Rani Rashmoni Green University, Hooghly

M.A 3rd Semester Notes

CC- 10 – Literary Criticism from Dryden to T.S. Eliot

Course Modules
 John Dryden : An Essay of Dramatic Poesy
 William Wordsworth : Preface to the Lyrical Ballads (1802 edition)
 S.T Coleridge : Biographia Literaria (Ch. 13, 14, 16 & 18)
 P.B Shelley : A Defence of Poetry
 T.S. Eliot : Tradition and the Individual Talent,
The Metaphysical Poets,
Hamlet and his Problems

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1. Discuss Lisideius‟s definition of Drama in “An essay of Dramatic Poesy”.
Ans: Lisideius's definition of drama in "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" is an important aspect of the
discussion on dramatic literature presented by John Dryden. "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," written
in 1668, is a work of literary criticism that presents a dialogue among four characters: Eugenius,
Crites, Lisideius, and Neander. Each character represents a different perspective on the merits of
ancient and modern plays.
Lisideius, in the essay, offers his perspective on drama, particularly highlighting the classical
tradition. According to Lisideius, drama is an imitation of human life and action, and its primary
goal is to instruct and entertain. He emphasizes the didactic function of drama, suggesting that it
should teach moral lessons and provide examples of virtuous behavior.
Lisideius argues in favor of classical Greek drama, particularly the works of ancient
playwrights like Sophocles and Euripides. He admires the unity of action, time, and place found in
classical plays, stating that they contribute to a more concentrated and effective dramatic
experience. Classical drama, according to Lisideius, achieves a closer imitation of reality and a
more profound impact on the audience.
In contrast, Lisideius criticizes the contemporary English drama of the time, asserting that it
lacks the discipline and structure of the classical tradition. He expresses dissatisfaction with the use
of multiple subplots, the violation of the three unities, and the mixing of tragic and comic elements
in the plays of his contemporaries.
Lisideius's views in "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" reflect the broader debate between the
ancients and the moderns, a recurring theme in literary criticism during the 17th century. The essay
as a whole engages with various aspects of dramatic literature, including the nature of poetry, the
role of imagination, and the comparison between classical and modern drama. Lisideius's
perspective adds depth to the overall exploration of these themes within the context of the ongoing
literary discourse of the time.
OR
Lisideius defines drama as “a just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions
and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction of
mankind”. He believes that drama should imitate reality and follow the rules of classical drama,
such as the unities of time, place, and action. He praises the French drama for its adherence to these
rules and criticizes the English drama for its violations. He also prefers rhyme to blank verse in
drama, as he thinks it adds to the beauty and dignity of the language.
Neander, who represents Dryden himself, disagrees with Lisideius and defends the English
drama. He argues that drama should not be confined by the rules of the ancients, but should be
adapted to the modern age and the tastes of the audience. He claims that the English drama is more
original, varied, and lively than the French drama. He also defends the use of blank verse in drama,
as he thinks it is more natural and suitable for the expression of emotions.
The debate between Lisideius and Neander reflects the two main views on drama in the
Restoration period: the neo-classical and the romantic. Dryden, through Neander, advocates for a
more flexible and creative approach to drama, while Lisideius, along with Crites and Eugenius,
supports a more strict and rule-bound approach. The essay is a valuable source of criticism and
analysis of the drama of the time, as well as a reflection of Dryden’s own views and tastes.

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2. Discuss Neander‟s arguments in favour of the English plays.

Ans: Neander is the spokesperson of John Dryden in “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy”. He defends
the English plays against the criticism of Crites, Eugenius, and Lisideius, who favour the classical
and French drama. Neander’s arguments in favour of the English plays are as follows:

 He praises the English playwrights for their inventiveness and originality. He argues that
they do not imitate the ancients or the French, but create their own plots, characters, and
themes. He gives the examples of Shakespeare, Fletcher, and Jonson, who have surpassed the
ancients in their variety and creativity.
 He defends the violation of the unities of time, place, and action by the English dramatists.
He claims that the unities are not essential for a good play, and that they limit the scope and
realism of drama. He says that the English plays are more natural and lively than the French
ones, which are constrained by the unities. He also points out the absurdities and
inconsistencies in the classical and French plays, which follow the unities.
 He supports the use of blank verse and rhyme in the English plays. He argues that blank
verse is more suitable for serious and elevated subjects, while rhyme is more appropriate for
witty and humorous dialogues. He also says that rhyme adds to the beauty and harmony of
the language, and that it is not unnatural, as some critics claim, but rather a way of
representing the regularity and order of nature.
 He advocates the mixture of genres in the English plays. He asserts that the English
dramatists have the skill and art to blend tragedy and comedy, and to produce a variety of
emotions in the audience. He says that the mixture of genres reflects the complexity and
diversity of human life, and that it is more pleasing and instructive than the rigid separation
of genres in the classical and French drama.

