect
orat
est
atusf
ort
hei
rst
ates,
e,gBechuanal
and

Ki
l
ledwhi
tesi
nisol
atedpl
aces,
far
msandmi
nes

At
tempt
edt
ocancel
Treat
ies-
e,gLobengul
a

Resi
stedChr
ist
iani
ty

MosheshoeneededChr
ist
iani
tyt
oresi
stBoer
s

[
c].
Howsuccessf
ulwer
etheAf
ri
cansi
nresi
sti
ngcol
oni
sat
ioni
nthi
sper
iod? [
8]

Successf
ul

Pr
otect
orat
est
atusassomeAf
ri
canst
ateshadsomeaut
onomy

Tr
eati
es/Agreement
sdel
ayedt
hecol
oni
sat
ionofsomeAf
ri
canst
ates-
e,gt
he
Moff
atAgreement

Notsuccessf
ul

Wars–t
heAfri
canstateswer
edefeat
edresul
ti
ngi
nthecol
oni
sat
ionoft
he
st
atee,
gtheZul
ustate,t
heNdebel
estat
e

Pr
otect
orat
e-l
osti
ndependence

85.(
a)St
ateanysixAfr
icanKingdomscol
oni
sedbyt
hewhi
tesdur
ingt
heScr
ambl
e
forSout
hernAfr
ica. (
6)

Sot
ho,
Swazi
,Gaza.

Zul
u,Ndebel
e,Pedi

(
b).
Descr
ibet
het
ermsoft
heBer
li
nConf
erenceof1884t
o1885. (
11)

Ai
nfor
m ot
hercount
ri
esofi
tsspher
eofi
nfl
uencet
opr
eventcount
ercl
ashes

Freedom ofnav
igat
iononmaj
orr
iver
ssuchast
heNi
ger
,Ni
l
e,Congoand
Zambezi

Recogni
ti
onofexi
sti
ngspher
esofi
nfl
uencebyEur
opeancount
ri
es,

e,
gCongoandNi
gerdel
ta.

Af
ri
cadi
vi
dedi
nto20t
err
it
ori
aluni
ts

Si
gni
ngoft
reat
iest
olegi
ti
miseoccupat
ion

I
fany2count
ri
esquar
rel
l
ed,
si
gnat
reat
ytosol
vet
hepr
obl
em

Hoi
sti
ngoff
lagoft
hecol
oni
ser

Agr
eedt
obansl
aver
y

I
ndependentwi
tness,
Def
ini
ngofboundar
iesorspher
esofi
nfl
uence

Page124of124
 Doct
ri
neofef
fect
iveoccupat
ion

(c)
.Towhatextentdi
dtheBer
li
nConf
erencecont
ri
but
etot
hescr
ambl
efor
Souther
nAfri
ca? (8)

Asacat
aly
stt
oScr
ambl
e:

Eur
opeancount
ri
escompet
edf
orunoccupi
edar
easofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca

Conf
erencel
egi
ti
misedoccupat
ionofSout
her
nAf
ri
ca

Ther
ewasalsoscr
amblet
odefi
neandextendboundar
iesofexi
sti
ngspher
e
ofi
nfl
uencebyt
heBri
ti
sh,
Por
tuguese,
BoersandGermans.

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
als\
mar
ket
s\i
nvest
ment
s

St
rat
egi
creasons

Humani
tar
ianr
easons-
spr
eadofChr
ist
iani
ty.

Raci
alandpr
est
iger
easons

Workofexplor
erswhodr
ewmapsofAf
ri
ca,
rev
eal
edar
easwi
thv
aluabl
e
r
esources.

Wor
kofhunt
ers,
missi
onar
ies,
Concessi
onseeker
s.

[
June2011]

86[
a].I
dent
if
yanysi
xar
eascol
oni
zedbyBr
it
aindur
ingt
heScr
ambl
eforSout
her
n
Afr
ica.[
6]

Mal
awi
,Zi
mbabwe,
Zambi
a

Swazi
l
and,
Lesot
ho,
Sout
hAf
ri
ca.
Bot
swana.

[
b].
Outli
netheeconomicf
actor
swhi
chi
nfl
uencedt
hescr
ambl
eforout
her
n
Afr
icabetween1870and1900. [11]

Needf
orcheapl
abour
,needf
ormar
ket
s

Di
scov
eryofmi
ner
alssuchasgol
d,di
amonds

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
als,
needt
oacqui
repr
otect
orat
efort
rade

Needf
orwi
l
dli
fe,
desi
ref
orf
ert
il
esoi
l
s

Toi
nvestsur
pluscapi
tal
,goodcl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
onsf
orsomecr
ops

St
rat
egi
creasonse,
gcont
rol
oft
heCapeofGoodHope

Desi
ref
orcat
tl
e

[
c].
Towhatext
entwer
etheAf
ri
canst
obl
amef
ort
hecol
oni
sat
ionofSout
her
n

Page125of125
Af
ri
ca? [
8]

Af
ri
canbl
amewor
thi
ness

I
nfer
iormi
l
itar
yequi
pment
,Di
suni
ty

Someagr
eedt
ocol
oni
alpr
otect
iont
oav
oidr
aidsf
rom nei
ghbour
se,
gNgwat
o.

Tr
ibal
war
s,accept
anceofmi
ssi
onar
ieswhol
att
erf
aci
l
itat
edcol
oni
sat
ion

I
ll
i
ter
acy
-di
dnotunder
standt
ermsoft
reat
iese,
gLobengul
a

Somechi
efdomscol
l
abor
atedwi
thcol
oni
alagent
s

Ot
herf
act
ors

Whi
teshadsuper
iorweapons

I
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm hadst
rongneeds

Eur
opeanst
ri
ckedAf
ri
cansdur
ingt
reat
ynegot
iat
ions

Ber
li
nconf
erenceof1884-
85

I
nfl
uenceofmi
ssi
onar
ies,
trader
sandhunt
ers

COLONI
SATI
ONOFZI
MBABWE
[
Speci
men]

87[a]
.Namesixtreat
iest
hatwer
esi
gnedbet
weenLobengul
aandt
heConcessi
on
seekersbef
ore1893.
[6]

Tat
iConcessi
on

Bai
nest
reat
y

Gr
obl
ert
reat
y

Mof
fatt
reat
y

RuddConcessi
on

Li
pper
tConcessi
on

[
b].
Whatpr
obl
emsdi
dLobengul
afacei
ndeal
ingwi
thConcessi
onseeker
s [
11]

Opposi
ti
onf
rom hi
sar
mywhowant
edal
lfor
eigner
ski
ckedout

Languagepr
obl
em i
ncommuni
cat
ion

Pooradv
icef
rom hi
scounci
l
lor
s

Di
shonestadv
icef
rom whi
teacquai
ntancese,
gMi
ssi
onar
iesandhunt
ers

Thedi
ff
icul
tyofj
udgi
ngwhi
chwast
hebestEur
opeangr
oupt
odeal
wit
h

Page126of126
 Pooreducat
ionl
evel
prev
enti
nghi
mfr
om f
ull
yunder
standi
ngt
hei
mpl
i
cat
ion
ofwhathewasrequi
redtosi
gn

Hewasaf
rai
dofwhatmi
ghthappeni
fhedi
dnotsi
gn

Concessi
onseeker
salsocheat
edwhensometi
mestheypret
endedtobe
worki
ngeachothert
oinfl
uencehi
sdeci
si
on,
e,gLi
ppertsol
dhisconcessi
on
toRhodes.

Healsohadweaknessesforluxur
ygoodsandwaseasi
l
yinf
luencedby
r
ecei
vinggi
ft
sofnolasti
ngv al
ue

I
nRuddConcessi
ont hei
mperi
ali
stsf
ool
edhi
m bystr
essingonl
ythever
bal
wor
dwhi cht
heyknewAfri
cansval
uedmost
,andwrotesomethi
ngelsedown
f
orLobengul
atosign.

[
c].
Howf
arwasLobengul
asuccessf
uli
ndeal
ingwi
tht
heConcessi
onseeker
s?[
8]

I
mperi
ali
stsusedbr i
beryt
ogethisoff
icer
stoactont
hei
rsi
dee,
gLot
she
whowaslaterexecutedbytheNdebel
e

Fearofthehar
mthatmi
ghtbef
all
hiski
ngdom madehi
m maker
ush
deci
sionstosi
gn

Concessi
onseekersshowedsuchdeter
minati
onthatunner
vedLobengul
a,
oncetheycametheydidnota‘
no’forananswer.

Usedt
hedel
ayi
ngt
act
icbymaki
ngt
hem wai
tforl
ongper
iods

Madet
hem per
for
mtasksbef
oredeal
i
ngwi
tht
hem

Thoughalwaysadvi
sedt
othecont
rar
yheal
way
smetnextgr
oupof
concessi
onseeker
s

I
deawast
opl
ayt
hem oneagai
nstt
heot
her

Hefai
ledt
owar dthem of
fandwasal
wayspushedi
ntogi
vi
ngi
nmor
eto
eachnewgroupinhopeitwoul
dst
opther
e

Heal
sofail
edtoseekthewhi t
eman’ sgameofpsychol
ogical
waronhim,
wher
etheyexaggerat
edt hedangerofhisnotcomingt
otermswit
hthem
t
husmakinghi
m signtreati
esearl
ierthanheshoul
dhave

Thedetermi
nati
onoftheEuropeansmeantt hatLobengulahadnochance
ofsucceedi
ngagai
nsttheconcessionseekers.Col
onial
ism/ I
mper
ial
i
sm
wasunstoppabl
eandeitherway,hewasgoi ngtobeabsor bed.

[
Nov2003]

88[
a]St
atesi
xter
msoft
heRuddConcessi
on.
[
6]

TheNdebel
eki
ngt
orecei
veamont
hlysal
aryof100pounds.

Ndebel
erul
ert
orecei
ve1000r
if
lesand100000r
oundsofammuni
ti
on

Page127of127
 Agunboatt
opat
rol
theZambezi
riv
eror€500i
nst
ead

Met
alsandmi
ner
alr
ight
sgr
ant
edt
oRhodesandhi
sgr
oup

Powergiv
ent
otheBr
it
isht
odowhatt
heydeem necessar
ytopr
otectt
hei
r
i
nter
ests

Nott
ogr
antl
andormi
ner
alr
ight
swi
thoutBr
it
ishconcur
rence

Ver
bal
ter
ms:

Notmor
ethan10unar
medmen

Not
icest
oputi
nS.Af
ri
canpaper
s

Sur
render
ingoff
ir
ear
ms

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heorgani
sati
onandmovementoft
hePi
oneercol
umni
ntot
hear
ea
bet
weentheZambeziandLimpopoRi
ver
s.
[
11]

[
i] Or
gani
sat
ion:

Af
terobt
aini
ngt
her
oyal
char
ter,
Rhodesr
ecr
uit
edpi
oneer
stooccupy
Zi
mbabwe

200recr
uit
ed,
whorepresent
edv
ari
oust
rades.Mostwer
ebel
l
ow30y
ear
s
;Sout
hAfri
canex
peri
ence

Theywer
epr
omi
sed300acr
esofl
andand15gol
dcl
aimseach

ThePioneerswereaccompani
edbyapoli
cef
orceforprotect
ionandtocrush
anyresi
stance.Commanderofthepol
i
cewasColonelEdwardGraham Penne
fat
her

Thegui
deoft
hepi
oneer
swasF.
C.Sel
ous

Goodswer
ecar
ri
edbyoxwagons

For
mat
ionofBASCwhi
chr
aisedcapi
tal
inLondon

[
ii
] Mov
ement
:

ThePioneer
sgroupedi
nBotswanatostar
ttheirj
ourneyatt
hebeginningof
1890.
Gothelpf
rom Khama,
establ
ishedalaagerl
eftpoli
cetoguar
dt hem

ThePioneerCol
umncr
ossedMat
lout
sieRi
veri
nJune1890andShashi
Riv
er
i
nJuly1890.

ThePioneersav
oidedt
heNdebel
est
atewher
etheNdebel
eregi
ment
swant
ed
toat
tackthem

Lobengul
adi
dnotal
l
owt
her
egi
ment
stoat
tackt
hePi
oneer
s

Ont
hewayt
hePi
oneer
sest
abl
i
shedf
ort
s:For
tTul
i(nearLi
mpopo)
,For
t

Page128of128
 Vict
ori
a,For
tChart
erandFor
tSal
i
sbur
y.Ar
ri
vedatFor
tSal
i
sbur
yon12
September1890.

Rai
singt
heUni
onJack

[
c].
WastheBrit
ishSouthAf
ricaCompanyr
esponsi
blef
ort
heAngl
o-Ndebel
ewarof
1893?Expl
ainyouranswer
.
[
8]

BASCAct
ions:

Aboundar
ymade;

Pol
i
tical
cont
rol
oft
heShonabyt
hecompany

Compet
it
ionbet
weent
heNdebel
eandCompany

Desi
r or2ndRand
ef

Fal
lofcompanyshar
es

Ot
herReasons:

Someshonel
eader
sst
oppedpay
ingt
ri
but
etoLobengul
a

Vi
ctor
iai
nci
dent

Ndebel
erai
dsdi
stur
bedl
abouronset
tl
erf
arms

Set
tl
erswant
edt
odest
royt
heNdebel
est
ate

[
Jne2004]

89[a]
.I
dent
if
yanysi
xfor
tsbui
ltbyt
heBr
it
ishSout
hAf
ri
caCompanyi
nZi
mbabwe,
1890-
1896.
[
6]

For
tTul
i

For
tVi
ctor
ia

For
tChar
ter

For
tSal
i
sbur
y

For
tMar
ti
n

For
tUsher

For
tRi
xon

For
tMel
set
ter

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hecomposi
ti
on,
organi
sat
ionandmov
ementoft
hePi
oneer
Col
umn.[
11]

Page129of129
 ThePi
oneercol
umnconsi
stedofbot
hAf
ri
kanerandEngl
i
shel
ement
s

Peopl
ewi
thSout
hAf
ri
canexper
ience

Thegr
oupconsi
stedof200set
tl
erssuppor
tedby500pol
i
cemen

Ther
ewer
eal
so1000auxi
l
iar
iessuppl
i
edbyKhamat
heNgwat
oki
ng

ThePioneersett
lerswer
ealsot
oconsi
stofdi
ff
erentt
rades-
baker
s,
miner
s,buil
ders,far
merset
c

AnumberofAf
ri
canser
vant
saccompani
edPi
oneercol
umn

Fr
ankJohnson[Major
]wast hel
eaderoft
hePioneercor
pswhi
l
stCol
onel
Pennef
atherwastheleaderoft
hemountedpoli
ce

Fr
eder
ickCour
tneySel
ousact
edast
hegui
def
ort
hePi
oneerCol
umn

Theset
tl
erswer
epr
omi
sedgener
ousgr
ant
sofl
andandgol
dcl
aims

Thegroupwereequi
ppedwi
th117wagonswi
thher
dsofl
i
vest
ockbei
ng
dri
venalongsi
de

Expedi
ti
onsetof
ffr
om Mat
lout
seRi
ver
-June1890

Cr
ossedt
heShashi
Riv
eri
nJul
y

Bui
l
tFor
tTul
ifordef
enceagai
nstNdebel
eat
tack

Av
oidedMat
abel
elandf
orf
earofwarwi
tht
heNdebel
e

ByAugustt
heexpedi
ti
onhadr
eachedFor
tVi
ctor
ia(
Masv
ingo)
-
pr
oceededtoFor
tChart
er(
Chi
vi)

12thSept
ember1890t
hePi
oneer
sreachedFor
tSal
i
sbur
y-hoi
stedUni
on
Jack.

NB:Themili
taryi
nvasi
onofMashonalandasevi
dencedbyFor
ts,guns
andmil
it
aryleader
se,gMajorF.JohnsonandCol
onelPennef
ather

[
c].
Isitt
ruetheBri
ti
shSout
hAf
ri
caCompanydi
dnotwantwarwi
tht
heNdebel
e?
Expl
ainyouranswer.
[
8]

[
i]
.BSACav
oidi
ngwarwi
tht
heNdebel
e.

