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Political Systems and Government Structure of Western Europe

Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on
context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and
originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean world, the Roman
Empire (both Western and Eastern), and medieval "Christendom". Beginning with
the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery, roughly from the 15th century, the concept
of Europe as "the West" slowly became distinguished from and eventually replaced the dominant
use of "Christendom" as the preferred endonym within the region. By the Age of
Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, the concepts of "Eastern Europe" and "Western
Europe" were more regularly used.[2] The distinctiveness of Western Europe became most
apparent during the Cold War, when Europe was divided for 40 years by the Iron Curtain into
the Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc, each characterized by distinct political and economical
systems.
Western Europe is a fascinating tapestry of political systems. The political systems of Western
Europe are constantly evolving, reflecting the dynamic nature of its societies and the challenges
of the 21st century it is also a diverse region with a wide range of government structures,
reflecting the unique historical and political development of each nation. While some countries
share similarities in their systems, others have distinct features that shape their governance.
Political Systems
Parliamentary Systems is a form of government where the executive branch, led by prime
minister is accountable to the legislature known as the parliament. This system contrasts with
presidential system where the president is elected independently and serves as both head of state
and head of government
Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the
head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament,
or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the
head of government is from the legislature. In a few countries, the head of government is also
head of sta8te but is elected by the legislatur8e. In bicameral parliaments, the head of
government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house.
United Kingdom: A constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system, the UK features a
Prime Minister as the head of government, chosen from the majority party in the House of
Commons. The monarch reigns but does not rule.
Germany: A federal republ2ic with a parliamentary system, Germany has a Chancellor as head
of government, elected by the Bundestag (parliament). The President holds a largely ceremonial
role.
Italy: A parliamentary republic with a complex system of coalition governments, Italy has a
Prime Minister as head of government, chosen by the President.
Spain: A constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system, Spain has a Prime Minister as
head of government, elected by the Congress of Deputies. The King reigns but does not rule.
Semi-Presidential Systems also known as dual executive republic, is a form of government that
blends elements both presidential and parliamentary system. It features a president who is elected
independently and a prime minister who is appointed by the president .
France: A semi-presidential republic, France has a President as head of state, elected directly by
the people, and a Prime Minister as head of government, appointed by the President.
Presidential Systems is a for of government where the executive branch headed by president,
elected independently of the legislature.
Ireland: A parliamentary republic with a President as head of state, elected directly by the
p8eople. The President’s role is largely ceremonial.
Government Structures
Western European governments can be broadly categorized into three main types:
Constitutional Monarchies: These systems feature a hereditary monarch as the head of state,
but their power is limited by a constitution. The monarch typically serves as a symbolic
figurehead, while the real political power lies with an elected parliament and a prime minister.
Examples include Belgium,Luxembourg, and Monaco.
Republics: Republics have an elected head of state, usually a president. Within republics,
there are two primary forms;
Parliamentary Republics: The head of government, a prime minister, is chosen by the
parliament. The president’s role is often ceremonial, with limited political power. Examples
include Austria, Germany, and Ireland.
Semi-Presidential Republics: The president shares power with a prime minister, who is
responsible to the parliament. The president typically has more political power than in a
parliamentary republic it include France, Portugal, and Romania.
Federal Systems: Federal systems divide power between a central government and regional
governments, granting significant autonomy to the regions. Examples include Austria, Belgium,
and Germany.
Beyond the broad categories, Western Euro8pean governments share several common features;
All Western European countries are democratic, meaning that citizens have the right to vote and
participate in the political process. The rule of law is a fundamental principle in Western Europe,
ensuring that everyone is subject to the same laws and that the government operates within legal
frameworks.Western European countries are committed to upholding human rights, including
freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.
The Parliamentary Democracy and Presidential System
A parliamentary democracy is a form of government where the head of government (chief
executive) derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support
("confidence") of a majority of the legislature, to which they are held accountable. This head of
government is usually, but not always, distinct from a ceremonial head of state. This is in
contrast to a presidential system, which features a president who is not fully accountable to the
legislature, and cannot be replaced by a simple majority vote.
Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the
head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament,
or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the
head of government is from the legislature. In a few countries, the head of government is also
head of state but is elected by the legislature. In bicameral parliaments, the head of government
is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house.