OR

Lively Imitation of Nature: Neander advocates for a drama that closely mirrors human
experience, capturing the complexities and contradictions of human nature. He believes that English
playwrights, with their disregard for the rigid rules of classical drama, are better able to achieve this
"lively imitation of nature."
Embrace of Variety: Neander defends the English use of subplots and multiple characters,
arguing that these elements add depth and realism to their plays. He criticizes French drama, with its
strict adherence to the unity of action, for being overly simplistic and lacking in variety.
Tragicomedy: Neander champions the English invention of tragicomedy, a genre that blends
elements of tragedy and comedy. He argues that this genre is more reflective of life, as human
emotions often oscillate between joy and sorrow.
Shakespeare's Genius: Neander holds Shakespeare in the highest esteem, praising him for
his natural genius, his ability to create memorable characters, and his mastery of language. He
considers Shakespeare to be the epitome of English dramatic achievement.
Violation of Unities: Neander defends the English violation of the unities of time, place, and
action, arguing that these restrictions hinder the dramatist's ability to tell a compelling story. He
believes that a play should be allowed to unfold over the necessary time and space to develop its
characters and plot effectively.
Audience Delight: Neander emphasizes the importance of audience enjoyment, arguing that
drama should not be confined to the rigid rules of classical theory but should instead strive to
captivate and entertain its viewers. He believes that English plays, with their greater freedom and
variety, are more successful in achieving this goal.

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3. Crites's arguments in favour of the ancients in "An Essay of the Dramatic Poesy".
Ans: Crites is one of the four speakers in John Dryden’s “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy”, which is a
dialogue on the merits of modern and ancient drama. Crites represents the voice of the classical
critics who prefer the ancient playwrights over the modern ones. Here are some of his main
arguments in favour of the ancients:
 The ancients are the original models and the moderns are only imitators. The ancients have a
special genius for drama that the moderns lack. The ancients have reached perfection in their
particular branch of poetry, while the moderns are still trying to improve and invent new
forms and subjects.
 The ancients observed and followed the rules of dramatic composition, especially the three
unities of time, place, and action. These rules are derived from Aristotle and Horace, who
were the best judges of poetry. The moderns, on the other hand, violate these rules and mix
different genres and styles in their plays. They also use long and improbable plots, multiple
settings, and sub-plots that distract from the main action.
 The ancients portrayed nature and human life faithfully and realistically in their plays. They
used simple and elegant language, appropriate to the characters and the situations. They also
maintained poetic justice, by rewarding the virtuous and punishing the wicked. The moderns,
on the other hand, distort and disfigure nature in their plays. They use bombastic and
unnatural language, unsuitable to the characters and the situations. They also disregard poetic
justice, by showing prosperous wickedness and unhappy virtue.
 The ancients had a better sense of art and beauty than the moderns. They could organize their
plays well, with a clear beginning, middle, and end. They also had a variety of characters,
who were consistent and well-developed. The moderns, on the other hand, have a poor sense
of art and beauty. They often confuse and bore the audience with their disorderly and
inconclusive plays. They also have flat and inconsistent characters, who are either too good
or too bad.

Crites praises Ben Jonson as the best modern playwright, who followed the ancients in all things.
He also criticizes Shakespeare and Fletcher for their faults and defects. He concludes that the
ancients are superior to the moderns in all respects, and that the moderns should not presume to
challenge them.

4. Dryden‟s comparative assessment between Shakespeare and Ben Johnson.

Ans: Dryden’s comparative assessment between Shakespeare and Ben Jonson in “An Essay of
Dramatic Poesy” is a famous example of his critical method of comparison. Dryden praises both the
poets for their excellence in different aspects of drama, but also points out their flaws and
limitations.
According to Dryden, Shakespeare was a natural genius who had a deep insight into human
nature and could create lively and realistic characters. He was the “Homer or Father of our dramatic
poets” who excelled in wit and invention. However, he also lacked learning and discipline, and
often wrote in an uneven and inconsistent manner. His comedy sometimes degenerated into puns
and his tragedy into bombast.
On the other hand, Jonson was a learned and judicious writer who followed the rules and
models of classical drama. He was the “Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing” who refined his
style and language with great care. He also introduced the genre of humour comedy, in which he
portrayed the follies and vices of common people. However, he also lacked the natural fire and
imagination of Shakespeare, and his characters were often flat and artificial.
Dryden concludes his comparison by saying that he admires Jonson, but he loves Shakespeare. He
acknowledges Jonson as the more correct poet, but Shakespeare as the greater wit. He also suggests
that the best way to write drama is to combine the virtues of both the poets, and avoid their defects.