ThePioneercol
umndidnotwantwarwi
thNdebel
e-Av
oidedNdebel
e
ter
ri
tor
yonr out
etoset
tl
ementarea

Theset
tl
ershopedt
oincor
por
ateMat
abel
elandpeacef
ull
ylat
er

[
ii
].
Pioneerset
tl
ershowev
er,
prepar
edf
orwar
,

br
oughtl
argear
medf
orce

v
iol
atedt
ermsoft
heRuddConcessi
on

Page130of130
 Mat
abel
elandwaspar
tofar
eacov
eredbyRhodes’
Char
terof1889

Mat
abel
elandal
sopar
toft
hear
eacov
eredbyRhodes’
dream ofCapet
oCai
ro

Pr
oposedr
ail
wayf
rom Sout
hAf
ri
cat
opasst
hroughMat
abel
eland

Pi
oneer
shadmor
epeopl
ethanal
l
owedbyt
heRuddconcessi
on

Fai
l
uret
ofi
ndgol
dinMashonal
and

[
Nov2004]

90[a]
.NameanysixBr
it
ishnat
ional
s,ot
hert
hanRhodes,
whoassi
stedi
nthe
col
onisat
ionofZi
mbabwe.

L.
S.Jameson;C.Rudd;J.
S.Moffat
;J.Thomson.R.Magui
re.C.Hel
m;F.
Thompson;MajorF.
Johnson;
F.C.Sel
ous;Col
onelPennefather
;Al
l
an
Wil
son

[
b].
Whatst
epswer
etakenbyRhodest
ocol
oni
seZi
mbabwe? [
11]

TheMoffatAgr
eementi
nFebr
uar
y1888i
nit
iat
edbyRhodesasawayof
rev
ersi
ngtheGrobl
erTr
eat
y

TheRuddConcessi
on,October1888-
ami ner
alconcessi
onwhi
ch
i
ntendedt
ostr
engthentheMof f
atAgreement

TheRoyalchar
tergr
ant
edinOct
ober1889whi
chgav
eRhodes
per
missi
ontocoloni
seandadmi
nist
erZi
mbabweonbehal
fofBr
it
ain

TheBr
it
ishSout
hAf
ri
caCompany(
1890)
-t
ocol
oni
seandadmi
nist
er
Zi
mbabweonbehal
fofBr
it
ain

Rhodessentapar
ty,
ledbyL.
S.Jameson,
toaskLobengul
atoal
l
owt
he
BSACtogoi nt
oMashonal
and

Recr
uit
mentoft
hepi
oneer
stocol
oni
seZi
mbabwet
ocomef
rom al
lov
er
theworl
d–madeupof200

ThePioneerCol umn-
consi
stedofPioneer
s,soldi
ers/
policemen,Af
ri
can
auxi
l
iaries,
mar chedi
ntoMashonalanddespit
ev er
balresist
ancefr
om t
he
Ndebele.Raisi
ngoftheUnionJack-For
tSali
sbury

Angl
o-Ndebel
ewar1893-
Tot
akeov
erMat
abel
eland

Ndebel
eandShonaupr
isi
ngs1896-
7cr
ushi
ngofr
esi
stance

[
c].I
sitt
ruet
hatRhodescont
ri
but
ethemostt
othecol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe?
Expl
ainy
ouranswer
.
[
8]

[
i]Rhodes’
cont
ri
but
iont
ocol
oni
sat
ion:

Financi
ngofthecolonisat
ionpr
ocessf
rom t
heMof
fatAgr
eementr
ightupt
o
the1896-1897upr
isings

Page131of131
 Organi
sati
onoft
hecol
onisat
ionpr
ocessi
,
eB.
S.A.
C,r
ecr
uit
mentofpi
oneer
s,
obtai
ningt
heRoyal
Char
terandwar.

[
ii
]Ot
her
sal
socont
ri
but
ed

Bri
ti
shal
sogav
esuppor
tandhel
pedt
opr
ovi
demanpowerf
orwar
s;Roy
al
Chart
er

Ot
herpeopl
ealsopl
ayedi
mport
antr
oles–mi
ssi
onar
iesl
i
keC.Hel
m,J.
S
Moff
at,
indi
vi
dualsl
i
keRudd,
Thompson

Lobengulaandal
sol
ocal
Ndebel
eleader
sal
soi
ndi
rect
lyassi
stede,
gLot
she
andSikhombo.

Br
it
ishf
inancer
sli
keDukeofFi
fe,
Lor
dSal
i
sbur
y,andAber
cor
n.

[
Nov2005]

91[
a].
Nameanysi
xleader
soft
hePi
oneercol
umnt
hatmov
edt
oMashonal
andi
n
1890[6]

Col
onelEdwardGraham Pennefat
her
;F.
C.Selous;
MajorFr
ankJohnson;
Heany
;Borrow,DrLeanderSt
arJameson;Col
l
oquium

[
b].
Descri
bether
ecr
uit
mentofmember
soft
hePi
oneerCol
umnbyCeci
lJohn
Rhodes.[
11]

BSACadver
ti
sedforfitadvent
urousy
oungmeni
nEngl
i
shspeaki
ngwor
ld
wit
hSout
hAf r
icanexperi
ence.

Ov
er2000appl
i
cat
ions

Onl
y200y
oungmenchosen

Anot
her500y
oungmenr
ecr
uit
edi
ntoBSAC

Membersi
ncl
udedblacksmi
ths,
Car
pent
ers,
Bui
l
der
s,Pr
int
ers,
Baker
s,Mi
ner
s,
Far
mersandTr
aders

Wer
epr
omi
sed300acr
esofl
andand1500gol
dcl
aims

Eachtr
oopintheBSACpoli
cetorecei
vesev
enshi
l
li
ngsandsi
xpencef
or
eachdayspentwi
tht
hepi
oneerpol
i
ce

Eachpi
oneerwasar
med

Col
onisi
ngpar
tyl
edbyMaj
orFr
ankJohnsonandt
wodeput
ies(
Heanyand
Bor
row)

Eachof12of
fi
cer
sinPi
oneerCol
umnpr
omi
sed20gol
dcl
aims

[
b].
Towhatext
entdi
dthePi
oneer
scont
ri
but
etot
hesuccessf
uloccupat
ionof

Mashonal
and? [
8]

Page132of132
Pi
oneer
s/Pi
oneerCor
ps:

Selectedt
omeett
hebasi
cservi
cesinanewcommunit
y,i
ncluded
Blacksmit
hs,
Car
pent
ers,
Bui
lder
s,baker
s,mi
ner
s,f
armersandt r
ader
s

Theyconst
it
utedasel
f-suf
fi
cientcommuni
ty

Pioneerst
rai
nedforwar,Par
tici
pat
edi
nthe1893Angl
o-Ndebel
ewarand
suppressi
onof1896-7upri
sings

Ot
her
s

Rhodesf
inanci
alassi
stance

Bsacpol
i
ce

Di
suni
tyofShona/
lackofr
esi
stance

Af
ri
canauxi
l
iar
iesf
rom S.
Aar
medwi
thaxesandspear
s

Khama’
smen

Suppor
toft
hequeen.

[
June2006]

92[
a].
Namethef i
veNdebeleoff
ici
alswhowerei
nvol
vedi
nnegot
iati
onsf
ort
he
Rudd Concessi
onwiththeBri
ti
shagent
s. [
6]

Lobengul
a,Lot
she,
Sikhombo,
Babi
yaneandMt
shede

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hev
erbalandwr
it
tent
ermsoft
heRuddConcessi
onofOct
ober1888.

Ver
bal
Ter
ms:

Rhodest
opr
otectMat
abel
elandf
rom Eur
opeancol
oni
sat
ion

Toputnoti
cesinSout
hAf
ri
cannewspaper
swar
ningwhi
tepeopl
etokeepout
ofMatabel
eland

Whi
tesi
nMat
abel
elandt
oobeyNdebel
elaws

Tosur
renderf
ir
ear
mst
oNdebel
eKi
ngonar
ri
val

Todi
gonehol
e

Br
ingnotmor
etenmen

Wr
it
tenTer
ms:

Ndebel
eKi
ngt
oget€100mont
hly

100r
if
lesand100000r
oundsofammuni
ti
on

Agunboatt
opat
rol
theZambezi
or€500

Page133of133
I
nret
urnLobengul
aagr
eedt
ogi
vet
hecompany

Complet
eandexcl
usi
vechar
geoveral
lmet
alsandmi
ner
alsi
nhi
ski
ngdom
andi
tspri
nci
pal
sanddomini
ons

Ful
lpowerst
odoal
lthi
ngst
heymaydeem necessar
ytogett
hemet
alsand
miner
als

Togi
venoconcessi
onofl
andormi
ningr
ight
swi
thoutconsul
ti
ngRhodes.

[c]
.Towhatext
entdi
dLobengul
aandhi
speopl
ebenef
itf
rom t
heRudd
Concessi
onupto1893? [
8]

Benef
it
s

Ndebel
ehadshor
t-
ter
m benef
it
s:

Eur
opeansuppor
thel
pedLobengul
atogetst
abi
l
ityandsecur
it
yofhi
sthr
one
andleader
shi
p

Gai
nedmoneyandweaponspr
omi
sed/
recei
ved

Gai
nedpr
otect
ionagai
nstot
herext
ernal
danger
se,
gBoer
/Por
tuguese

Pr
obl
ems

Tr
eat
yusedt
ojust
if
ycol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe

Mostv
erbal
ter
msl
eftoutf
rom wr
it
tent
reat
y

Landandmi
ner
alsev
ent
ual
l
ytakenbyBr
it
ishSout
hAf
ri
caCompany

Rest
ri
cti
onofLobengul
apower
sinf
orei
gnpol
i
cy

Ledt
othei
nvasi
onbyPi
oneerCol
umn

Lot
sheexecut
ed

1893warofdi
spossessi
on

[
Nov2006]

93[
a].
Nameanysi
xconcessi
onseeker
swhov
isi
tedMat
abel
elandbet
ween1870
and

1890[
6]

Bai
nes;Pi
etGrobl
er;J.
S.Moff
at;
Char
lesRudd;
Franci
sThompson;
Rochf
ort
Maguir
e;Li
ppert
;E.
S.Maud.

[
b].
Descr
ibet
het
ermsoft
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y(1887)andt
heMof
fatTr
eat
y(1888)
.

Gr
obl
erTr
eat
y:

At
reat
yoff
ri
endshi
pbet
weenLobengul
aandBoer
s

Page134of134
Ter
ms:

Ev
erl
ast
ingpeacebet
weenNdebel
eandTr
ansv
aal
Republ
i
c

I
trecogni
sedLobengul
aaspar
amountchi
ef

Lobengul
atopr
ovi
deassi
stancet
otheBoer
swhenev
err
equi
red

Toext
radi
teal
lcr
imi
nal
swhoescapedf
rom Tr
ansv
aal

Toal
l
owt
hosewi
thapassi
ntohi
scount
ry

Hunt
ersandt
rader
sfr
om Tr
ansv
aal
tobeal
l
owedt
ooper
atei
nLobengul
a’
s
Ki
ngdom

TheTr
ansv
aal
toappoi
ntaconsul
toset
tl
einLobengul
a’
sKi
ngdom

Theconsul
toadmi
nist
erj
ust
icet
oci
ti
zensoft
heBoerRepubl
i
c

TheMof
fatTr
eat
y:

Lobengul
aagr
eedt
obeaf
ri
endoft
heBr
it
ishQueen

Pr
omisednott
oenteri
ntoanyagr
eementwi
thanyothercount
ryorgr
oups
wi
thoutt
heknowl
edgeandapprov
aloft
heBri
ti
shHighCommi ssi
oner
.

Ev
erl
ast
ingpeace

Cancel
l
ati
onoft
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y

Lobengul
anott
osel
lorcedeanypar
tofhi
ski
ngdom t
ofor
eigner
s

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dtheGr
obl
erTr
eat
ypr
otectt
heNdebel
eSt
atef
rom col
oni
sat
ion?[
8]

Successes:

Lobengulaal
li
ancewi
ththeBoersstr
engt
henedhi
sposit
ionagai
nsti
nter
nal
el
ement se,
ghehadfri
endswithgunshencehewasfear
ed

I
nit
ial
l
ydel
ayedcol
oni
stsonoccupat
ionoft
heNdebel
eSt
ate

Lobengul
asucceededi
ngai
ningsecur
it
yfr
om Boerat
tacksbysi
gni
ngt
he
Grobl
erTreat
y

Tr
eat
ymaki
ngusedasdi
plomacy

Lobengul
a’
sfri
endshi
pwi
tht
heBoer
susedt
odet
erat
tacksi
ntheNdebel
e
stat
ebyothergr
oups

Li
mit
ati
ons:

Hedi
dnotgainabsolut
esecur
itybecauset
herewereotherext
ernal
danger
s
f
rom Por
tugueseorBri
ti
shr
epresentedbyRhodes,
etc

Gr
obl
erTr
eat
yspeededupt
hecompet
it
ionort
hescr
ambl
e

Page135of135
 Lobengul
ahadt
ofi
ghtaci
vi
lawar

[
Nov2007]

94[
a].
Stat
eanyt
hreeeconomi
candt
hreepol
it
icalf
act
orst
hatl
edt
othe
col
oni
sati
onof

Zi
mbabwe. [
6]

Economi
c:

Needf
ormar
ket
s

Needf
orr
awmat
eri
als

Rhodesbel
i
evedthatt
hegol
dbel
tfr
om Tr
ansv
aal
str
etchedi
nto
Zi
mbabwe(SecondRand)

Want
edt
oinv
estsur
pluscapi
tal

Past
ures,
cheapl
abour
,li
vest
ock,
Fer
ti
lesoi
l
s,goodcl
i
mat
e,

Pol
i
tical
:

Rhodeswant
edt
opr
omot
eBr
it
aini
mper
ial
i
sm

Needt
ospr
eadci
vi
li
sat
ion

Agent
ssi
gnedf
ri
endshi
ptr
eat
ieswi
thl
ocal
rul
ers

Topreventot
hercount
ri
esf
rom col
oni
singZi
mbabwee,
g
Por
tuguese,Ger
mansandBoers

Toenci
rcl
etheBoer
s

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hest
epst
akenbyC.
J.Rhodest
ocol
oni
seZi
mbabwe.[
11]

Febr
uar
y1888Mof
fatTr
eat
y–t
orev
erset
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y

October1888RuddConcession,
Rudd,Helm et
ctr
ickedLobengul
ato
si
gnt r
eaty.Tr
eat
yst
rengthenedMoffatAgr
eement

Rhodessoughtf
orBr
it
ishi
nfl
uent
ial
busi
nesspeopl
e

Rhodessoughtandwasgr
antedtheRoyalchar
terbyt
heQueenandhad
per
missi
ont ocol
oni
seandadminist
erZi
mbabweonbehalfofBri
tai
n

Usedhi
sper
sonal
for
tunet
ofi
nancet
heoccupat
ions

FormedB.
S.A.
C1890t
ocol
oni
seandadmi
nist
erZi
mbabweonbehal
fof
Bri
tai
n

Recr
uit
edpi
oneer
sfr
om al
lov
ert
hewor
ldi
,
e200peopl
e

Mov
ementoft
hepi
oneercol
umn(
NBFor
ts)

Page136of136
 Rai
sedt
heuni
onj
acki
nSept
ember1890atFor
tSal
i
sbur
y

Boughtt
heLi
pper
tConcessi
on1891

Def
eatedNdebel
eint
heAngl
o-Ndebel
ewar(
1893)
andt
ookov
er
Matabel
eland

Publ
i
cisedt
heRuddconcessi
oni
nSout
hAf
ri
cannewspaper
s

HeboughtMaud’
scompany

HesentDrLeanderSt
arJamesont
otr
eatLobengul
aofgout

Br
iber
yofLot
sheandSi
khombo

Rhodesdel
ayedLobengul
a’
sdel
egat
est
otheQueenandt
heChar
terwas
grant
ed

Rhodesper
suadedt
heBr
it
ishHi
ghCommi
ssi
onerov
erBechuanal
and

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwasRhodes‘
rol
eint
hecol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe?[
8].