Parliamentary democracy is the dominant form of government in the European Union, Oceania,
and throughout the former British Empire, with other users scattered throughout Africa and Asia.
A similar system, called a council–manager government, is used by many local governments in
the United States.
Parliamentary Democracy vs. Presidential System
The primary distinction between these two systems lies in the relationship between the executive
and legislative branches of government.
Parliamentary Democracy:
In this system, the executive branch is directly accountable to the legislative branch, or
parliament. The prime minister, the head of government, is typically the leader of the political
party that holds a majority of seats in parliament. The prime minister and cabinet, the executive
branch, are drawn from the members of parliament, e2nsuring a close link between the two
branches.
In Parliamentary Democracy The executive and legislative branches are intertwined, with the
prime minister and cabinet members drawn from the legislature. The entire cabinet is
accountable to parliament, meaning that a vote of no confidence against the prime minister can
lead to the resignation of the entire government. The prime minister can be replaced relatively
easily through a vote of no confidence, allowing for a more responsive and adaptable
government.
Presidential System:
In contrast, the president, the head of state and head of government, is elected independently of
the legislature. The president forms a cabinet, often composed of individuals not necessarily
from the legislature, creating a separation of powers between the executive and legislative
branches. There is a separation of power The executive and legislative branches operate
independently, with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
The president serves a fixed term, typically four or five years, and cannot be removed by the
legislature except through impeachment. The president, as both head of state and head of
government, holds significant power and can exert considerable influence over policy making.
SOUTHERN EUROPE: Variations in Parliamentary Systems
Head of Government
• The head of government is typically the Prime Minister, who is responsible for running
the government and implementing laws.
• The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority party or coalition in parliament.
Head of State
• The head of state may be a monarch (as in the United Kingdom, Spain, or Sweden) or a
ceremonial president (as in Germany, Italy, or India).
• The head of state’s role is often largely ceremonial, with real executive power vested in
the Prime Minister and the cabinet.
Cabinet and Ministers
• The cabinet, composed of ministers who are also members of parliament, is responsible
for the day-to-day administration of the government.
The cabinet is usually selected by the Prime Minister and must maintain the confidence of the
parliament
1. Italy
Capital – Rome
Italy is a parliamentary republic with a prime minister who is the head of government. The
president is the head of state and appoints the prime minister. The Parliament is composed of 2
houses: The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate of the Republic.
Italy has a bicameral legislature, comprising the Chamber of Deputies (lower house) and the
Senate of the Republic (upper house).
Head of State and Government – The President of the Republic is the head of state, with a
largely ceremonial role, while the Prime Minister (President of the Council of Ministers) is the
head of government.
2. Spain
Capital – Madrid
Spain is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. The prime minister is the head
of government and the monarch is the head of state. A council of ministers is the executive
branch and is presided over by the prime minister.
Spain has a bicameral parliament known as the Cortes Generales, consisting of the Congress of
Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house).
Head of State and Government – The King is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime
Minister (President of the Government) is the head of government.
3. Greece
Capital – Athens
Greece is a parliamentary republic. The prime minister who is the head of government has the
8most political power. The president is the head of state and has largely ceremonial duties. The
executive power 8is exercised by the government.
Greece has a unicameral parliament called the Hellenic Parliament.
Head of State and Government – The President of Greece is the ceremonial head of state, and the
Prime Minister is the head of government.
4. Portugal
Capital: Lisbon
Portugal is a semi-presidential republic. The prime minister is the head of government. The
president who is the head of state has power to appoint the prime minister and other government
members.
Portugal’s parliament is unicameral, known as the Assembly of the Republic.
Head of State and Government – The President of Portugal is the head of state with some
executive powers, while the Prime Minister is the head of government. Portugal’s semi-
presidential system differs from the purely parliamentary systems of the other nations, as the
President has a more significant role in governance.
Eastern Europe: The Post communist transition
The transition from a command to a market economy began in the late 1980s in some
Eastern European economies, political developments following the fall of the Berlin Wall in late
1989 and the breakup of the Soviet Union two years later sharply accelerated this process. The
collapse of the previous economic systems and relationships, and the ensuing large-scale
reorientation and reorganization of production initially sent output and trade into a steep decline
and triggered rampant inflation. Since then, however, the countries of Central and Eastern
Europe and the Baltics, Russia, and other countries of the former Soviet Union have made
significant progress in transition and in stabilizing output and prices.