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5. Discuss Dryden‟s appreciation of Ben Johnson‟s “The Silent Woman”.

Ans: Dryden’s appreciation of Ben Jonson’s “The Silent Woman” in “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy”
is mainly focused on the plot and the characters of the comedy. Dryden praises Jonson for his
skillful construction of the intrigue, which he calls "the most diverting and the most regular that
ever was contrived". He also admires Jonson’s art of creating humorous and realistic characters,
such as Morose, the man who hates noise and marries a woman he thinks is silent, but turns out to
be a disguised boy; and Dauphine, the witty nephew who orchestrates the whole scheme. Dryden
says that Jonson "painted after nature, but with the heightening of the master".

However, Dryden also criticizes Jonson for some defects in his language and style. He agrees with
Crites that Jonson’s comedy is too labored and too close to the classical models, and that he
sometimes uses words that are too Latinized or antiquated. He also finds fault with Jonson’s use of
rhyme, which he thinks is unsuitable for comedy and makes the dialogue unnatural and forced. He
says that Jonson "was not so happy in his rhyme, as in his blank verse".

Dryden concludes his examination of “The Silent Woman” by saying that it is "one of the best
comedies in any language", and that Jonson deserves to be honored as one of the greatest English
poets. He also suggests that the modern writers should imitate Jonson’s excellence in plot and
character, but avoid his errors in language and rhyme.

OR

Dryden begins by praising Jonson's mastery of language and his ability to create realistic and
memorable characters. He highlights Jonson's skill in delineating the "humors" or distinctive
personality traits of his characters, noting that "he has more variety of them in some one play of Ben
Jonson's than in all theirs together." This ability to capture the essence of human nature through
distinct characters is, for Dryden, a hallmark of Jonson's comedic genius.

Dryden further commends Jonson's adherence to the classical unities of time, place, and
action, which he sees as essential for creating a cohesive and believable dramatic experience. He
contrasts Jonson's rigorous attention to these principles with the more loose-structured approach of
Shakespeare, suggesting that Jonson's plays offer a more refined and polished form of dramatic art.

Specifically, Dryden lauds "The Silent Woman" as an exemplar of Jonson's comedic

prowess. He praises the play's intricate plot, its well-developed characters, and its sharp wit. He
particularly admires the way in which Jonson uses the character of Morose, a man who despises
noise, to drive the plot forward and create a series of hilarious situations.

Dryden's appreciation of "The Silent Woman" stems from his belief that it embodies the best
qualities of classical comedy. He sees the play as a model of how to construct a well-made comedy
that is both entertaining and intellectually stimulating. In Dryden's eyes, "The Silent Woman" is a
testament to Jonson's genius and a masterpiece of English dramatic literature.

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6. Significance of the epigraph from Milton in chapter 13 of "Biographia Literaria".

Ans: The epigraph from Milton in chapter 13 of “Biographia Literaria” by Coleridge is another
quotation from “Paradise Lost”, Book 3, lines 51-55. It reads:
So much the rather thou, celestial Light, Shine inward, and the mind through all her powers
Irradiate; there plant eyes, all mist from thence Purge and disperse, that I may see and tell Of things
invisible to mortal sight.
This quotation expresses the speaker’s (Milton’s) desire for God’s illumination to enlighten
his mind and enable him to write his epic poem. Coleridge chose this epigraph to indicate his own
need for divine guidance and inspiration in his philosophical and poetic endeavors. He also wanted
to show his connection with Milton, whom he admired and emulated. Coleridge’s chapter 13 is a
crucial part of his Biographia Literaria, as it is here that he sets out his famous distinction between
primary and secondary imagination, and the role of fancy in poetic creation. Coleridge argues that
the primary imagination is the living power and prime agent of all human perception, while the
secondary imagination is the echo of the primary imagination that dissolves, diffuses, and recreates
the objects of perception. Fancy, on the other hand, is a mode of memory that combines and
modifies the images of perception without creating anything new. The epigraph from Milton,
therefore, serves as a fitting introduction to Coleridge’s chapter 13, as it reflects his poetic vision,
his religious faith, and his philosophical inquiry.