Rhodes’
cont
ri
but
ion

Sentr
epr
esent
ati
vest
otr
ickLobengul
aint
osi
gni
ngt
heRuddConcessi
on

Boughtt
heLi
pper
tConcessi
on

Of
fer
edper
sonal
for
tunet
ofi
nancecol
oni
sat
ionPr
ocess

Obt
ainedr
oyal
char
ter

For
medt
heB.
S.A.
Candr
ecr
uit
edt
hepi
oneer
s

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Br
it
ishsuppor
tedmov
ebyRhodesi
,
eRoy
alChar
ter

HadBr
it
ishf
inancer
segDi
keofAber
cor
nandDukeoff
if
e

Mi
ssi
onar
ieshel
pede,
gRevC.Hel
m andJ.
S.Mof
fat

I
nit
ial
lackofr
esi
stancebyShona

Ndebel
eindunasl
i
keLot
shel
obbi
edonbehal
fofwhi
tes

Rol
eoft
rader
s

Rol
eofhunt
ers

[
Nov
2008]

95[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xreasonswhyZi
mbabwewascol
oni
sedbyt
heBr
it
ishi
n1890.[
6]

Secondr
and,
rawmat
eri
als,
mar
ket
s,Capet
oCai
rodr
eam,

Toenci
rcl
etheBoer
s,cheapl
abour
,toi
nvestsur
pluscapi
tal

Page137of137
 Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
e,f
ert
il
esoi
l
,ri
chi
nwi
l
dli
fe,
tospr
eadChr
ist
iani
ty

Ci
vi
li
sat
ion,
Prest
ige,
tobr
eedl
i
vest
ock,
raci
alsuper
ior
it
y

[
b].
Out
li
net
hest
epst
akenbyt
heBr
it
isht
ocol
oni
seZi
mbabweupt
o1890.[
11]

Rhodesact
edasl
ocal
agentofBr
it
ishi
mper
ial
i
sm

Br
it
ishdeclar
edpr
otect
orat
eov
erBot
swanat
okeept
he‘
missi
onar
yroad
‘
open(1885)

Wit
hdrawalofGrobl
erTr
eatybyLobengul
adoneunderpr
essur
efr
om t
he
Br
it
ish,r
ival
soft
heBoerRepubl
ic

Moff
atTr
eatypr
ofessedever
last
ingpeaceandfr
iendshi
pbetweenLobengul
a
andt
heBri
ti
shwhoser eal
aim wastocoloni
seNdebeleki
ngdom

Lobengul
aurgedtodesistf
rom ent
eri
nganyt
reat
ywi
thanyf
orei
gnpoweror
tosel
lorcedeanypartofhi
skingdom

Bri
ti
shagent
slikeChar
lesHelm,Char
lesRudd,
Rochf
ortMaguir
eandFranci
s
ThompsonpersuadedLobengul
atosi
gnRuddConcession,
promisi
ngf
ict
ious
benef
it
s

RuddConcessi
ongav
eexcl
usi
vemi
ner
alr
ight
stoBr
it
ish

GrantedBri
ti
shpowert
odoal
lthi
ngst
heydeem necessar
ytopr
omot
emi
ning
acti
vi
ties

Br
it
ishGov
ernmentgr
ant
edChar
tert
oaut
hor
isecol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe

Br
it
ishari
stocr
acydi
rect
orsofBSACt
hator
gani
sedcol
oni
sat
ionandt
he
pi
oneercol
umn’smovement

Ther
aisi
ngoft
heuni
onj
ack

TheBr
it
ishdel
ayedLobengul
a’
sindunast
omeett
hequeen

Recr
uit
edofpi
oneercol
umn

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwast
hepar
tpl
ayedbyt
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmenti
nthecol
oni
sat
ion
of

Zi
mbabwe? [
8]

Br
it
ishr
ole:

Bri
tai
nwasi
nter
est
edpar
tywhoser
ival
swer
eBoer
s,Por
tugueseand
Germans

Represent
edt
hemi
ght
ypowert
hatbackedl
ocal
agent
sagai
nstot
her
Europeans

Br
it
ishusedt
reat
iest
ogr
antChar
tert
oaut
hor
isecol
oni
sat
ion

Page138of138
 Est
abl
i
shmentofapr
otect
orat
eov
erBechuanal
and

Bri
tai
ngav ef
inanci
alandmi
l
itar
ysuppor
tont
heAngl
o- eand1st
Ndebel
Chi
mur enga

Ot
her
s:

Rhodesfinancedcoloni
sat
ionusi
ngweal
thf
rom Debeer
sandConsol
i
dat
ed
Goldf
iel
dscompani es

Putt
oget
herPi
oneerCol
umn

Mi
ssi
onar
ies‘
rol
ee,
gJ.
S.Mof
fatandChar
lesHel
m

Col
l
abor
ator
se,
gLot
she

Af
ri
candi
suni
ty

Af
ri
cani
l
li
ter
acy

Suppor
tfr
om t
heNgwat
o

Rol
eoft
rader
sandhunt
ers.

[
Nov
2008]

96[a]
.I
dent
if
yanythr
eel
eadi
ngBri
ti
shci
ti
zensandanythr
eecompani
est
hat
suppor
tedt
heBri
ti
shSout
hAfri
caCompanyfi
nanci
all
y. [
6]

l
eadi
ngBr
it
ishci
ti
zens

Dukeoff
if
e,DukeofAber
cor
n,Lor
dGr
ey,
Pri
nceofWal
es

Sponsor
ingcompani
es

Rot
hschi
l
dCompany
,DeBeer
sandConsol
i
dat
edGol
dfi
elds

[
b].
Descr
ibet
her
ecr
uit
mentandt
hemov
ementoft
hePi
oneerCol
umnt
o

Mashonal
and. [
11]

Ther
ecr
uit
mentpr
ocess

Recr
uitmentandequi
ppi
ngofPi
oneercor
psdel
egat
edt
oFr
ankJohnson
assi
stedbyMauri
ceandHeanyBar
row

Adv
ert
isementf
orpeopl
ebel
l
ow30y
ear
stoappl
y

Pioneer
stoincl
udeEngl
i
shandAf
ri
kanerel
ement
sandt
ohav
eSout
hAf
ri
ca
experi
ence

Car
eful
l
ychosenf
rom sev
eral
thousandappl
i
cant
s(2000appl
i
cat
ions)

Onl
y200sel
ect
ed

Pi
oneer
scamef
rom manyoccupat
ionse,
gBl
acksmi
ths,
car
pent
ers,
bui
l
der
s,

Page139of139
 Pai
nter
s,mi
ner
s,f
armer
sandt
rader
s.

Eachpr
omi
sed3000acr
esofl
andand15gol
dcl
aims

1000Ngwat
oauxi
l
iar
iesal
sohi
red

500mount
edpol
i
cemen

Mov
ement
:

Cr
ossedMat
lout
ser
iveron27.
061890.
,
Shashi
riv
eron11Jul
y

Cov
ered12mi
l
esaday
-18-
20km

Av
oidedNdebel
eter
ri
tor
y

LedbyPenne-
fat
her

Sel
ousgui
dedt
hem

Dai
l
yal
l
owancesof5shi
l
li
ngand6pence

Suppl
i
escar
ri
edby117wagons

Jamesonaccompani
edt
hePi
oneer
s

Usedl
aager
sforsecur
it
yreasons

Pol
i
cel
eftt
oguar
dtheFor
ts

Est
abl
i
shedFor
ts,
e,gFor
tTul
i
,For
tVi
ctor
ia,
For
tChar
ter
,andFor
tSal
i
sbur
y

Rai
sedt
heUni
onj
ack

[c]
.Towhatext
entdidther
ecrui
tmentofthePi
oneerCol
umncont
ri
but
etot
he
successof
thei
rsett
lementi
nMashonaland? [8]

[
i]
.Recr
uit
mentpol
i
cyhel
pedt
ocr
eat
ethenucl
eusofacompl
etesoci
ety

Economicact
ivi
ti
eswerepromotedbypresenceofski
ll
edPersonnel
e,g
miners,
far
mers,bl
acksmi
ths,car
pent
ers,baker
s,t
rader
setc

Pioneer
swithSouthAfr
icanexper
iencecoul
dwi
thst
andhar
dshi
ps
experi
encedini
nter
ior

Ar
myandpol
i
cepr
ovi
dedsecur
it
ytoFor
ts

Pr
omi
sedi
ncent
ivesmot
ivat
edpi
oneer
s.

400Ngwat
ohel
pedmaker
oadsandt
oher
dhor
sesandcat
tl
e

BASCpol
i
ceof
fer
edpr
otect
ion

[
ii
].
OtherFact
ors

Lobengul
arest
rai
nedamaj
ahaf
rom at
tacki
ng

Page140of140
 Shonadi
dnotr
esi
st-
expect
edPi
oneer
swhi
tet
ogobackf
ir
stl
i
kePor
tuguese
whohadcameear
li
er

Wel
comedwhi
tesf
orpr
otect
ion

Pr
esenceofmi
ssi
onar
iescr
eat
edf
alsesenseofsecur
it
y.

[
Nov
2009]

97[a]
.I
dent
if
ythet
hreet
reat
iesandthei
rrespect
ivey
ear
swhichwer
esi
gned
bet
weenLobengul
aandtheforei
gner
sbetween1887and1890. [
6]

Gr
obl
erTr
eat
y—1887

Mof
fatTr
eat
--
-1888

RuddConcessi
on-
--
-1888.

[
b].
Descr
ibet
het
ermsofanyt
wooft
heset
reat
ies.

Gr
obl
erTr
eat
y-1887.

At
reat
ybet
weent
heBoer
sandNdebel
e

Tr
ansv
aal
andNdebel
eSt
atest
obef
ri
ends

Ndebel
ewerecommi
tt
edt
opr
ovi
dingmi
l
itar
yassi
stancet
oTr
ansv
aal
ifand
whenaskedt
odoso

Ther
ewast
obeaper
manentr
epr
esent
ati
veoft
heTr
ansv
aal
inBul
away
o

Lobengul
atopr
otectTr
ansv
aal
cit
izenswhov
isi
tedhi
scount
ry

Ev
erl
ast
ingpeacebet
weenBoer
sandNdebel
e

Lobengul
atober
ecogni
sedasapar
amountchi
ef

Mof
fatTr
eat
y--
-1888

Br
it
ishandt
heNdebel
eorJ.
S.Mof
fatv
sLobengul
a

Lobengul
anott
oent
eranyt
reat
ywi
thot
hercount
ri
eswi
thoutt
heknowl
edge
oftheBri
ti
sh

Ndebel
eandBr
it
isht
obef
ri
ends

Lobengulanott
ogiveanypar
toft
heCount
ryt
oanyot
hercount
rywi
thout
permissi
onfrom t
heBri
ti
sh

Tocancel
theGr
obl
erTr
eat
y

RuddConcessi
on—1888

Bet
weenBr
it
ishandt
heNdebel
e.

Wr
it
tenTer
ms:

Page141of141
 Al
lmi
ner
alsgr
ant
edt
otheBr
it
ish

Powergiv
ent
otheBr
it
isht
odowhatt
heydeemednecessar
ytopr
otectt
hei
r
i
nter
ests

Lobengul
anott
ogr
antl
andr
ight
swi
thoutBr
it
ishoccur
rence

Ndebel
erul
ert
orecei
ve1000r
if
lesand100000r
oundsofammuni
ti
on

Agunboatt
opat
rol
Zambezi
riv
eror€500

Hewasalsot
orecei
ve€100permont
h/hi
ssuccessor
swer
etor
ecei
ve€100
permont
h

Ver
bal
Ter
ms:

Notmor
ethan10Br
it
ishment
ocome

Thef
ewwhi
teswoul
dnotmi
neneart
owns

Nomachi
ner
yandemployeesweretobroughti
ntot
hecount
rybef
ore
pay
mentoft
hefi
rsti
nst
almentofther
if
les

Noti
cesinSout
hAf
ri
cannewspaper
stowar
not
hercount
ri
est
okeepoutof
Ndebel
ecountr
y

Br
it
ishv
isi
tor
stosur
renderar
msandobeyNdebel
elaws

Todi
gonehol
e/Nott
odi
gneart
owns

Whi
tespr
omi
sedt
hatt
heyhadnotcomef
orset
tl
ement

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dtheNdebel
ebenef
itf
rom t
het
ermsoft
het
wot
reat
ies? [
8]

[
i]Benef
it
s:

Lobengul
aandNdebel
enolongerbot
her
edbyot
herwhi
tepeopl
ewho
wantedcont
rol
ofthear
ea

Tr
eat
ycont
rol
l
edt
hei
nfl
uxofwhi
tesi
ntot
heNdebel
eSt
ate

Recei
vedt
reat
mentf
rom Jameson

Under
stoodwhi
tepeopl
eascr
ookswhocheat
edt
oachi
evet
hei
rai
ms

Est
abl
i
shedf
ri
endshi
p

Somemat
eri
algai
ns

Peacef
orsomet
ime

Del
ayedcol
oni
sat
ion

[
ii
].
Non-
Benef
it
s:

Lostcont
rol
ofl
andandmi
ner
als

Page142of142
 Lossofi
ndependenceandpower

Ledt
oexecut
ionofLot
she

Lobengul
ast
oppedt
rust
inghi
sindunasandmi
ssi
onar
ies

Lobengul
anev
err
ecei
vedt
hegunboat

Ver
bal
ter
msnotf
ulf
il
led

Ndebel
ewer
echeat
edbyconcessi
onseeker
s

Br
it
ishdi
dnothonourpar
toft
het
erms

Ter
msl
edt
oconf
li
ct

Lobengul
alostcont
rol
off
orei
gnpol
i
cy

Ledt
ocol
oni
sat
ionoft
heNdebel
est
ate

(
Nov2010)

98.
(a)
.St
ateanysi
xpeopl
ewhoassi
stedRhodest
ogett
heBr
it
ishSout
hAf
ri
ca
Royal
Charteri
n1889. (6)

DukeofFi
fe,
DukeofAber
con

Lor
dGr
ey,
Lor
dSal
i
sbur
y

Bar
onessBur
det
teCout
ts,
Pri
nceofWal
es

QueenVi
ctor
ia.

(
b).
Descr
ibet
hePi
oneerCol
umn’
smar
chi
ntoZi
mbabwei
n1890.(
11)

Pi
oneerCol
umnsetoutf
rom Macl
out
sieRi
veri
nBot
swanaon27June,
1890.

Sel
ousl
edt
hePi
oneer
sandwasassi
stedbyBar
rowHeany
.

Thef
ir
stst
opwasatShasheRi
verwher
etheybui
l
tFor
tTul
i

Pi
oneer
sav
oidedt
heNdebel
est
atef
orf
earofat
tacks

Suppl
i
eswer
ecar
ri
edi
n117wagons

Scout
spat
rol
l
edt
hear
eaahead

Theytr
avel
l
ed12mi
l
esperdayandbui
l
tal
aageratt
hepl
aceofr
estdur
ing
theni
ght

Lobengul
apr
otest
edatt
hePi
oneeri
nvasi
on

Pi
oneer
sof
tenmetsmal
lgr
oupofNdebel
ewar
ri
ors

Cr
ossi
ngofr
iver
s

Domi
nicansi
ster
sranamobi
l
ecl
i
nic

Page143of143
 Pennef
atherwast
hecommander

1000auxi
l
iar
iesf
rom Khama

ByAugust1890t
hePi
oneerCol
umnwasi
nMasv
ingowher
etheybui
l
tFor
t
Vi
ctor
ia

Par
tofthePioneer
sbranchedtoMel
set
terwhi
l
etheot
hercont
inued
nor
thwardsandbuil
tFortChar
ter
.

ReachedFor
tSal
i
sbur
yon12Sept
ember1890wher
etheyhoi
stedt
heUni
on
j
ack.