 Transition has so far comprised two distinct phases. The first, which is largely complete
in most (but not all) countries, consisted of the liberalization of markets and trade, privatization
of state enterprises, and withdrawal of government from many activities. In the second phase,
now under way in some countries, the key challenges are to develop the public and private
institutions that underpin an effective market economy, to strengthen the state’s capacity to raise
revenues and provide the public services that are essential to a market economy, and to ensure
that sound business practices become more firmly established.
Contemporary Authoritarianism and Hybrid Regimes
Hybrid regimes are found in most developing countries, especially since the end of the Cold
War. They are called hybrid because they combine democratic traits with autocratic ones. There
are more authoritarian regimes worldwide than democracies today. Little has slowed down the
hollowing and backsliding of democracy in Central and Eastern European polities. Western
8democracies that have long been considered safe and stable are likewise challenged by
authoritarian practices that can fly under the radar. Another concerning development is the recent
surge of military coups where militaries disrupt democratization processes or reinforce regimes.
From January 2020 to October 2023 alone, 15 failed and successful coup attempts were staged in
Myanmar, Mali, Sao Tome, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Chad, Burkina Faso, Sudan, Niger and
Gabon.
While there is wide consensus that we are in the midst of an authoritarian surge, there is much
less clarity about the institutions, processes, and actors that uphold authoritarian regimes – or
threaten them. Autocratic regimes emerge both incrementally through backsliding, and suddenly
through collapse or coups. Many cases emerge even through a combination of both. Though a lot
of new research sheds light on democratic erosion and autocratization processes, the study of
modern autocratic regimes, their politics, and their institutions lags far behind.
Authoritarianism and Hybrid Regimes
Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by a concentration of power in the
hands of a single leader or a small group of elites. This power is often exercised without
significant checks and balances, leading to a suppression of civil liberties and political
opposition.
In authoritarianism, Opposition parties are often banned or severely restricted, and political
participation is tightly controlled. Freedom of speech, assembly, and the press are heavily
curtailed, and dissent is often met with repression. The executive branch dominates the judiciary
and legislature, ensuring that these ensuring that these institutions serve the interests of the ruling
elite. Authoritarian regimes often rely on a combination of force and rewards to maintain control,
using repression against opponents while distributing benefits to loyal supporters.
Defining Hybrid Regimes
Hybrid regimes, also known as illiberal democracies or competitive authoritarianism, blur the
lines between democracy and authoritarianism. They maintain a façade of democratic
institutions, such as elections, a legislature, and a judiciary, but these institutions are often
weakened or manipulated by the ruling elite. In Hybrid regimes, Elections are held, but they are
often manipulated or rigged to favor the incumbent. Opposition parties are allowed to exist, but
they face significant obstacles in competing fairly, such as restricted access to media, legal
harassment, or intimidation. While some civil liberties may be formally protected, they are often
violated in practice. Freedom of speech, assembly, and the press are often restricted, and critical
voices are silenced. The judiciary is often politicized, and the rule of law is selectively applied to
protect the ruling elite and punish their opponents.
Distinguishing Authoritarianism from Hybrid Regimes
While both authoritarianism and hybrid regimes involve a concentration of power and a
limitation of political freedoms, there are key distinctions between them;
Authoritarian regimes typically eliminate or severely restrict political competition, while hybrid
regimes allow for some degree of competition, albeit on an uneven playing field. Authoritarian
regimes often abolish or severely curtail democratic institutions, while hybrid regimes maintain a
façade of these institutions, even if they are manipulated or controlled by the ruling elite.
Authoritarian regimes often rely on force and repression to maintain control, while hybrid
regimes may use a combination of coercion and legitimacy-building strategies, such as elections
or appeals to nationalism.
The relationship between authoritarianism and hybrid regimes is complex and evolving. Hybrid
regimes represent a significant challenge to global democracy, as they erode democratic norms,
undermine international cooperation, and contribute to political instability. Understanding the
dynamics of these regimes is crucial for promoting and defending democracy in a world where
the lines between authoritarianism and democracy are increasingly blurred.
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