7. Discuss „Primary Imagination‟ and „Secondary Imagination‟

Ans: Primary imagination and secondary imagination are two concepts that Coleridge introduced in
his Biographia Literaria to explain his theory of poetic creation. According to Coleridge, primary
imagination is the basic faculty of perception that all humans possess. It is the power of receiving
impressions of the external world through the senses and forming a coherent image of reality.
Secondary imagination is the creative faculty that some humans, especially poets, possess. It is the
power of transforming the impressions received by the primary imagination into new and original
forms of expression. Secondary imagination dissolves, diffuses, and recreates the objects of
perception, while maintaining a harmony with the primary imagination. It is essentially vital and
imaginative, while the primary imagination is essentially fixed and mechanical.
Coleridge’s distinction between primary and secondary imagination is based on his idealist
philosophy and his admiration for Milton. He believed that the primary imagination is a reflection
of the divine act of creation, and that the secondary imagination is a way of participating in that act.
He also considered Milton as a model of the secondary imagination, as he was able to write an epic
poem about the invisible world of heaven and hell. Coleridge used the epigraphs from Milton’s
Paradise Lost to introduce his Biographia Literaria and his chapter on imagination, as they
expressed his poetic vision, his religious faith, and his philosophical inquiry.
OR
Primary Imagination: Coleridge defines Primary Imagination as the "living Power and prime
Agent of all human Perception." It is the fundamental faculty that enables us to unify and make
sense of the disparate sensory impressions we receive from the external world. The Primary
Imagination acts as a vital bridge between the raw data of our senses and the coherent, meaningful
perceptions that form our understanding of reality.
Coleridge emphasizes the transformative power of the Primary Imagination, asserting that it
"dissolves, dissolves" the raw material of our perceptions, shaping and molding it into a unified
whole. This faculty transcends the limitations of individual senses, allowing us to perceive the unity
and interconnectedness of all things.
Secondary Imagination: The Secondary Imagination, according to Coleridge, is an "echo" of the
Primary Imagination, possessing similar yet distinct characteristics. While the Primary Imagination
is involuntary and inherent in all human beings, the Secondary Imagination is a more conscious and

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deliberate faculty. It is the power of poets and artists to reshape and manipulate the materials of
perception, creating new and imaginative forms.
Coleridge describes the Secondary Imagination as a "recollective" power, drawing upon the
memories and experiences stored in the mind. It selects, combines, and transforms these elements,
creating works of art that evoke emotions, stimulate thought, and offer fresh perspectives on the
world.

8. Difference between „Imagination‟ and „Fancy‟.

Ans: The difference between imagination and fancy is a topic that Coleridge discussed in his
Biographia Literaria. According to Coleridge, imagination is the creative faculty that transforms the
impressions of reality into new and original forms of expression, while fancy is the associative
faculty that combines and modifies the images of memory without creating anything new.
Imagination is a higher and more vital power than fancy, as it involves the unifying and
harmonizing of the mind and nature, while fancy is a lower and more mechanical power that
depends on the imagination. Coleridge illustrated his distinction between imagination and fancy by
using the examples of Milton and Shakespeare, whom he considered as the greatest poets of the
English language. He praised Milton for his sublime and powerful imagination, which enabled him
to write an epic poem about the invisible world of heaven and hell. He also admired Shakespeare for
his versatile and playful imagination, which enabled him to create a variety of characters and
situations. He criticized the poets of his own time, such as Pope and Dryden, for their lack of
imagination and their reliance on fancy, which resulted in artificial and conventional poetry.
Coleridge’s distinction between imagination and fancy is based on his idealist philosophy and his
mystical faith, which influenced his poetic vision and his literary criticism.

“Biographia Literaria” is a work of literary criticism by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, published in

1817. In this work, Coleridge distinguishes between two types of mental faculties: imagination and
fancy. He defines imagination as the creative power that transforms and unifies the raw materials of
perception and fancy as the associative power that merely combines and rearranges them.
According to Coleridge, imagination is essential for artistic creation, while fancy is only a mode of
memory.
Coleridge further divides imagination into two kinds: primary and secondary. Primary
imagination is the universal act of perception that creates a connection between the mind and nature.
Secondary imagination is the poetic act of shaping and modifying the primary images into new
forms of expression. Coleridge considers the secondary imagination as “the living power and prime
agent of all human perception”.
Fancy, on the other hand, is a rational and decorative faculty that operates according to the
laws of association. Fancy does not create anything new, but only reproduces and varies the existing
images. Coleridge says that fancy “has no other counters to play with, but fixities and definities”.
Fancy is not a creative or unifying power, but a mechanical and arbitrary one.
Coleridge’s distinction between imagination and fancy is based on his philosophical and
aesthetic views, influenced by German idealism and romanticism. He believes that imagination is
the source of beauty, truth, and joy, while fancy is a lower and inferior faculty that cannot produce
genuine poetry. Coleridge’s theory of imagination is one of the most influential and original
contributions to English literary criticism.
Fancy is characterized by the ability to associate and juxtapose disparate elements, forming
novel combinations of existing ideas and images. It is a playful and inventive faculty, capable of
constructing whimsical and fantastical creations. Fancy, according to Coleridge, is akin to "a
kaleidoscope, displaying an endless succession of novel forms and colours." It operates on a
mechanical level, manipulating and rearranging existing elements without fundamentally
transforming them.