(
c).
Didt
hePi
oneer
sfi
ndi
teasyt
oreacht
hei
rdest
inat
ion?Expl
ainy
ouranswer
.(8)

Yes,
theyf
oundi
teasyt
oreacht
hei
rdest
inat
ionbecauset
heywer
e:

LedbyF.
Sel
ouswhoknewt
hear
ea/
count
ry

Wel
lequi
ppedwi
thpr
ovi
sions

Accompani
edbypol
i
ce

Rel
i
abl
emeansoft
ranspor
t

Auxi
l
iar
yhel
p

Nor
esi
stancef
rom Ndebel
eandShona

Shonawer
edi
suni
ted

Shonaweakenedbyy
ear
sofNdebeel
rai
ds

Pr
obl
emsencount
ered:

Longr
out
est
oav
oidt
heNdebel
e

At
tackedbydi
seases

Cr
ossedl
arger
iver
s

I
nsect
uri
tyf
rom t
heNdebel
e

Landcl
ear
ing

Di
dnotset
tl
eati
ntendeddest
inat
ions

[
June2011]

99[
a]I
denti
fy(
i)t
hreeindi
vi
dualswhoweret
askedt
orecr
uitandequi
pthePi
oneer
Col
umnand( I
i)t
hreepromisesmadet
othepi
oneer
s. [ 6]

Page144of144
 (
i) F.
Johnst
on,
Heany
,Bor
row

(
ii
) Cash,
gol
d,l
and

[
b]Descr
ibet
hesecur
it
yarrangementsmadebyt
hePi
oneerColumndur
ingi
ts
movementint
oMashonalandin1890. [
11]

Pi
onner
sgi
venmi
l
itar
ytr
aini
ng

Eachpi
oneermemberwasar
med

500pol
i
cemenaccompani
edt
hecol
umn

Al
otofammuni
ti
onwaspr
ovi
ded,
est
abl
i
shedf
ort
sont
hei
rwaye,
gmax3

Lef
tpol
i
cement
oguar
dfor
ts

Heav
yguns-maxi
ms,
twosev
enpounder
s

I
seofl
aager
swhent
heycampedf
ort
heni
ght

Keptabi
glampbur
ningwhent
heycampedf
ort
heni
ght

Mai
ntai
nedpat
rol
sonhor
seback

Col
onel
Pennf
atherwasCommander

Sout
ingpar
ti
es(
adv
ance)

Av
oidedMat
ebel
eland

Accompani
edbyNgwat
oauxi
l
lar
ies

Useofpeopl
ewhoknewt
het
err
aint
oav
oidbei
ngl
ost

[
c].
Howi
mpor
tantwast
hepi
oneerCol
umni
nthecol
oni
sat
ionofZi
mbabwe?[
8]

I
mpor
tanceofpi
oneer
s

Pi
oneer
sincl
udedal
ltr
adessuchasf
armer
s,banker
s

Wel
lequi
ppedandsel
f-suf
fi
cient

Pioneerst
rai
nedf
orwar
-foughti
nthe1893-
94Angl
o-Ndebel
eWarand1896
upri
sings

Hadenoughl
abour
ers-
,youngandadv
ent
urer
speopl
e

Ot
herf
act
ors

Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons

Shonawer
enotuni
ted–l
ackedr
esi
stance

Shonaregar
dedPi
oneer
sast
radepar
tner
sandpr
otect
edt
hem f
rom t
he
Ndebel
e

Page145of145
 Shonat
houghtPi
oneer
sst
aywoul
dbeshor
tl
iv
ed

Whi
teshadout
sidehel
p-Ngwat
o,S.
A

BSACsuppor
t,Rhodeswhof
inancedt
hewhol
eoper
ati
on

Queenandf
inancer
s,mi
ssi
onar
ies,
hunt
ers,
trader
s

Poorweapons/mi
l
itar
yweakness

[
Nov2011]

100[
a].
Nameanysi
xwhiteswhowerei
nvol
vedi
nsi
gni
ngt
reat
iesandconcessi
ons
i
nZimbabwebet
ween1850and1891. [6]

ThomasBai
nes,
SydneyShi
pphar
d,Pi
etGr
obl
er

RevChar
lesHel
m,Rochf
ortMagui
re,
W.Gr
aham

C.Dr
eyer
,F.Thompson,
C.DRudd,
J.S.Mof
fat

E.Li
pper
t,VanWy
k.C.
Rhodes,
E.A.Maud,
Paul
Gruger
,JohnSwi
nebour
ne

[
b].
Out
li
net
hewr
it
tenandVer
balt
ermsoft
heRuddConcessi
onof1888.[
11]

Responsessi
mil
art
oQuest
ion84[
b].

[
c].
Didt
heNdebel
eki
ngbenef
itf
rom t
heRuddConcessi
on? [
8]

Responsessi
mil
art
oQuest
ion84[
c].

Resi
stancet
ocol
oni
ali
sat
ioni
nZi
mbabwe.
[
Nov2003]

101.
[a]
.Namesi
xAf
ri
canl
eader
sinv
olv
edi
ntheShonaRi
singof1896t
o1897.[
6]

Nehanda,
Chi
hot
a,Mangwende,

Kaguv
i,
Zvi
mba,
Chi
namor
a,Seke

Mashay
amombe,
Hwat
a,Chi
weshe,
Nyamwenda

Makoni

Zhanda

Maponder
a,Kunzwi
-Ny
andor
o

[
b].
Out
li
net
her
easonswhyt
heShonawentt
owarwi
tht
heBr
it
ishset
tl
ersi
n1896.
[
11]

Lossofl
and

Lossofcat
tl
e

I
ll
-t
reat
mentofShonawor
ker
s

Page146of146
 Br
utal
i
tyofpol
i
ceman

For
cedl
abour

Pay
mentofhutt
ax

Nat
ural
disast
ers-
ri
nder
pest
,dr
oughtandl
ocust
s

Aut
hor
it
yofAf
ri
canchi
efswasundermi
ned/
lossofi
ndependence

Theset
tl
ersdi
dnotal
l
owt
heShonat
otr
adewi
tht
hePor
tuguese

AbuseofShonawomenbywhi
temen

Rol
eofspi
ri
tmedi
ums

[
c].
Expl
ainwhyt
heShonawer
edef
eat
edi
nthi
swar
. [
8]

Weaknessesoft
heShona:

I
nfer
iorweaponsoft
heShona,
capt
ureofShonal
eader
s

Shonenotwer
euni
ted

Di
dnothav
easi
ngl
ear
myandl
eadert
oco-
ordi
nat
eal
ltheshone

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Super
iorweaponsoft
hewhi
tes

Whi
tesusedal
otofbr
utal
i
tyt
hatf
ri
ght
enedt
heShonae,
gdy
nami
te

Whi
tesgothel
pfr
om out
sidee,
gSAandBr
it
ain

Hungerandst
arv
ati
on,

Ndebel
esur
render

[
Nov2005]

102.
[a]
.St
ateanysi
xcausesoft
heNdebel
eupr
isi
ngof1896[
6]

Lossofi
ndependence/
Indunasl
ostpower

Lossofl
and[
Gwaai
&Shangani
Reser
ves]

LossofCat
tl
e

For
cedl
abour

Har
sh/
oppr
essi
veadmi
nist
rat
ion

Ndebel
enotdi
sar
med

Thosewhohadnott
akenpar
tnotdef
eat
ed

Hat
redofShonapol
i
ce

Page147of147
 Abuseofwomen

Notal
l
owedt
ochooseanot
herki
ng

I
nfl
uenceofSpi
ri
tmedi
ums[
Mkwat
i]

Lossofcul
tur
e

Nat
ural
disast
ers[
Drought
,locust
s,r
inder
pest
]

Taxat
ion

Jamesonr
aid

[
b].
Out
li
net
heev
ent
soft
heNdebel
eupr
isi
ng. [
11]

Begani
nMar
ch1896

I
ndunasact
edasl
eader
s

Massacr
edwhi
tesi
nisol
atedf
arms,
minesandst
ores

Othersescapedt
otowncent
reswher
etheyf
ormedl
aager
s,e,
g
Bulawayo,
GweruMberengwa

Pat
rol
sdi
spat
chedt
oisol
atedar
east
orescuesur
viv
orsandbur
ycor
pses

150ofRhodesi
anhor
seunderCol
onel
Beal
lef
tSal
i
sbur
ytodef
endBul
away
o

I
nS.
A500Eur
opeanv
olunt
eer
sassembl
edatMaf
eki
ngt
omar
cht
oRhodesi
a

Anot
her600Af
ri
cant
roopsr
aisedf
rom Bechuanal
andandJohannesbur
g

Bri
ti
shgov
ernmentchoseFr
edr
ickCar
ri
ngt
ont
obecommanderofal
lmi
l
itar
y
for
ces

Whi
tesst
art
edonNdebel
enotj
ustdef
endt
ownswhenCar
ri
ngt
onar
ri
ved

Ndebel
ebypr
iest
sofuml
i
mot
oleav
erout
etoS.
Aopenasescaper
out
efor
whit
es

Maj
orPl
umer
sfor
cesusedopenr
out
etobr
ingr
einf
orcement
s

Ndebel
elar
gear
mydef
eat
edatUmgusaRi
ver
.

Remai
ningf
orcesr
etr
eat
edi
ntoMat
opohi
l
lsandst
art
edguer
ri
ll
awar
far
e

Rhodesar
rangedf
orI
ndabai
nMat
opos

[
c].
Didt
heMlimocul
tpr
iest
scont
ri
but
etot
hedef
eatoft
heNdebel
e?Expl
ain
y
ouranswer
.[8]

Posi
ti
vei
nfl
uence:
[Mkwat
i,Uml
ugul
uet
c]

I
nfl
uencedNdebel
etor
ebel
agai
nstwhi
tesasauni
tedf
orce

Gav
easpi
ri
tual
int
erpr
etat
iont
odi
sast
ers

Page148of148
 Boost
edmor
aleoff
orcesbyi
nfl
uenci
ngt
heShonat
ojoi
nri
sings

Ur
gedNdebel
efor
cest
ocont
inuewi
thguer
ri
ll
awar
far
eusi
ngMat
opoHi
l
lsas
hi
deout

St
ubbor
nnessofNdebel
eRhodesgr
antconcessi
onst
oNdebel
etoendwar

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Poorst
rat
egy
/weapons

Whi
tepower
/di
suni
ty

Negat
ivei
nfl
uence:

Deceiv
edNdebel
etol
eav
er out
etoS. Aopen–usedtobr
ingwhi
tes
rei
nfor
cement
s.Ledt
oMajordefeatatUmgusaRiver

[
Nov2006]

103.
[a]
.St
ateanysi
xcausesoft
heAngl
o-Ndebel
eWar1893t
o1894. [
6]

Boundar
ybet
weenMat
abel
elandandMashonal
andkeptonshi
ft
ing

Lobengul
awasst
oppedf
rom r
aidi
ngt
heShona

Bel
i
efi
ntheexi
stenceofgol
dinMat
abel
eland

Togr
abLobengul
a,
sCat
tl
eandl
andt
osav
etheB.
S.A.
Cof
rom bankr
upt
cy

Wart
oreducet
ranspor
tcost
sandi
mpor
tcost
s[Rai
l
wayl
i
ne]

Vi
ctor
iai
nci
dent
[i
mmedi
atecause]

Fai
l
ureofconv
ert
sint
heNdebel
est
ate

Capet
oCai
rodr
eam

JamesonsawNdebel
easami
l
itar
ythr
eat

[
b].
Descr
ibet
heev
ent
soft
heAngl
o-Ndebel
eWarof1893t
o1894.
[11]

Ther
ewer e18000Ndebel
esol
dier
sver
sus3500[
1100whi
tesand2000
auxi
l
iar
iesandabout400ShonaandCapeauxi
li
ari
es]
.

Company.
tr
oopsor
gani
zedi
ntoSal
i
sbur
y,Vi
ctor
iaandTul
icol
umns

Col
umnsmetatI
ronHi
l
lMi
ne

Lal
apanzi
bat
tl
e[Sept
.1893]

Shangani
Bat
tl
e[1stmaj
orbat
tl
e]

Companysuf
fer
edf
ewcasual
ti
es

ManyAf
ri
canr
efugeessl
eepi
ngoutoft
hel
aagerki
l
led

Page149of149
 About500Ndebel
eki
l
led

Bat
tl
eofBembesi
Riv
er31Oct
ober1893

Ndebel
erepul
sedwi
thl
osses

Ndebel
eregi
mentI
ngubo,
Imbi
zoandNsukami
nicl
ashedwi
thcompany
sol
dier
s

7poundergunscostmanyNdebel
eli
ves

On3Nov embert
heSouther
ncol
umnlaageredatSinguesiRi
vernear
Empandeni
.Ndebel
eunderGumboat
tackedbutrepulsedbyheavygunf
ir
e

Khama’
smenr
etur
nedt
oBot
swanaduet
oout
breakofsmal
l
pox

Lobengul
abur
ntdowncapi
tal
cit
yandf
lednor
thwar
ds.

2ndShangani
Bat
tl
e

Wi
l
son’
spat
rol

2bagsofhi
ddenbynear
byt
roops

Wi
l
son’
str
oopswer
eal
lki
l
led

Lobengul
adi
edonescapet
othenor
th

Companyf
orcest
ookov
erbur
ningci
tyandr
aisedUni
onJack

[
c].
Howf ardi
dthel
ossoft
heMbembesiRi
verBat
tl
econt
ri
but
etot
hedef
eatoft
he
Ndebel
e? [
8]

Mbembesi
bat
tl
e’
scont
ri
but
iont
othedef
eatoft
heNdebel
e:

Shangani
Bat
tl
ewast
hef
ir
stmaj
orbat
tl
ewher
e500Ndebel
ewer
eki
l
led

Asecondmaj
orbat
tl
ewasf
oughtatMbembesi
wit
hsi
mil
arr
esul
ts

ManyNdebel
enowt
ookt
hei
rownl
i
vest
hanr
etur
ndef
eat
ed

Newsofdi
sast
ercausedconst
ernat
ioni
nBul
away
o

Impisenttoguar
drout
efr
om Bechuanal
andwaswi
thdr
awnandt
heKi
ng’
s
capi
talsetonfi
re

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Useoft
radi
ti
onal
weapons

Useofpoormi
l
itar
yst
rat
egi
es

Useofgunsbyt
hewhi
tes

Ther
ewasdi
suni
tyamongt
heNdebel
ee,
gNy
eny
ezi
gui
dedt
hecol
umn

Suppor
tfr
om i
mper
ial
gov
ernment
Page150of150
 Super
iorwarst
rat
egi
esofwhi
tes

[
Nov2007]

104[
a].
Nameanysi
xAf
ri
canspi
ri
tmedi
umswhot
ookpar
tint
heFi
rstChi
mur
enga
1896-
97[6]

Nehanda/
Chagwe,
Kaguv
i/Gumbor
eshumba,
Mukwat
i,Uml
ugul
u,

Si
giny
amat
she,
Mponga,
Mpot
shwane,

Bonda,
Tenger
a,

[b]
.Descr
ibet
hepar
tpl
ayedbyspi
ri
tmedi
umsi
ntheShonaupr
isi
ng1896-
97
[
11]

Nehandai
nfl
uencedt
heShonai
nMazoe-
Chi
weshear
eat
ori
se

Ri
singspr
eadt
oCent
ral
andWest
ernMashonal
and

I
nst
ruct
edt
heki
l
li
ngofDi
str
ictAdmi
nist
rat
orPol
l
ard

Medi
umskeptt
heShonaf
ight
ing

Shoneconsul
tedspi
ri
tmedi
umsbef
oregoi
ngt
obat
tl
e

Kaguvi
andMkwaticoordi
nat
edmov
ement
sofmessenger
se,
g
Bonda,
Tshi
vaandZhanda

Spi
ri
tmedi
umsinfl
uencedShonachiefse,gHwata,Ny
amwenda,
Makoni
,
Nyachur
uandChiweshetojointheri
sings

Kaguv
iledchi
mur
engai
nMashay
amombei
nJune1896

Coor
dinat
edt
her
isi
ngs

I
nter
pret
ati
onoft
henat
ural
disast
erswasdonebyspi
ri
tmedi
ums

Gav
econf
idencet
hroughwarmedi
cine

I
nst
il
leddi
sci
pli
nei
nthef
ight
ingt
hroughi
nst
ruct
ion/
propaganda

[
c].
Wastheextensi
onoftheri
singt
o1897aresul
toft
heef
fect
ivenessofShona
t
acti
cs?Expl
ainyouranswer
. [8]

Ef
fect
iveness

Shoneusedguer
ri
ll
awar
far
e

Foughti
nsmallgroups,
itwasaser
iesof“Zvi
mur
enga”anddi
ff
icul
ttodef
eat
acrosst
hecountr
y,coordi
nat
edbyspir
itmedi
ums

Shonamobil
izedf
ast
ert
hant
hewhi
tes,
hadgunsobt
ainedf
rom t
he
Port
uguese

I
nfl
uenceofMkwat
i

Page151of151
 Fami
l
iarwi
tht
err
ain

Theyusednoct
urnal
att
acks

Fi
ght
ersdi
sgui
sedasor
dinar
yhunt
ers

Usedsur
pri
seat
tacks,
warnotl
i
mit
edt
opr
ofessi
onal
sol
dier
s

Shonast
oredgr
ainaspar
tofpr
epar
ati
on

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Whi
tesunder
est
imat
edt
heShona

I
nit
ial
l
yhadf
ewert
roops

Wer
eeasi
l
ymi
sl
edbyspi
ri
tmedi
ums

BSAChadf
inanci
alpr
obl
ems

Whi
teswer
enotpr
epar
ed

Thewhi
tesasenemywer
eeasi
l
yindent
if
iedbyski
ncol
our

Whi
teswer
eunf
ami
l
iart
othet
err
ain

Whi
teswer
eov
erst
ret
chedi
nter
msofr
esour
cesbywari
nMat
abel
eland

[
Nov2009]

105[
a]St
ateanysi
xcausesoft
heShonaUpr
isi
ngof1896.

Lossofl
and

Lossofcat
tl
e

I
ll
-t
reat
mentofShonawor
ker
s

Br
utal
i
tyofpol
i
cemen

For
cedl
abour

Pay
mentofhutt
ax

Nat
ural
disast
ers[
ri
nder
pest
,dr
ought
,locusti
nvasi
on]

Lossofi
ndependence

AbuseofShonawomen

EndofShona-
Por
tugueset
radel
i
nks

Fearoft
heNdebel
epuni
shmenti
ftheydi
dnotr
iseagai
nstt
hewhi
tes

[
b].
Out
li
net
heev
ent
soft
heShonaUpr
isi
ng. [
11]

Warst
atedi
nJune1896wi
thki
l
li
ngofwhi
tesi
nMashay
amombear
ea

Page152of152
 ByendofJuneov
er100whi
teshadbeenki
l
led

Thewhit
estakenbysur
pri
se.Respondedbyset
ti
ngupl
aager
sinbi
gand
cent
resasprot
ect
ion

TheShonaf
ight
ersbl
ockedr
oadsusi
ngt
rees

Usedguer
ri
ll
awar
far
etact
ics

TheShonachi
efsf
oughtthewhit
esassepar
ateent
it
ies;
somedi
dnotj
oint
he
war;
whil
eother
sfoughtonthesi
deofthewhit
es

TheShonahi
dinCav
es

Spr
eadofchi
mur
engat
oot
herar
east
hroughspi
ri
tmedi
umsandf
ir
esi
gnal
s

Thewhi
tesuseddy
nami
te

NehandaandKaguv i
wereimpor
tantspi
ri
tmedi
umswhoencour
agedt
he
shonetof
ightespeci
all
yint
heMazoearea

Theset
tl
erswer
eassi
stedbyr
einf
orcement
ssentf
rom Sout
hAf
ri
ca

Warbet
weenMakoni
andt
heBSACf
orces–Gwi
ndi
gwi
andwasdef
eat
ed

Def
eat
edShonal
eader
swer
eexecut
ede,
gMakoni

Capt
ureandsubsequentexecut
ionofNehandaandKaguv
ibr
oughtt
hewart
o
anend

Maponder
acont
inuedt
o1903

[
c].
Towhatext
entdi
dlackofuni
tycont
ri
but
est
othee\
def
eatoft
heShona?[
8]

LackofUni
ty:

Noco-
ordi
nat
ionamongt
heShonachi
efs

Somechi
efswer
eneut
ral
e,gMut
asa

Somechi
efsassi
stedt
hewhi
tes.

Nocommonmi
l
itar
yst
rat
egyorcommand

Ot
herf
act
ors:

I
nfer
iorweaponsoft
heShona

Super
iorweaponsoft
hewhi
tes

Whi
tewer
ebet
teror
gani
sed

Whi
teshadf
astt
ranspor
t

Whi
teset
tl
ersr
ecei
vedassi
stancef
rom out
side

Sur
renderoft
heNdebel
e

Page153of153
 [
June2011]

106[
a].
Stat
eanysi
xeconomi
ccausesoft
heAngl
o-Ndebel
ewarof1893-
94[
6]

Needt
oest
abl
i
shr
ail
li
nkf
rom Maf
ikengt
oSal
i
sbur
y

Fal
li
nval
ueofBSACshar
es

Bel
i
efi
ntheexi
stenceoft
heSecondr
andi
nMat
abel
eland

BSACenv
iedNdebel
eland

Cov
etedNdebel
ecat
tl
e

Fai
l
urebyShonachi
efst
opayt
ri
but
etoLobengul
a

BSACf
orbadeNdebel
erai
dsi
nMashonal
and

BSACwant
edcheapl
abour

[
b].
Out
li
net
her
esul
tsoft
heAngl
o-Ndebel
eWar
. [
11]

Ndebel
esur
render
ed,
agr
eedt
opeacenegot
iat
ions

Mat
abel
elandt
obeadmi
nist
eredbyJameson

Landcommi
ssi
onsetupt
odi
vi
del
andbet
weent
heBSACandt
heNdebel
e

Ledt
oanot
herwar(
1896)
,Taxat
ion2ore,
gs

Di
sbandi
ngofager
egi
ment
s

Lossofli
ves,f
erti
l
elandst
akenbyt
hewhi
tesandt
wor
eser
ves,
Gwaai
and
Shanganicr
eatedfort
heNdebel
e

Over200000Ndebelecatl
esei
zed,Ndebelement
opr
ovi
del
abouri
nwhi
te
far
msandmi nes,
int
roduct
ionoff
orcedlabour

Whi
teset
tl
ermi
l
itar
yrewar
dedwi
thLobengul
a’
scat
leandl
and

1895,
Mat
abel
elandpl
acedunderBr
it
ishr
ule

Mat
abel
elandandMashonal
andwer
enamedRhodesi
a

Ndebel
enotal
l
owedt
ochooseanot
herki
ng

Deat
hofLobengul
a

[
c].
Whywer
etheNdebel
edef
eat
edi
nthi
swar
? [
8]

Ndebel
eweaknesses

I
nfer
iorweapons,
disuni
tyamongNdebel
echi
efs

MostNdebel
eamabut
hower
erai
dingacr
osst
heZambezi

Ndebel
echar
geddi
rect
lyt
owar
dsgunsl
eadi
ngt
omanydeat
hs

Page154of154
 Poorcommuni
cat
ionnet
wor
k

Lobengul
a’
sfl
i
ghtandhi
ssubsequentdeat
h

Ot
herf
act
ors

Di
suni
tyamongstAf
ri
cansoci
eti
es

Whi
teshadsuper
iorweapons

Whit
eshadbet
terf
ight
ingmet
hods,
hadext
ernal
suppor
tfr
om Sout
hAf
ri
ca
andNgwat
o

Bet
termeansofcommuni
cat
ion,
cont
inoussuppl
yofr
esour
ces

Mobi
l
ityoft
hewhi
tes

[
Nov2011]

107[a]
.Nameanysi
xmili
tar
yleader
soft
heBri
ti
shSout
hAf
ri
caCompany(
B.S.
A.C)
for
cesduringt
heAngl
o-Ndebel
eWarof1893-
1894. [
6]

Maj
orFor
bes,
Ca[
tai
nLendy
,LtCol
onel
Gool
d-Adams

Capt
ainBor
row,
Capt
ainRaaf
,Maj
orHeany
,Al
l
anWi
l
son

[
b].
Giv
eanaccountoft
hepur
sui
tofLobengul
abyt
heB.
S.A.
C.f
orcesaft
erthe
f
allofBul
away
o. [11]

3Nov1893Bul
away
ofel
ltocompanyf
orcesandKi
ngLobengul
afl
ed
Nor
thwar
ds

Jamesonassi
gnedMaj
orFor
besandCapt
ainRaaft
opur
seandcapt
ureKi
ng
Lobengual
a

For
besandhi
sfor
cesr
eachedLobengul
a’
sdShangani
campon3December

Theyfoundsi
gnst
hatLobengul
ahadhur
ri
dlyabandonedhi
sShangani
camp
andtheyhadj
ustf
ail
edtocatchupwi
thhi
m.

Onreal
i
singthatt
heset
tl
erscoul
djustcat
chupwi
thhi
m,Lobengul
asentt
wo
ofhisi
ndunastohi
epur
suerswit
hapeacemessageandabagofgold

Lobengula’
ssurr
endermessageandthegol
ddidnotr
eachFor
besandt
he
l
atterconti
nuedsear
chi
ngforLobengul
a’
spart
y.

For
besandhi
sfor
cescampedatShangani

Forbesassi
gnedWi
l
sonandhi
steam 18-
21ment
ofi
ndLobengul
a’
s
di
recti
on

Wil
son’
sfor
cescaughtupwi
thLobengul
a’
sfl
eei
ngpar
tyont
hewest
ernsi
de
oft
heri
ver

Page155of155
 Wi
l
sonr
equest
edr
einf
orcement
sbutFor
besdi
dnotcompl
y

I
nst
ead,hedispatchedcapt
ainH.
J.Borr
owwi t
h20menwi thouti
nst
ruct
ing
t
hem whethertheywereasuppor
tunitoranot
herat
tacki
ngforce

Bor
row’
sfor
cesj
oinedWi
l
son’
sgr
oupon4December

Toget
her
,Wi
l
son’
sgr
oupandt
hatofBor
rowat
tackedLobengul
a’
sgr
oup

Lobengul
a’
sgroupdef
endedit
sel
fwel
landt
heydef
eat
edt
hecombi
ned
for
cesofBorr
owandWi l
son

Bor
rowandWi l
sonandamaj
ori
tyoft
hei
rmenwer
eki
l
ledexcept3scout
s
whoescaped

For
bes’
groupcoul
dnotassi
stt
hem becauset
heShangani
riv
erwasf
looded

On5December
,For
besandt
her
estoft
heexpedi
ti
onr
etr
eat
ed

Theygav
eup,
nev
ercapt
uredLobengul
a.

[
c].
Didt
hispur
sui
tbenef
itt
heB.
S.A.
C? Expl
ainy
ouranswer
. [
8].

Benef
it
stot
heB.
S.A.
C.

ALLANWi
l
sonwasr
egar
dedasaher
o.

Compl
tedconquestandoccupat
ionofZi
mbabwe.

Gai
nedcompl
etecont
rol
ofMat
abel
eland

Gai
nedLobengul
a’
scat
tl
e

Uni
tedset
tl
erst
hanev
erbef
ore

Gai
nedmi
ner
alweal
th

Gai
nedl
and,
gai
nedl
abour

LedtoLobengula’
sdeat
h,constr
uct
ionoft
her
ail
wayl
i
net
hrough
Matabel
elandbecamepossibl
e

WeakenedNdr
bel
eresi
stance

Di
sadv
ant
agest
otheB.
S.A.
C

Expedi
ti
onwascost
ly

BB.
S.A.
Clostmen.

Companyf
ail
edt
odi
smant
leal
lNdebel
eregi
ment
s

Thebagofgol
dnev
err
eachedt
hem

Page156of156
 Companyhor
sesandcat
tl
ewer
eki
l
led

Companyl
ostammuni
ti
on

Set
tl
ersf
ail
edt
ocapt
ureLobengul
a

TheCompanyf
acedcr
it
ici
sm f
rom Br
it
ain

POST1897TO1950SZI
MBABWE
[
Nov2003]

108[a]
.St
atesi
xlawspassedbyt
hecoloni
algov
ernmenti
nRhodesi
atocont
rol
Afr
icaneconomi
cacti
vi
ti
esbefor
e1950. [
6]

Mat
abel
elandor
deri
ncounci
l
-1894

Or
deri
ncounci
l
-1898

TheI
ndust
ri
alConci
l
iat
ionAct
-1934

LandAppor
ti
onmentAct
-1930

Nat
iveRegi
str
ati
onAct
-1936

TheNat
ivePassesAct
-1937

Mai
zeCont
rol
Act
-1931

Cat
tl
eLev
yAct
-1934

LandCommi
ssi
onAct

[b]
.Whatformsofacti
onweretakenbyt
akenbywor
ker
sinRhodesi
atopr
otest
againstexpl
oit
ati
onbefor
e1950 [
11]

Wor
ker
sdel
i
ber
atel
ybr
okemachi
nes

Absent
eei
sm

Deser
ti
on

Wor
ker
scausedacci
dent
sforwhi
tes

St
ri
kese,
gShamv
aMi
nest
ri
kes

Ref
usedt
owor
k

Ref
usedt
ocar
rypasses

For
gedpasses

For
mat
ionofpr
otestmov
ement
s

For
mat
ionoft
radeuni
onmov
ement
s

Page157of157
 Ref
usedt
opayt
ax

For
mat
ionofAf
ri
cani
ndependentchur
ches

For
mat
ionofbur
ial
soci
eti
es

Hel
dammoni
tesneededbywhi
tes

Sabot
agesetcr
opsonf
ir
e,r
efusedor
der
sfr
om whi
tes,
fakedi
l
lness

[
c].
Howsuccessf
ulwer
ethewor
ker
sinf
ight
ingexpl
oit
ati
oni
nthi
sper
iod? [
8]

[
i]
.Successf
ul

Shor
tageofl
abouri
nmi
nesandf
arms

I
mpr
ovementofsomewor
kingcondi
ti
ons

Bur
ial
soci
eti
esandAf
ri
cani
ndependentchur
cheshel
pedt
ouni
teAf
ri
cans

Pr
otestmov
ement
shi
ghl
i
ght
edpr
obl
em ofwor
ker
s

[
ii
].
Notsuccessf
ul

Poorwor
kingcondi
ti
onscont
inued

Notal
l
owedt
ovot
e

Accommodat
ioncont
inuedt
obeapr
obl
em

Whi
tescont
inuedt
odemandpassesf
rom wor
ker
s.

[
June2004]

109[a]
.I
dent
if
yanysi
xminer
alsexpl
oit
edbyt
heset
tl
ersi
nRhodesi
a(Zi
mbabwe)
between1923and1969. [
6]

Gol
d;Copper
;Coal
;Ir
on

Lead;
Zinc;
Asbest
os;
Tin;
Chr
ome.

[
B].
Out
li
net
heef
fect
sofmi
ningact
ivi
ti
esi
nthecount
ryatt
hatt
ime.

Devel
opmentsoftownsatmi
ningcent
ressuchasKadoma(
gol
d),
Hwange,
Zvi
shavane,
Shurugwi
,Bi
ndur
a,Mvura

Dev
elopmentofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure-
roads/
rai
l
way
sleadi
ngt
omi
ningcent
res

Devel
opmentofsecondar
yindust
ri
es–suchaspr
ocessi
ngandf
ood
i
ndustr
ies

Ther
ewasinf
lowofcapi
tal
from abr
oad–e,
gRi
oTi
nto,
Angl
o-Amer
ican
Compani
es.

Devel
opmentofslums/
compoundsatmi
ningcent
res/
wor
ker
sli
vi
ngi
n
cr
owdedunhealt
hycondit
ions

Page158of158
 SomeAf
ri
canscamet
oli
veper
manent
lyatt
hecompounds

Thi
sal
sosawt
hedev
elopmentoft
hemi
grantl
aboursy
stem

Ext
ral
abouri
mpor
tedf
rom Mal
awi
,Zambi
a

Al
somostmi
ner
alswer
eexpor
tedmost
lyt
oBr
it
ain-sour
ceofr
evenue

[c]
.Howfardi
dmi
ningact
ivi
ti
esbenef
itAf
ri
cansatt
hatt
ime?Expl
ainy
our
answer.
[8]

[
i]
.Benef
it
s:

Af
ri
canwor
ker
swer
eempl
oyedatt
hemi
ningcent
resobt
ained:

Gotmoneyf
orpay
mentoft
axes

Gotmoneyt
opur
chasegoodsofEur
opeanor
igi
nsuchascl
othes,
blanket
s
andguns

I
nvest
menti
ndi
rect
lyi
mpr
ovedgener
all
i
vingcondi
ti
onsi
nthecount
ry

Someheal
thandeducat
ional
faci
l
iti
eswer
ebui
l
tlat
er

[
ii
].
Afr
icanwor
ker
sal
sosuf
fer
eddi
scr
imi
nat
ion:

Howev
er,
Afr
icanswer
elar
gel
yexpl
oit
ed.

Theywerepai
dlowwages,
andhencei
ncr
owdedcompoundswer
etakenas
cheapl
abour-
unski
l
led.

Af
ri
canswer
esubj
ect
edt
ofor
cedl
abourasl
abourwasscar
ce

Af
ri
canswer
etaxedt
ofor
cet
hem t
otakeupempl
oymentatmi
ningcent
res

Ther
ewer
enor
ecr
eat
ional
faci
l
iti
esf
orAf
ri
cansexceptbeerhal
l
s.