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 Imagination, in contrast, is a far more profound and transformative faculty. It possesses the
power to synthesize and unify, creating new wholes that transcend the mere association of existing
ideas. Imagination, Coleridge asserts, "dissolves, dissipates, and dissipates; discriminates, discerns,
and orders." It delves into the depths of perception, drawing upon the senses and emotions to create
a cohesive and meaningful experience.

9. Difference between Prose and Poetry.

Ans: In Chapter 14 of “Biographia Literaria”, Coleridge discusses the difference between prose and
poetry in relation to his theory of imagination. He argues that prose is a form of writing that uses
ordinary language and sentence structure, while poetry is a form of writing that uses a unique style
and rhythm, based on the colours of imagination. He says that prose is more pragmatic and literal,
while poetry is more imaginative and figurative. He also says that prose is mainly used to provide
information or to convey a message, while poetry is mainly used to delight or amuse.
Coleridge also makes a distinction between a poem and poetry, which are not the same thing.
He says that a poem is a composition that contains the same elements as a prose composition, such
as words, sentences, and paragraphs. However, a poem also has a metrical structure, which creates a
musical effect. Poetry, on the other hand, is the essence of a poem, which is the expression of the
poet’s imagination. Coleridge says that poetry is “the best words in the best order”. He believes that
poetry is a higher form of literature than prose, because it involves the creative power of
imagination, which is the source of beauty, truth, and joy.
OR
Prose, according to Coleridge, is primarily concerned with the transmission of factual
information and the communication of truth. It employs a straightforward and logical structure,
adhering to the conventions of grammar and syntax to deliver its message in a clear and
unambiguous manner.
Prose is the language of science, history, and everyday discourse, where the primary focus is
on relaying information and conveying ideas in a direct and objective style.
In contrast, poetry transcends the realm of mere information dissemination and elevates
language to an art form. Coleridge asserts that poetry's primary objective is to evoke pleasure and
delight in the reader, engaging their emotions and imagination through the skillful manipulation of
language. Poetry employs a range of literary devices, such as meter, rhyme, imagery, and
symbolism, to create a rich and evocative experience that resonates with the reader's sensibilities.

10. Discuss Legitimate poem from "Biographia Literaria"

Ans: A legitimate poem is a term coined by Coleridge in Chapter 14 of “Biographia Literaria” to

describe a poem that has a harmonious and organic structure, in which all the parts support and
explain each other, and the metrical arrangement enhances the meaning and effect of the poem.
Coleridge contrasts a legitimate poem with an illegitimate poem, which is a poem that has a random
or arbitrary structure, in which the parts are disconnected or inconsistent, and the metrical
arrangement is either irrelevant or detrimental to the poem. Coleridge argues that a legitimate poem
is the product of the secondary imagination, which is the creative and unifying power of the poet,
while an illegitimate poem is the product of the fancy, which is the associative and mechanical
power of the writer. Coleridge gives examples of legitimate poems, such as Milton’s “Paradise
Lost” and Shakespeare’s “Tempest”, and examples of illegitimate poems, such as Pope’s “Essay on
Man” and Dryden’s “Absalom and Achitophel”. Coleridge’s theory of legitimate and illegitimate
poems is based on his philosophical and aesthetic views, influenced by German idealism and
romanticism. He believes that a legitimate poem is a higher form of literature than an illegitimate
poem, because it involves the expression of the poet’s imagination, which is the source of beauty,
truth, and joy.

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11. What is „poetry‟ as discussed by Coleridge in “Biographia Literaria”.

Ans: According to Coleridge, poetry is the product of the imagination, which he defines as "the
living power and prime agent of all human perception, and as a repetition in the finite mind of the
eternal act of creation in the infinite I AM." In his Biographia Literaria, Coleridge distinguishes
between two kinds of imagination: the primary and the secondary. The primary imagination is the
universal faculty of perception, which creates the human awareness of reality. The secondary
imagination is an echo of the primary, and it works consciously and deliberately to shape and
modify the raw materials of sense impressions and thoughts into artistic forms. Coleridge also
introduces the concept of fancy, which he considers inferior to imagination. Fancy is merely the
faculty of memory, which rearranges and combines images and ideas without creating anything new
or original.
Coleridge’s theory of poetry is influenced by his collaboration with William Wordsworth, as
well as by his study of German philosophy, especially the works of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich
Schelling. Coleridge criticizes Wordsworth’s idea that poetry is “the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings” and that the language of poetry should be “the real language of men”. Coleridge
argues that poetry requires more than just natural emotion and common language; it also requires a
cultivated and creative mind, which can employ various poetic devices, such as meter, rhyme,
metaphor, and symbolism, to enhance the expression and effect of the poem. Coleridge also believes
that poetry should appeal to the reader’s reason as well as to the senses and the emotions, and that it
should convey a sense of the sublime and the infinite.
12. Difference between 'Science' and 'Poetry' in “Biographia Literaria”.