[
Nov
2004]

110[
a].
Nameanythreeminer
alsmi
nedandanyt
hreecr
opsgr
owni
ncol
onial
Zimbabwebef
ore1923. [6]

Gol
d;I
ron;
Copper
;Lead;
Coal
;Zi
nc;
Chr
ome;
Asbest
os

Maize;
Rapoko;
Tobacco;
Sorghum;
Mil
l
et;
Cot
ton;
Groundnut
s;Roundnut
s;
Cowpeas;
Gourds;
Pumpkins

[
b].Descr
ibethemeasurestakenbytheBri
ti
shSout
hAfri
caCompany(
BSAC)t
o
depri
veAf r
icansoft
hei
rlandincol
onial
Zimbabwebef
ore1923. [
11]
.

Landgi
vent
oPi
oneer
sonar
ri
val
in1890,
vol
unt
eer
sof1893war

Cr
eat
ionofr
eser
ves,
landbank,
loansf
orwhi
tes.

TheBSACt
ookl
andwhi
chi
tlat
ersol
dtoset
tl
ers

Page159of159
 For
cedl
abour
,tax
ati
on

Absent
eel
andl
ords,
orderi
ncounci
l
-1898

[
c].
Howef
fect
ivewer
ethemeasur
esi
ndepr
ivi
ngAf
ri
cansoft
hei
rlandby1923?[
8]

[
i]
.Ef
fect
iveness:

Af
ri
cansf
orcedt
oli
vei
nreser
ves

Af
ri
cansbecamesquat
ter
sorbecamewor
ker
sonf
armsormi
nes

Managedt
oreducecompet
it
ionbet
weent
hewhi
teandbl
ackf
armer
sin
f
arming

[
i]
.Notef
fect
ive:

SomeAf
ri
cansr
esi
stedev
ict
ion

SomeAf
ri
cansabl
etopur
chase

Af
ri
canscont
inuedt
ogr
owcr
opswhi
cht
heysol
dtoset
tl
ers

Set
tl
ersatf
ir
stnotr
eal
l
yint
erest
edi
nagr
icul
tur
e.

]Nov2004]

111[a].
Listanysi
xfor
msofill
-t
reat
mentofAfr
icanmi
newor
ker
sbyset
tl
ersi
n
col
onialZimbabwebetween1894and1932? [
11]

Pai
dver
ylowwages

Forcedt
oli
veli
kepr
isoner
sindi
rt
y,ov
ercr
owdedandbadl
ybui
l
t
accommodati
onwit
houtli
ght
s

Suf
fer
edf
rom mal
nut
ri
ti
onast
heywer
efedwi
thbadandr
ott
enf
ood

Nosy
stem ofmedi
cal
treat
mentf
ormi
newor
ker
s

For
cedt
owor
kundert
hecont
rol
ofpol
i
ce/
chi
bar
o

Manywer
eki
l
ledori
njur
edbecauset
heyhadnopr
otect
ivecl
othi
ng

Nocompensat
ionf
ori
njur
ies

Cheat
edort
ri
ckedsot
hatt
heywoul
dnotr
ecei
vet
hei
rsal
ari
es

Somet
imest
heybeat
enbysuper
visor
s

Nopensi
onschemes/
ter
minal
benef
it
s

Nouni
ons-out
lawi
ngofst
ri
kes

[
b].Whatmethodswereusedbyt
heAf
ricanmi
newor
ker
stor
esi
stexpl
oit
ati
on
byEuropeanset
tler
sbet
ween1894and1932.

Fl
edf
rom wor
kpl
aces

Page160of160
 Cheat
edonpasses–wr
oteonsomeoft
hepassesev
ent
hought
heydi
dnot
work

Manypeopl
esol
dthei
rcat
tl
eandgr
aini
nor
dert
orai
set
het
axesr
equi
red

Somelef
tthei
rhomest
oresi
stdi
rectf
orcedl
abour–e,
gsomef
ledt
o
Mozambique

Agent
ssentt
olookf
orl
abourwer
esomet
imeski
l
led

Bur
ntpasses

Machi
nebr
eaki
ng–sabot
agi
ng

Acci
dent
all
yinj
uredt
hei
rbosses

Fl
edt
owor
kinSout
hAf
ri
cami
nes

St
ri
kesanddemonst
rat
ions

Ref
usal
topayt
axes

Absent
eei
sm/
gosl
ow

[
c].
Whydi
dtheAf
ri
canmi
newor
ker
sfai
ltoachi
evet
hei
robj
ect
ivesi
nthi
sper
iod?
[
8]

[
i]
.f
ail
uret
oachi
eveobj
ect
ives:

Mi
newor
ker
snotuni
ted

Mi
newor
ker
swer
enoteducat
ed/
fear
edwhi
tes

For
cedt
opaymanyt
axeswhi
chf
orcedt
hem t
owor
k

Af
ri
canshadl
ostcat
tl
eandl
andhencehadnomeansofsur
viv
al

[
ii
].
Theset
tl
ergov
ernmental
soassi
stedt
hemi
neempl
oyer
s

Mi
neowner
shadt
hesuppor
tofpol
i
ce

Useofpassesf
orcedbl
ackmi
newor
ker
stowor
k

Useofpassesbyset
tl
erpol
i
ce

112[a]
.Li
stsi
xresul
tsoft
heNdebel
e/ShonaRi
singsof1896t
o1897i
ncol
oni
al
Zimbabwe[6]

Companyi
ntr
oducedf
ormal
gov
ernment

Ndebel
e/Shonadef
eat
ed

Matabel
elandandMashonal
anduni
tedi
ntoonear
eacal
l
edSout
her
n
Rhodesi
a

Af
ri
cansst
ri
ppedofal
lpower

Page161of161
 Af
ri
cansl
ostconf
idenceandbegant
oacceptmor
ewest
erncul
tur
e

Sout
her
nRhodesi
abecameaBr
it
ishcol
ony

MostAfri
canl
eader
soft
her
isi
ngwer
ehunt
eddownandei
therki
l
ledor
i
mprisoned

Thespi
ri
toff
utur
eAf
ri
canr
esi
stancewasal
sosowed

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalandeconomi
cdev
elopment
sinZi
mbabweundercompany
r
ulebet
ween1898and1923.

1898Or
der
sInCounci
lgav
enewconst
it
uti
ont
othecount
ry

Est
abli
shedanExecut
iveCounci
l
,al
egi
slat
ivecounci
l
,anAdmi
nist
rat
oranda
Bri
ti
shresi
dent

Col
oni
alruler
sexpandedcont
rol
overt
hewhol
ecount
rye,
gPol
i
ceandNat
ive
Commissioner
s

Landdi
vi
si
ont
hrought
hesy
stem ofr
eser
vesf
ort
hewhi
tes

1900set
tl
ersgi
venmor
esayi
nthegov
ernment

1910mor
eel
ect
edmember
swer
eaddedt
oLegi
slat
iveCounci
l

System off
ranchi
sethroughquali
fi
cat
ionwasintr
oducedi
,e1898vot
egiv
en
tomal esov
er21earning50poundsorwi t
hpropert
yof75pounds;
1912
salarywas100poundsandpr opert
yof150pounds;1919whi
tewomengot
thevote

1914B.
S.ACompanyr
ulewasext
endedbutset
tl
erbegant
ocal
lfori
tsend

1917settl
ersfor
medt heResponsi
bleGov
ernmentAssoci
ati
ont
ocal
lfor
responsi
bleGovernment

1923Br
it
aingr
ant
edt
hecount
ryResponsi
bleGov
ernment

Mostlandwasbr
oughtunderEur
opeancont
rol
andl
argescal
efar
ming
st
art
ed

Mi
ningwasi
ntr
oduced-
Gol
d,coal
,chr
ome,
asbest
os

Ledt
odev
elopmentofar
oadandr
ail
waynet
wor
k

I
nagri
cul
tur
emai ncr
opsweremai
zeandtobacco.Cat
tl
eal
sopl
ayedapar
t.
Mai
zeandtobaccoexpor
tedt
oSout
hAfri
ca.

Landdist
ri
butedtot
heset
tl
erswhi
l
eAf
ri
canswer
edepr
ivede,
gbyt
heOr
der
s
InCounci
lof1920.

[
c].
Didt
heAfr
icansbenef
itf
rom t
hesedev
elopment
sdur
ingt
hisperi
od?Expl
ain
y
ouranswer
. [
8]

Af
ri
cansl
ostt
hei
rcount
ryandpol
i
tical
powert
othewhi
test
heyl
ostt
hei
r

Page162of162
 weal
thwhencat
tl
ewer
etaken

Theywer
enoti
ncl
udedi
nthef
ranchi
se

Theybecameeconomi
cal
l
ydependentont
hewhi
tesmai
nlyasal
abourf
orce

Theywer
eil
l-
tr
eatedatworkandunder
paid;
workedi
nhar
shcondi
ti
onsi
n
minesandduri
ngtheconst
ruct
ionofr
ail
wayli
nes

Theywer
eint
roducedt
othecasheconomy
,butwi
thl
i
ttl
emoneyont
hem

Theywer
etaughtnewmet
hodsoff
armi
ngandi
ntr
oducedt
onewcr
ops

Theirmodeoftr
anspor
twasi
mpr
ovedt
hought
heyst
ayedf
arf
rom t
hemai
n
roads/
rout
es.

[
Speci
men]

113[a]
.Li
stanysi
xgri
evancesoft
heAf
ri
canwor
ker
sincol
oni
alZi
mbabwe
bet
ween1931and1953. [6]

For
cedl
abour

Longwor
kinghour
s

Lowwages

Pooraccommodat
ion

I
ll
-t
reat
mentatwor
k

Lackofj
obsecur
it
y

Raci
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ionatj
obs

[
b].
Whatst
epsweretakenbyt
hesettl
ersandt
hei
rgover
nment
stoexpl
oitAf
ri
can
l
abouri
ncol
oni
alZimbabwebetween1931and1953?

1931landapporti
onmentactfor
cedAfr
icanstoleav
ethei
rlandanddr
ove
them i
ntowhit
e-cont
rol
l
edar eastol
ookforjobs

Foundj
obsi
nmi
nes,
far
msandf
act
ori
es

1934I
ndust
ri
alConci
l
iat
ionAct
,reser
vedhi
ghpay
ingj
obsf
orwhi
tesonl
y

Taxat
ioni
,
ehut
,dogt
axes,
for
cedAf
ri
canst
ogoandl
ookf
roj
obs

Asy
stem off
orcedl
abour
(Chi
bar
o)wasappl
i
edr
uthl
essl
y

Whit
esusedt hecompoundsyst
em (komboni)t
ohousemanyworker
sina
small
placetosav eonaccommodat
ioncosts.Meantov
ercr
owdi
ngand
i
nsani
tarycondit
ions

Rhodesi
aNativ
eLabourRecr
uit
mentBureau-hadaut
hor
it
ytoforci
blyr
ecr
uit
Afr
icanl
abourandal
soimportext
ral
abourfrom Mal
awi
,Zambiaand
Mozambique

Page163of163
 Indi
vi
dual
whit
esett
ler
sevi
ctedwill
y-
nil
l
y,Afri
canscl
osetothei
rnewl
y
acquir
edf
arms,t
aki
ngstr
aycatt
le,
sheep,goatsaspuni
shment

Whiteal
soopenedDomboshawaandTshol
otshotr
aini
ngcent
reswi
th
speci
fi
cpur
posetocreat
esemi-
ski
ll
edl
abourtoservet
hewhit
eemployer
s.

[
c].
Howeffect
ivewer
ethesest
epsi
ncont
rol
li
ngAf
ri
cansi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabwe
dur
ingt
hisper
iod?

Governmentmeasur esmadesur eAfri

canslef
tthei
rhomestogoandwork
.Ruraltourbandri
ftstart
ed,asyoungmenbecameur bandwel
ler
sworki
ngin
emergingindust
ri
es,retai
lshops,f
arms,.andmines.

Afri
canslostcatt
le,
thei
rbasi
sforweal
th,
andt
heyhadt
ofi
ndal
ter
nat
ivei
n
thelabourmarket.

Afri
canwayofli
fewaschangedasfami
li
eswereseparat
ed,wi
thhusbandsi
n
theurbanar
easwhil
ewivesandchi
l
drenremai
nedintherur
alar
eas

Af
ri
canswhoremai
nedinexpr
opr
iat
edlandbecamesquat
ter
sandhadt
o
workf
ort
henewwhiteownerorl
eavet
heplace.

Becauseofl abourdi
scr
imi
nati
oninsal
ari
es,
Afri
cansbegantoseekto
i
mpr ovethemselvesi
nabidtoqual
if
yforbet
terpay
ingj
obs(i
,
egetti
ngbet
ter
educati
on)

Afri
canswerenotbli
ndt
otheideaofbei
ngexpl
oit
edandoft
enr et
ali
atedby
sabotagi
ngtheeconomy-
str
iki
ng,
machinebr
eaki
nganddesert
ingharsh
companies

Afri
cansalsotookadvantageandusedt
heirworkerst
atusandsmallwages
toimprovethemselvesacademical
l
yandsocial
l
yandl ear
ntopol
it
ical
ly
chall
engethewhites.

[
Nov2005]

114[a]
.Nameanysixr
esour
ceswhi
chEur
opeanset
tl
erst
ookf
rom Af
ri
cansi
n
col
oni
alZimbabwe. [
6]

Landf
orcul
ti
vat
ion,
grazi
ngl
and,
hunt
inggr
ounds

Tr
ader
out
es/
post
s

Mi
ner
als,
iron,
gol
dcopper

I
vor
y

Li
vest
ock,
cat
tl
e,sheepandgoat
s

Gr
ainorcr
ops

Cr
aft
s

Labour

Page164of164
[
b].
Descr
ibet
heeconomi
cdev
elopment
swhi
cht
ookpl
acei
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabweup
t
o1923. [11]

Landappr
opr
iat
ioncont
inued,
reser
vescont
inuousl
ycr
eat
ed

Set
tl
ersconcent
rat
edi
ngol
dmi
ningatf
ir
st

BSACinv
estedheavi
lyintheRailwayproj
ect
s-Mafeki
ngtoBulaway or
ail
way
l
inecomplet
edin1897,extendedtoWankiein1903andLiv
ingstonein
1904.
Bul
away ot
oSalisburyrai
lwayli
necomplet
edby1902.Beir
at oMutar
e
1897.

By1914,Eur
opeanf
armer
swenti
nlar
gescal
epr
oduct
ionofMai
ze,
tobacco
andbeef
.

By1900,
BSACt
ookmor
elandf
rom t
heAf
ri
cans

1908BSACest
abl
i
shedal
andbank

Appoi
ntedagr
icul
tur
alexper
tst
oadv
iseset
tl
ersonf
armi
ng

I
ntr
oduct
ionoff
orcedl
abour

Useofmi
grantl
abour

Monet
ari
sat
ionoft
heeconomy

Decl
i
nei
nAf
ri
canagr
icul
tur
eby1920

Technol
ogi
cal
impr
ovement
s

Coal
mini
ngbegani
nWanki
ein1903

Chr
omemi
ningst
art
edatSel
ukwepeaki
n1906

Dev
elopmentofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

Asbest
osmi
ningst
art
edatShabani
in1908

Const
ruct
ionofbanks

Agr
icul
tur
e-f
orest
ryandci
tr
us

[
c].
Howfardi
dtheseeconomi
cdev
elopment
sbenef
itAf
ri
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabweupto1923.

[
i]Benef
it
s:

Empl
oymentonmi
nesandf
arms

Newf
armi
ngt
echni
ques

I
mpr
ovedmi
ning

Li
vest
ockv
acci
nat
edagai
nstmanydi
seases

Page165of165
 Af
ri
canf
armi
ngenj
oyedpr
ofi
tsbet
ween1898and1915.

[
ii
]Di
sadv
ant
ages:

Gener
all
ysuf
fer
edeconomi
coppr
essi
onandexpl
oit
ati
on.

Lossofl
and

Lossofl
i
vest
ock

For
cedl
abourwashar
danddanger
ousespeci
all
yinmi
nes

Wor
ker
s’l
i
vingcondi
ti
onswer
ever
ypoor

Gi
venl
owwages

[
June2006]

115[a]
.Gi
veanysi
xresul
tsoft
heShonaRi
singof1896t
o1897i
ncol
oni
al
Zimbabwe.[
6]

Shonewer
edef
eat
ed

Companyi
ntr
oducedr
uleofl
aw

Mat
abel
elandandMashonal
anduni
tedi
ntoSout
her
nRhodesi
a

Af
ri
canr
uler
sst
ri
ppedofal
lpower
s

Af
ri
cansl
ostconf
idencei
ntr
adi
ti
onal
rel
i
gion

Makoni
capt
uredatendof1896

NehandaandKaguv
itr
iedandexecut
ed

At
tempt
stor
est
oreRozv
irul
ethwar
ted

Br
it
ishi
nvol
vementi
ngov
ernmentofcol
onyi
ncr
eased

Set
ti
ngupofShonar
eser
ves

Spi
ri
tofAf
ri
canr
esi
stancesowed

Compl
eti
onofBei
ra-Mut
arel
i
ne

Lossofl
i
ves

Hungerandst
arv
ati
on.

Pov
ert
yoft
heShonapeopl
e

Dest
ruct
ionofpr
oper
ty.

Notal
l
owedt
obui
l
dhousesi
nkopj
es

[
b].
Out
li
net
hepol
it
icaldev
elopment
sinZi
mbabweunderBSACr
ulefrom 1894up
t
o1923. [11]

Page166of166
 1894OrderI
nCouncilgaveRhodesandJamesonf
reedom t
orul
eSout
her
n
Rhodesi
aatthei
rexpenseonbehalfofBSAC.

I
njust
icesandabuseofpowerbyset
tl
erswasbl
amedbyBr
it
ishgov
ernment
.

Apr
opergov
ernmentwassetupt
omakel
awsandt
heset
obei
nter
pret
edby
l
awcourt
s

1898Souther
nRhodesiaorderi
ncounci
lbegant
her
uleofl
aw;
itgav
eanew
const
it
uti
ontothecountr
y.

Sout
her
nRhodesi
abecameof
fi
cial
name

I
test
abl
i
shedexecut
ivecounci
l
,legi
slat
ure,
admi
nist
rat
orandBr
it
ishr
esi
dent
.

Cont
rol
ext
endedbyuseofpol
i
cef
orceandNat
iveCommi
ssi
oner
s

Asy
stem ofv
oti
ngt
hroughpr
oper
tyqual
i
ficat
ions(
onl
ywhi
tesbecamev
oter
s)

Whi
tewomengotv
otei
n1919

Companyr
uleext
endedi
n1914t
o1923

Responsi
bleGov
ernmentAssoci
ati
onf
ormedi
n1917

Responsi
blegov
ernmentgr
ant
edbyBr
it
aini
n1923

1923consti
tuti
ongrant
edBri
tai
nri
ghtt
oappr
ovel
awsaf
fect
ingbl
acksonl
y,a
Bri
ti
shgovernorbasedatSal
i
sbury

Legi
slat
ivecounci
lrepl
acedbyl
egi
slat
iveassembl
yledbyPr
imeMi
nst
erand
Cabi
net

Assembl
yhad30member
s

El
ect
ionst
obehel
dev
ery15y
ear
s

1896-
7ri
si
ngs

Ndebel
enotal
l
owedt
ochooseanot
herki
ngt
orepl
aceLobengul
a

[
c].
Howf
ardi
dAf
ri
cansbenef
itf
rom t
hesepol
it
icaldev
elopment
sint
hisper
iod?
[
8]

[
i]
Benef
it
s:

Benef
it
edf
rom pr
otect
ionorl
awt
osomeext
ent

Br
it
ainr
evi
ewedl
awsaf
fect
ingt
heAf
ri
cans

[
ii
].
Disadv
ant
ages:

Nov
otewasext
endedt
oAf
ri
cans

Onf
armsandmi
neswhi
tesst
il
ll
argel
ybey
ondt
hel
aw–i
l
l-
tr
eat
edbl
acks

Page167of167
 Tomaxi
misegainsprof
it
swer erepat
ri
ated,
Bri
tai
ncondonedlawsrestr
ict
ing
movementofbl
acks,
taxati
on.Suchlawspassedwit
hBrit
ishAppr
ov al
.

[
Nov2006]

116[
a].
Ident
if
yanysi
xmi
ner
alspr
oducedi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabweupt
o1930.[
6]

I
ron,
Gol
d,Coal
,Copper
,Chr
ome,
asbest
os,
Nickel
,Ti
n.

[
b].
Descr
ibethemethodsusedbywhi
teset
tl
ersi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabwet
orecr
uit
l
abourupto1930.

Recrui
tmentofl
abourbyagr
eement-tar
get
edt
hosewi
l
li
ngt
owor
k.Af
ri
cans
encouragedt
owork.Pai
dbetterwages.

For
cedlabour–pol
iceusedt
oroundupmenwhowor kedforset
tl
ersbyforce.
Themethodwasalsousedtogetlabourf
rom nei
ghbouri
ngcount
ri
es.Forced
l
abour
ersearnedveryl
it
tl
eandusuall
yworkedontwelvemonthcontr
acts.

Whi
tesr
efusedt
osi
gnt
hepasses

Cr
edi
tsy
stem[
moneydeduct
edf
rom sal
ary
]

Squat
ter
sfor
cedt
owor
kont
hewhi
tes’
far
ms

Taxati
on-peopl
ewer efor
cedtopaytaxasawayt oforcet
hem towor
k.
Taxesweretobei ncashorl
abour.Fai
l
uretopaytaxresul
tedi
ngover
nment
confi
sti
cati
ngpropert
ysuchascattl
eoftheoff
ender.

Useoflaws/l
egislat
ion-
e,gMaster
s’andServ
antOr di
nance,Nat
ivePass
Ordi
nance.Fai
luretoproducepasseswouldresul
tinpeoplebei
ngforcedt
o
work.

Fal
sechar
gesagai
nstAf
ri
canswer
eal
sousedt
ofor
ceAf
ri
canst
owor
k.

Suppressi
onofpeasantagri
cul
tur
esothatt
heywoul
dnotpr
oducemuch,
wouldendupwor ki
nginordert
osurv
ive.

LandofAf
ricanswastakentof
orcethem t
owork.Forcedtol
i
veinar
easof
l
owrai
nfal
landpoorsoil
s.Lowproduct
ionfor
cedthem towor
k.

[c]
.Howdi
dthesemet
hodsaf
fectt
hel
iv
esofAf
ri
cansi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabweat
t
hatti
me? [
8]

[
i]
.Posi
ti
veef
fect
s:

Empl
oyment

Gai
nednewl
abourski
l
ls

Abl
etopayt
axes

Uni
tyamongAf
ri
cans

[
ii
].
Negat
iveef
fect
s

Page168of168
 Pr
ost
it
uti
on

Soci
ali
l
ls

Thef
t

For
cedt
owor
kforl
owwages

Separ
atedf
ami
l
ies

Oppr
essi
onandexpl
oit
ati
on

Poorpr
oduct
ionofcr
ops

Lossofdomest
icani
mal
s

Di
seasesi
ncompounds.

[
Nov2007]

117[
a].
Listsi
xai
msoft
heLandAppor
ti
onmentActof1930. [
6]

Toav
oidcompet
it
ionbet
weenAf
ri
cansandwhi
tes

Tocr
eat
eapool
ofcheapl
abour

Todi
scr
imi
nat
ebl
ackf
armi
ngar
easandwhi
tef
armi
ngar
eas

Tocr
eat
ear
abl
elandf
orwhi
teur
banpopul
ati
on

Topr
ovi
degoodt
ranspor
ttot
heEur
opeans

Tosetasi
denat
ional
landf
orwi
l
dani
mal
s

Tor
eser
vemor
elandf
ort
heunbor
nwhi
techi
l
dren

Byi
mpl
i
cat
ion,
tol
egal
i
sel
andandst
ockt
hef
t

Toat
tractmor
ewhi
teset
tl
ers

Topr
eventAf
ri
cansf
rom uni
ti
ngandr
isi
ngagai
nstt
hewhi
tes.

[
b].
Out
li
net
heef
fect
soft
heLandAppor
ti
onmentActof1930. [
11]

Cr
eat
edcheapl
abourf
orwhi
tesi
nmi
nes,
far
msandf
act
ori
es

Zimbabwedi
vi
dedal
ongr
aci
all
i
nesi
,
eEur
opeansr
ichsoi
l
sandAf
ri
canspoor
reser
ves

Ov
ercr
owdi
ngi
nreser
vesandal
soov
erst
ocki
ng

I
ncreasedpr
oduct
ionofEur
opeanagr
icul
tur
ecompar
edt
oAf
ri
canspl
acedi
n
r
eserves

Wagesf
orAf
ri
cansdr
oppedespeci
all
yinmi
nesandf
arms

Ev
ict
ionbecameor
derofdayf
rom Eur
opeanassi
gnedar
eas

Page169of169
 Whi
tesr
eser
vedar
abl
elandf
ort
hei
runbor
nchi
l
dren-unassi
gnedar
eas

Af
ri
cancat
tl
ebecameweakandsmal
lduet
olackofpast
ures

Afr
icansreset
tl
edf
arawayf
rom mar
ketcent
resandhadnogoodt
ranspor
t
net
wor k

Manypeopl
emi
grat
edi
ntour
banar
eas

I
twasi
l
legal
forAf
ri
canst
obuyl
andi
nEur
opeanar
eas

Reducedcompeti
ti
onbetweenblacksandwhit
es.
Eur
opeansgr
ewcashcr
ops
whil
stAfr
icanspr
acti
sedsubsi
stencefar
ming

Massi
vesoi
ler
osi
on

Massnat
ional
i
sm

Af
ri
cansbecamesquat
ter
sonwhi
teownedl
and.

Twopy
rami
dsy
stem

[
c].
Wast
heLandAppor
ti
onmentActf
airt
oAf
ri
cans?Expl
ainy
ouranswer
.[8]

[
i]
.Fai
rnessofL.
A.A/
Benef
it
s.

Somepar
tsofZi
mbabwewerepr
eser
vedandsav
edf
rom dest
ruct
ionby
want
onfi
resandtr
eecut
ti
ng

Therewasnowl andr
eser
vedf
orAf
ri
canswhi
chnowhi
tescoul
d
al
ienat
e/possess.

Lef
tAf
ri
cansl
argel
ytot
hei
rowncul
tur
alpr
act
ices

Gamer
eser
veswer
ecr
eat
edt
opr
eser
veani
mal
li
fe

Af
ri
canspur
chasedar
easwhi
cht
heyr
eser
vedf
orf
utur
euse

[
ii
].
Unf
air
nessofL.
A.A

Unf
airdi
str
ibut
ionofl
and(
whi
tesgotpl
ent
yandf
ert
il
esoi
l
s)

I
tledtoover
crowdi
ngandov
erst
ocki
ngi
nreser
ves y
ett
her
ewasunder
ut
ili
sedl
and

I
tlocat
edAf
ri
cansf
arf
rom mar
ket
s

I
tdi
dnotal
l
owAf
ri
canst
obuyl
andi
nwhi
tear
eas

I
ttur
nedbl
acksi
ntowor
ker
sexpl
oit
edbywhi
tes.

[
Nov2007]

118[a]
.Li
stanysixfor
msofil
l-
tr
eat
mentofAfri
canfar
m andmi
newor
ker
sby
set
tl
ersinSouther
nRhodesi
abetween1900and1950. [
6]

Page170of170
 Poorwor
kingcondi
ti
ons

Pai
dlowwages

For
cedl
abour

Nopensi
onschemes

Ov
ercr
owdedshant
ytowns

Poordi
et

Noheal
thi
nsur
ance

beat
enjustbef
orepaydayt
omaket
hem r
unawayandl
eav
ethei
rwage
behi
nd

l
ongwor
kinghour
s

nol
eav
eday
s

pai
dinki
nd

i
nadequat
epr
otect
ivecl
othes

poorv
ent
il
ati
on

[
b].
Descr
ibethemeasur
estakenbyt
hef
arm andmi
newor
ker
stor
esi
st
expl
oit
ati
onduri
ngthi
speri
od.

Fakedpasses/
alt
eredpasses

For
mat
ionoft
radeuni
ons

Fakedi
l
lness

Somewor
ker
sst
olef
arm/
minepr
oduce

Dest
ruct
ionofcr
ops

Dest
ruct
ionofmachi
ner
y

Abandonedwor
kforSout
hAf
ri
ca

St
ri
keact
ione,
gShamv
ami
ne

Roast
edseeds

Car
elessappr
oacht
owor
ke,
gfi
eldswer
ecar
elessl
yweeded

Absent
eei
sm

Br
okemachi
nes/
far
mimpl
ement
s

Gav
eemployer
snicknameswarni
ngt
oot
her
se,
gPachay
amat
ako/
lef
tsi
gns
ont
rees–t
opotenti
alempl
oyees

Page171of171
 Thef
tofl
i
vest
ock

Deser
ti
ons

Wor
ker
sor
gani
sedacci
dent
sfort
hebosses

[
c].
Whywer
etheAf
ri
canf
arm wor
ker
sunablet
osol
vet
hei
rpr
obl
emsdur
ing
t
hisperi
od [8]

[
i]
Wor
ker
s’weaknesses

Lackofuni
ty

Lossofl
andandcat
tl
e

Not
radeuni
ons

Fearoft
heset
tl
ers

I
ll
i
ter
acy

Gr
indi
ngpov
ert
yint
her
eser
ves

[
ii
].
Otherf
act
ors

For
cedt
opayt
axi
ncash

Whi
tesusedf
orce

Absent
eei
sm waspuni
shabl
ebyf
orf
eit
ingwagef
ort
womont
hs

Lossofwages

St
ri
keswer
eil
l
egal

Tr
adeuni
onsbanned

Deser
ter
swer
eimpr
isoned

Useoff
orce

LackofGov
ernmentcar
eandpr
otect
ivel
egi
slat
ion.

[
Nov2008]

119[a].
Ident
if
ytheear
lytownshi
psf orAf
ri
cansWorker
sint
hef
oll
owi
ngci
ti
es:
Harare;
Bulawayo;Mut
are;Gweru;Kadoma;Masvi
ngo.

Har
are—Mbar
e,Mabv
uku,
Taf
ara;
Muf
akose;
Highl
ands.

Bul
away
o—Makokoba;
Luv
eve;
Mpopoma;
Sizi
nda;
Mat
shobane;

Gwer
u-Mut
apa;
Senga;
Mambo;

Kadoma-
--
Rimuka.

Masv
ingo-
Mucheke.

Page172of172
 Mut
are—Sakubv
a

[
b].
Whatmethodswer
eusedbyAf
ricani
ndustr
ialwor
ker
stosol
vet
hei
r
gr
iev
ancesagai
nstwhit
eempl
oyer
sbefore1950? [
11]

Boycot
ts-
Menv erycar
efulonchoi
ceofminest
oworkin.
Somemi
neswith
badsafet
yrecordswereboycot
ted.Thi
smeansnoonewoul
dwor
kther
e

Stri
keact
ion–examplesr
ecor
ded:WankieCol
li
eri
esr
ecor
dedst
rikesi
n1912,
1919and1921.TheShamvaMineStr
ikeof1927wher
e3500workersdowned
tool
sforbett
erpay
.

Deser
ti
on.

Demonst
rat
ion

St
eal
i
ng

Fakedi
l
lness

Al
ter
edpasses

I
njur
edsuper
visor
s

For
medbur
ial
soci
eti
es

Absent
eei
sm

Sabot
age–damagedmachi
nes,
soast
ounder
minewhi
tepr
ofi
tsandget
ti
metorest

Gav
eempl
oyer
sni
cknamesshay
amat
akho

For
medAf
ri
cani
ndependentchur
ches

Hi
ding.

[
c].
Towhatext
enthadt
hesegr
iev
ancesbeenaddr
essedby1950? [
8]

[
i]
.Benef
it
s:

Creat
edcondit
ionsforstabl
elabourbyprov
idi
ngbett
erhousi
ng,bet
ter
educati
onal
facil
i
tiesandlessoff
ici
alhar
assmentaboutpet
tyr
ulesand
regul
ati
ons

Li
vi
ngcondi
ti
onsandwor
kingcondi
ti
onswer
eimpr
oved

[
ii
].
Limi
tat
ions:

TopreventanAf
ri
canprol
etar
iatf
ight
ingtheconser
vati
vecapi
tal
i
sts,they
encour
agedthedevel
opmentofabuffergroup-mi
ddlecl
assofAfri
cans.