Ans: Coleridge discusses the difference between science and poetry in his Biographia Literaria, a
work of literary criticism and autobiography. He argues that science and poetry have different aims,
methods, and effects on the human mind.

Science, according to Coleridge, is based on observation, experiment, and induction. It seeks

to discover the laws of nature and the causes of phenomena. It appeals to the understanding, the
faculty of reason that analyzes and classifies information. Science produces knowledge that is
objective, universal, and demonstrable.

Poetry, on the other hand, is based on imagination, creativity, and synthesis. It seeks to
express the beauty and harmony of nature and the emotions of the poet. It appeals to the fancy, the
faculty of memory that combines and modifies images and ideas. Poetry produces pleasure that is
subjective, individual, and variable.

Coleridge does not deny the value of science, but he criticizes the materialistic and
mechanistic view of nature that some scientists hold. He believes that nature is not a dead machine,
but a living organism, animated by a divine spirit. He also believes that poetry can reveal the deeper
truths of nature and human existence, beyond the reach of science. He claims that poetry is the
highest form of human expression, as it unites the reason and the imagination, the understanding
and the fancy, the objective and the subjective.

Coleridge’s distinction between science and poetry reflects his own interests and experiences
as a poet, philosopher, and critic. He was influenced by the Romantic movement, which emphasized
the importance of imagination, emotion, and individuality in art and literature. He was also
influenced by the German idealism, which explored the nature and limits of human reason and
knowledge. He tried to reconcile his poetic and philosophical views in his Biographia Literaria,
which is considered one of the most original and influential works of English criticism.

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13. Discuss Coleridge‟s concept of the use of „meter‟ in poetry.

Ans: Coleridge’s concept of the use of meter in poetry is complex and nuanced. He does not regard
meter as absolutely essential for poetry, but he also does not dismiss it as a mere ornament. He
believes that meter has a vital role in creating and enhancing the poetic effect, by stimulating the
reader’s imagination, attention, and emotion.
In his Biographia Literaria, Coleridge criticizes Wordsworth’s view that meter is superfluous
to poetry, and that there is no essential difference between the language of prose and metrical
composition. Coleridge argues that meter is not just a mechanical device, but a natural and organic
expression of the poet’s thoughts and feelings. He says that meter is “an auxiliary to the sense and a
voluntary exponent of passion” (BL, II, 62).
Coleridge also distinguishes between two kinds of meter: the accidental and the essential.
The accidental meter is the one that is determined by the number and arrangement of syllables, such
as iambic, trochaic, anapestic, etc. The essential meter is the one that is determined by the accent
and emphasis of the words, such as spondaic, pyrrhic, etc. Coleridge claims that the essential meter
is more important than the accidental meter, because it reflects the natural rhythm of speech and
emotion. He says that “the best part of human language, properly so called, is derived from
reflection on the acts of the mind itself” (BL, II, 63).
Coleridge also explains the effects of meter on the reader’s mind and imagination. He says
that meter, by creating a regular and harmonious pattern of sound, produces a pleasurable sensation
in the ear and the brain. He also says that meter, by deviating from the ordinary and expected course
of language, arouses the reader’s attention and curiosity. He also says that meter, by varying the
stress and pause of the words, conveys the tone and mood of the speaker. He also says that meter,
by combining with other poetic elements such as rhyme, imagery, figurative language, etc., creates a
powerful and lasting impression on the reader’s memory and imagination.
Coleridge concludes his discussion of meter by saying that “a poem of any length neither can
be, or ought to be, all poetry” (BL, II, 66). He means that a poem should not consist of only metrical
language, but also of some prose-like passages that serve as transitions, explanations, or contrasts.
He says that this mixture of poetry and prose is necessary to maintain the reader’s interest and to
avoid monotony and fatigue. He also says that this mixture of poetry and prose is natural and
appropriate, because it reflects the diversity and complexity of human life and experience. He says
that “the language of life and of truth is a mixture of unmetrical with metrical elements”.

14. Wordswoth‟s definition of poetry.

Ans: Wordsworth’s definition of poetry in “Preface to the Lyrical Ballads” is one of the most
influential statements of the Romantic movement. He defines poetry as “the spontaneous overflow
of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility”. This means that
poetry is not a product of rational thought, but of imagination and emotion. Poetry is also not a mere
imitation of nature, but a creative expression of the poet’s personal experience and feelings.
Wordsworth explains that the poet first observes something in nature or society that evokes a
strong emotion in him. He then lets this emotion settle in his mind, until he can recall it in a calm
and reflective mood. In this process, the emotion is purified and refined, and the poet can express it
in a suitable language and form. Wordsworth believes that this process of recollection and reflection
makes the emotion more universal and sublime, and thus more suitable for poetry.
Wordsworth also argues that the language of poetry should be simple and natural, and not
artificial or ornate. He says that he has chosen to write his poems in “the real language of men in a
state of vivid sensation” , rather than in the conventional language of poetry. He claims that this
language is more expressive and powerful, and more capable of conveying the truth and beauty of
nature and human life. He also says that he has chosen to write about common and humble subjects,
such as peasants, shepherds, and beggars, rather than about heroes, kings, and gods. He believes that

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these subjects are more interesting and worthy of poetry, because they are closer to nature and more
in touch with their feelings.
Wordsworth’s definition of poetry and his poetic principles have had a lasting impact on the
history and theory of literature. He challenged the neoclassical norms of poetry, which valued
reason, order, and decorum, and advocated a new kind of poetry, which valued imagination,
emotion, and originality. He also inspired many other poets, such as Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, and
Byron, to explore their own feelings and experiences, and to express them in a fresh and vivid
language. Wordsworth’s poetry and criticism have been widely studied and admired, and have
influenced many generations of writers and readers.

15. What kind of incidents and situations did Wordsworth choose for his poetry and why?

Ans: According to the “Preface to the Lyrical Ballads”, Wordsworth wanted to choose incidents and
situations from common life for his poetry, and to relate or describe them in a selection of language
really used by men. He had several reasons for this choice:

 He wanted to throw over them a certain colouring of imagination, whereby ordinary things
should be presented to the mind in an unusual aspect.
 He wanted to make these incidents and situations interesting by tracing in them, truly though
not ostentatiously, the primary laws of our nature. He believed that in states of excitement,
humans reach a level of dignity, power, and authenticity that is poetic.
 He wanted to revolt against the artificial and conventional language and diction of the
Pseudo-classical poets, who used figures, metaphors and similes unnecessarily and
imitatively. He preferred the natural and passionate language of the rustics, farmers, and
shepherds, who were the subjects of his poetry.

Wordsworth’s theory of poetic diction was revolutionary and influential in his time, as it challenged
the established norms of poetry and celebrated the common life and language of men.

OR
Wordsworth expressed a preference for depicting incidents and situations from ordinary life,
especially those that involved common people and rustic settings. He believed that poetry should be
accessible to the common man and should derive its inspiration from the experiences of everyday
life. This marked a departure from the elevated and aristocratic themes often found in earlier poetry.
Wordsworth valued the depiction of nature and rural landscapes, considering them as
powerful sources of inspiration and profound emotion. He believed that nature was a direct
reflection of the divine and that immersing oneself in natural surroundings could lead to a
heightened sense of spirituality and a deeper understanding of human existence.
One of Wordsworth's famous ideas is the concept of "the spontaneous overflow of powerful
feelings." He argued that poetry should be a result of genuine and intense emotions, unfiltered by
artificial language or poetic ornamentation. He sought to capture the immediacy and authenticity of
emotional experiences, believing that this would create a more profound and lasting impact on the
reader.
In choosing incidents and situations for his poetry, Wordsworth aimed to celebrate the beauty
in the ordinary, finding the extraordinary in the everyday. He sought to explore the depths of human
emotion and connect with readers on a personal and emotional level. This emphasis on the ordinary
and the emotional marked a significant shift in the poetic landscape, influencing not only
Wordsworth's contemporaries but also subsequent generations of poets who embraced the ideals of
Romanticism.