Usedpol
i
cet
osuppr
essst
ri
kes

SomeAf
ri
cant
radewer
ear
rest
edandi
mpr
isoned.

Page173of173
 Whi
tecont
inuedt
odemandpasses

Theypassedhar
sherl
aws.

[
Nov2009]

120[a]
.Li
stanysi
xcr
opsgr
ownatEur
opeanf
armsi
nSout
her
nRhodesi
abet
ween
1900and1953. [6]
.

Mai
ze;Tobacco;
Wheat
;Bar
ley
;cot
ton;
Soy
aBeans;

Gr
apes;
Pot
atoes;
Cit
rus;
Sor
ghum;
Groundnut
s;Mi
l
let
;

Sugar
cane;
Cof
fee;
Tea;
Rice;
Sunf
lower

[b]
.Whatf
act
orsl
edt
othedev
elopmentofEur
opeanagr
icul
tur
edur
ingt
he
per
iod1900to1953?

Av
ail
abi
l
ityofl
and–gi
venatl
owf
eesbyt
hegov
ernment

Cheapl
abour

Est
abl
i
shmentoft
heEst
ateDepar
tmenti
n1908

CreationoftheDepart
mentofAgr
icul
tur
e,andt
heset
ti
ngoft
heRhodesi
a
Agricult
ural
Journal

Theset
ti
ngupoft
heLandbanki
n1912

Var
iousi
ncent
ivesgi
vent
owhi
tese,
ggener
ousl
oans,
l
owpr
icesofl
and

I
ntr
oducti
onofanumberoft
axeswhichfor
cedAf r
icansintowagelabour,
so
bet
ween1918and1932peri
odofGreatDepressi
on,Europeanagr
icult
ure
i
ncreased

Laws/Actsusedtoassi
stwhitesi
ntocommercialagr
icul
tur
ee,gLand
Apport
ionmentAct(
1930),MaizeContr
olAct
(1931),
and1934,andLand
HusbandryAct(
1951),
Catt
leLevyAct.

Governmentsuppl
iedf
inancedandpr
ocur
edseeds,
fer
ti
li
ser
sandchemi
cal
s
forwhit
efar
mer s.

Marketi
ngboardssetupt
opr omoteEuropeanagr
icultur
ee,
gTobacco
Marketi
ngBoard,Gr
ainMarketi
ngBoard,Cott
onMar keti
ngBoar
d,Tobacco
Contr
olBoard,
etc

I
ncreaseddemandforf
oodi
nEur
opeaf
terWor
ldWarTwoboost
ed
Eur
opeanagri
cult
ure

Near
nesst
orai
l
wayt
ranspor
t

Cont
ractf
armi
ng

Li
nkedt
omaj
orr
oads

Page174of174
 Resear
chcent
res

[c]
.Howfardi
dthecount
rybenef
itf
rom t
hedev
elopmentofEur
opean
agr
icult
ure?
[8]

[
i]
.Benef
it
s:

Countr
ystar
tedexpor
ti
ngmeatt
oSout
hAf
ri
ca;
Bel
gianCongo;
Ger
manyand
Nort
hernRhodesi
a

Sel
f-
suf
fi
ciencyi
nfoodt
ofeedpeopl
eint
owns,
minesandl
abourf
orce

Dur
ingyear
sofGreatDepr
essi
oncount
rywasnotaf
fect
ed,
because
pr
oduct
ionofcr
opsonEuropeanf
armsincr
eased

I
ncr
easedr
evenue

Devel
opmentofmoder
nagr
icul
tur
e:-
count
rybecameanagr
o-based
economy

Int
roduct
ionofi
nter
nat
ional
var
iet
iesofcat
tl
ebr
eedse,
gHer
efor
d;Br
ahman
andJersey

Empl
oymentcr
eat
ion

Newski
l
lswer
eacqui
red

I
mpr
ovedt
ranspor
tandcommuni
cat
ion

I
ntr
oduct
ionofnewcr
opv
ari
eti
es

Const
ruct
ionofdams

[
ii
].
NonBenef
it
s:

Expl
oit
ati
onofi
ndi
genousAf
ri
cansascheapl
abour

Af
ri
cansl
ostt
hei
rlands

Mar
ginal
i
sat
ionofAf
ri
canagr
icul
tur
e

Af
ri
cancat
tl
etaken

Di
scr
imi
nat
ionoft
heAf
ri
cans

Af
ri
canpov
ert
y-Eur
opeanagr
icul
tur
ecent
redont
heexpor
tmar
ket

Count
rybecameasourceofrawagri
cult
uralpr
oduceandnotfi
nishedor
pr
ocessedgoods-si
nceEur
opeanagr
icul
turewasexport
-cent
red

Pr
ofi
text
ernal
i
sedt
oEur
ope

Ri
seofbi
tt
ercl
assconf
li
ctbet
weent
heAf
ri
cansandt
heWhi
tes

I
ntr
oduct
ionofmi
grantl
aboursy
stem l
eadi
ngt
othedi
srupt
ionoft
heAf
ri
can
f
amili
es.

Page175of175
 (
Nov2010)

121(a)
.I
dent
if
yanysi
xgr
iev
ancesofAf
ri
cansi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabwebet
ween1897band
1923.[
6]

For
cedl
abour

Lowwages

Lossofl
andi
l
l-t
reat
mentbywhi
tes

For
cedt
ocar
rypasses

Unf
airpr
icesf
oragr
icul
tur
alpr
oduce

Regar
dedassquat
ter
sbywhi
teswhooccupi
edt
hei
rland.

(
b).
Descr
ibet
hemet hodsusedbyt
heBr
it
ishSout
hAf
ri
caCompanyt
ocont
rolAf
ri
cansup
t
o1923. [11]

Useoff
orce:
pol
i
ceandmi
l
itar
y

Legi
slat
ion

Useofl
ocal
chi
efs

Far
mer
s,t
rader
susedt
ocont
rol
peopl
e

Mi
ssi
onar
iesal
socont
rol
l
eddi
str
ict
s

Compoundsy
stem-
far
ms,
mines

Usedspi
es\
inf
ormer
s

I
mpr
isonment

Pay
mentoft
axes

Magi
str
ates

Di
str
ictAdmi
nist
rat
orscont
rol
l
eddi
str
ict
s.

[
c].
Howf
arwer
eAf
ri
cansaf
fect
edbyt
hesemet
hods? [
8]

Posi
ti
veef
fect
s:

Af
ri
canswor
kedhar
dtobeabl
etopayt
axes

Empl
oyment

Enf
orcedl
awandor
der

Uni
tyagai
nstunj
ustsy
stem

[
ii
]-
Negat
iveef
fect
s

Lessf
reedom

Beat
enandar
rest
ed

Page176of176
 Respectf
orchi
efsnowl
ess

Af
ri
cansdi
vi
ded

For
cedempl
oyment
.

[
Nov2010]

122.
[a]
.Li
sti
ndust
ri
est
hatempl
oyedAf
ri
cansi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabwebef
ore1945. [
6]

Agr
icul
tur
e,Mi
ning,
Manuf
act
uri
ng,

Const
ruct
ion,
Elect
ri
cit
yandwat
er

Commer
ceandFi
nance

Tr
anspor
tandCommuni
cat
ion

Pr
ivat
edomest
icser
vices.

[
b]Out
li
nethefact
orswhi
chmadeitdi
ff
icul
tforAf
ri
cant
radeuni
onst
oachi
evet
hei
rai
ms
bef
ore1945. [11]

Tr
adeuni
onsnotal
l
owedt
oent
ermi
ningcompoundst
oor
gani
sewor
ker
s

Notradeuni
onf
orpar
ti
cul
ari
ndust
ri
es,
sodi
ff
icul
ttocoor
dinat
ewor
ker
sofdi
ff
erent
i
ndustri
es

Leader
sofuni
onsnotabl
etoar
ti
cul
atepr
obl
emsofdi
ff
erenti
ndust
ri
es

Uniondi
dnotbel
i
evei
nor
gani
singst
ri
keswi
tht
hehopet
hatpeacef
ulmeanswoul
d
succeed

Mostwor
ker
swer
eunski
l
led,
socoul
deasi
l
yber
epl
acedi
ftheywer
etr
oubl
esome.

Somewor
ker
swer
epeasant
swhoonl
ywor
kedt
obeabl
etopayt
axes

Wor
ker
swer
efr
agment
edasi
ndust
ri
eswer
efarapar
t.

For
msoftranspor
tandcommuni
cat
ionwer
escar
ceatt
het
imesol
eader
swer
enot
mobil
eenough

Hi
ghi
l
li
ter
acyamongAf
ri
canwor
ker
s

Ear
lyt
radeuni
onsl
edbyf
orei
gner
s.

[
c].
Wer
etheAf
ri
cant
radeuni
onst
obl
amef
orf
ail
ingt
oachi
evet
hei
rai
ms?[
8]

Af
ri
canst
obl
ame:

Lesseducat
ionsonotabl
etoef
fect
ivel
yor
gani
seuni
ons

Fai
l
edt
oreal
i
sei
mpor
tanceofst
ri
kes

Lackoski
l
ls,
soeasi
l
ydi
spensabl
e

Wor
kingwaspar
t-
ti
me,
sodi
ff
icul
ttoor
gani
se

Ot
herf
act
ors:

Page177of177
 Empl
oyer
swer
est
ri
ct

Notenoughoppor
tuni
ti
esf
oreducat
ionandt
rai
ning

Thr
eat
enedwi
thdi
smi
ssal
.

[
Nov2011]

123[a].
Stat
eanysi
xeconomi
cpr
obl
emswhi
cht
heear
lyBASCset
tl
ersf
acedi
n
Souhter
nRhodesi
a.
[
6]

Shor
tageofmachi
ner
y,gol
dmi
ningwasunpr
oduct
ive,
Labourshor
tages

Li
vest
ockdi
seases,
Shor
tageoff
ood,
Afr
icanswi
thhel
dthei
rgoods

Compet
it
ionf
rom Af
ri
canf
armer
s,l
andquar
rel
swi
thcompanyof
fi
cial
s

Companyheav
il
ytaxedear
lyset
tl
ers

[
b].
Descr
ibet
hesy
stem off
orcedl
abouri
nSout
her
nRhodesi
abef
ore1930. [
11]

Fai
l
ureoftheEl
dar
adot
heor
ycompel
l
edset
tl
ersandt
heBSAC t
ofocuson
agr
icul
tur
e

Set
tler
sandtheB.S.
A.C.requi
redl
abourbutt
hiswasdi
ff
icul
ttogetbecausel
ocal
s
wereunwil
l
ingtoworkforsomeone

Companyr
esol
vedt
ousef
orcedl
abour

Enf
orcedl
abourpr
ovi
sionbyexpr
opr
iat
ingAf
ri
canl
and

Alsogotl
abourbygrabi
ngAf
ri
canli
vest
ock,t
ookAf
ri
canwomenandchi
l
dren
hostaget
ofrceAfr
icanment
olookforwork

Est
abl
i
shedt
heRhodesi
aNat
iveLabourBur
eau(
RNLB)t
orecr
uitl
abour

Set
tl
erssentpat
rol
stocapt
urepeopl
eforf
orcedl
abour

Chi
efscont
ract
edt
osuppl
ylabourandi
ftheyf
ail
edt
odot
his,
theywer
epuni
shed

I
ntroducedcont
ract
ual
laboure.
g12mont
hscont
ract
,int
roducedt
axes,
engaged
migrantl
abour

Chibal
oaccount
edfor½ t
helabourforceusedbysettl
ers,
monet
ari
sat
ionoft
he
economye,gset
tl
ersst
oppedlevy
ingtaxesi
nform ofgods

Enact
edpassl
aws,
int
roducedt
hecompoundsy
stem

Usedthecredi
tsyst
em,labour
erswereil
l
treat
ed–beatenwhi
l
eatwork,poor
lypai
d,
workedl
onghours.Notgivenr
ationsandalsosuf
fer
edpoorl
ivi
ngcondi
ti
ons–li
vi
ng
i
ndor mi
tor
iesandslums.

[
c].
Howef
fect
ivewast
hesy
stem off
orcedl
abouri
nthedev
elopmentoft
hecount
ry?[
8]

Page178of178
 Ef
fect
ivenessoff
rcedl
abour

Hal
fofmi
neandf
arml
abourf
orcewasbasedonf
orcedl
abour

For
cedl
abourwasusedt
odev
elopi
nfr
ast
ruct
uree,
gbui
l
dings,
thet
obaccoi
ndust
ry

Cheapl
abourgav
efar
mer
sandmi
ner
slar
gepr
ofi
tmar
gins

I
nef
fect
ivenessoff
orcedl
abour

Absent
eei
sm,
str
ikes,
nicknamest
obossesaswar
ningt
oot
her
s

Chi
bar
owor
ker
sfei
gnedi
l
lnessandt
hisr
educedpr
oduct
ion

Sabot
agewasr
if
e,causedmar
kedl
osses,
wor
ker
sdam,
agedmachi
ner
y

Chi
bar
owor
ker
susual
l
ywast
eful
withr
esour
ces

Chi
baroencour
agedr
esi
stance,
frcedl
aboural
sopr
omot
edr
aci
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ionand
hat
red

Causedacci
dent
stobosses,
deser
ti
onr
educedpr
oduct
ion

[
Nov2011]

124[a]
.Li
stanysi
xchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
her
eser
vesf
orAf
ri
cansi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabwebef
ore
1930.[
6]

I
nhabi
tabl
e,dr
ylands,
hotl
ands,
lowr
ainf
all
areas,
sandysoi
l
s

I
nfer
ti
lel
ands,
mosqui
toandt
set
sef
lyi
nfest
edar
eas

Remot
ear
eas,
farawayf
rom mar
ket
s,r
oadsandr
ail
wayl
i
nes

Mount
ani
nousandr
ockyar
eas,
over
crowdedar
eas

[b].
Oul
inef
actor
swhichenabl
edAf
ri
cansi
ncol
oni
alZi
mbabwet
opexpandt
hei
r
agr
icul
tur
ebefor
e1930.
[
11]

I
nit
ial
l
yset
tl
ersdi
dnoti
nter
fer
ewi
thAf
ri
canagr
icul
tur
e

Bet
ter
,moder
ntool
sandmet
hodsoff
armi
ng,
cashcr
opf
armi
nge,
gtobacco,
cot
ton
et
c

Reducedt
ri
balandcl
anr
ival
rye,
grai
dingended,
cont
rol
ofwi
l
dani
mal
sthr
ough
hunt
ingbyset
tl
ers

Ear
lyset
tl
erswer
ear
eli
abl
emar
ket,
reasonabl
epr
icesf
oragr
icul
tur
alpr
oduce

Disr
upti
onofAfr
icant
radit
ional
trade,mostmenj oi
nedt
heirwi
vesandchi
ldreni
n
cropcul
ti
vat
ion,
mostAfri
canspreferdagr
icul
tur
et owor
kingi
nwhit
emen’sfarms
andmines

Page179of179
 Capi
tal
i
stmonet
aryeconomy
,taxat
ion,
someAf
ri
cansst
il
lcont
rol
l
edf
ert
il
elands.

[
c].Towhatext
entdi
dset
tl
erscont
ri
but
etot
heexpansi
onofAf
ri
canagr
icul
tur
eint
his
per
iod? [8]

Cont
ri
but
ionofset
tl
ers

Ini
ti
alnoni
nvolv
ementandi
ner
fer
encei
nagr
icul
tur
e,moder
nandbet
termet
hods
andtoolsf
orfar
ming

Banni
ngofr
aidi
ng,
cont
rol
andhunt
ingofwi
l
dani
mal
s

Av
ail
abi
li
tyofmarket
sinset
ter
s,r
easonabl
epr
ices,
taxat
ion,
int
roduct
ionof
monet
aryeconomy

Cont
ri
but
ionofot
herf
act
ors

Af
ri
can’
spr
efer
enceofagr
icul
tur
etowor
kingi
nmi
neandi
ndust
ry,
adequat
erai
nfal
l

Possessedal
otofcat
tl
efordr
aughtpowerandt
rade,
compet
it
ionamongstAf
ri
cans

Av
ail
abi
l
ityoff
ert
il
esol
i
s

I
nvol
vementofmeni
nagr
icul
tur
e

Page180of180