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16. Wordsworth concept of poetic dictions.
Ans: Wordsworth’s concept of poetic diction is based on his idea that poetry should use “the
real language of men in a state of vivid sensation.” He criticizes the artificial and unnatural
language of the neo-classical poets, who followed strict rules of taste and decorum. He argues
that poetry should express genuine emotions and reflect real life, rather than imitating classical
models. He also rejects the notion that poetry should be fancier than prose, and advocates for
simplicity and clarity of expression. He believes that poetic diction should be natural,
spontaneous, and original.
OR
In his groundbreaking "Preface to Lyrical Ballads," William Wordsworth challenged the
prevailing notion of poetic diction, advocating for a more natural and accessible use of language in
poetry. He argued that poetry should not be confined to an elevated or artificial language but should
instead draw upon the rich tapestry of everyday speech.
Wordsworth's concept of poetic diction can be summarized by the following key points:
 Poetic diction should be natural and familiar: Poetry should not employ a specialized
language that alienates the reader. Instead, it should utilize the language of common people,
the language that they speak and understand.
 Poetic diction should be expressive and passionate: While using the language of everyday
life, poetry should not be devoid of passion or emotion. The poet should select and arrange
words in a way that conveys the depth of their feelings and evokes emotions in the reader.
 Poetic diction should be adapted to the subject matter: The language used in poetry should be
appropriate to the theme or subject matter. It should not be overly elevated for a simple
subject nor excessively plain for a grand or serious topic.
 Poetic diction should be elevated by the power of imagination: While using everyday
language, the poet should elevate it through the power of imagination. The poet's imaginative
vision should transform the ordinary into something extraordinary, making the familiar seem
fresh and new.
Wordsworth's concept of poetic diction marked a significant shift in English poetry, moving away
from the artificiality of Neoclassical poetry towards a more natural and expressive style. His
emphasis on the language of common people and the power of imagination paved the way for a
more accessible and emotionally resonant poetry.

17. Wordsworth‟s Concept of the use of „meter‟ in poetry.

Ans: According to Wordsworth, meter is an essential feature of poetry that distinguishes it from
prose. He argues that meter has several functions in poetry, such as:

 It enhances the pleasure of the reader by creating a rhythm and harmony in the language.
 It helps the poet to express his emotions more vividly and naturally, by allowing him to use
words and phrases that are not common in prose.
 It stimulates the imagination of the reader by creating a sense of expectation and surprise,
and by suggesting associations and meanings beyond the literal sense of the words.
 It serves as a discipline for the poet, by forcing him to choose the most appropriate and
effective words and images for his purpose.

Wordsworth also defends his use of simple and rustic language in his poems, by claiming that such
language is more suitable for meter than the artificial and ornate language of the neo-classical poets.
He believes that the natural and spontaneous language of the common people is more expressive
and powerful than the refined and polished language of the educated classes. He says that the best
words for poetry are those that are "selected from the language really used by men."

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18. How does Shelley define the concepts of reason and imagination in "A Defence of Poetry"?

Ans: Shelley’s “A Defence of Poetry” is a classic essay that argues for the importance and value of
poetry in human civilization. One of the main points that Shelley makes is the distinction between
reason and imagination, two faculties of the human mind that he considers essential for poetic
creation.
According to Shelley, reason is the ability to analyze and compare thoughts, while
imagination is the ability to perceive and create new thoughts. Reason deals with the differences,
and imagination with the similitudes of things. Reason is like the instrument, and imagination like
the agent; reason is like the body, and imagination like the spirit; reason is like the shadow, and
imagination like the substance.
Shelley defines poetry as “the expression of the imagination”, and argues that poetry is innate
to human nature. He believes that poetry is the source of beauty, morality, and social progress, and
that poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world. He also claims that poetry is superior to
other forms of art, because language is the most direct and universal representation of the human
mind.
Shelley’s defence of poetry is based on his idealistic and visionary view of the human
potential, and his faith in the power of imagination to transform reality. He challenges the notion
that poetry is useless or obsolete in an age of science and technology, and asserts that poetry is the
highest form of human expression and creativity.

OR

In Percy Bysshe Shelley's seminal essay "A Defence of Poetry," he delves into the profound
relationship between reason and imagination, two fundamental faculties of the human mind. Shelley
distinguishes these faculties by their modes of operation and their respective roles in shaping our
understanding of the world.
Reason, according to Shelley, is the analytical and discerning power of the mind. It operates
by discerning the connections and relationships between existing ideas and concepts. Shelley
describes reason as "the enumeration of quantities already known," emphasizing its role in
categorizing and organizing knowledge.
Imagination, on the other hand, is the creative and transformative power of the mind. It
synthesizes new ideas and experiences, forging connections that were previously unseen. Shelley
characterizes imagination as "the perception of the value of those quantities, both separately and as
a whole," highlighting its ability to infuse existing knowledge with new meanings and insights.
Shelley asserts that reason and imagination are not mutually exclusive but rather
complementary forces. Reason provides the structure and framework for understanding the world,
while imagination breathes life into that framework by infusing it with emotion, color, and vitality.
Shelley places imagination at the heart of poetry, arguing that it is the primary source of
poetic inspiration. Poetry, he contends, harnesses the power of imagination to reveal the beauty and
interconnectedness of all things. Through the poet's imagination, we are able to transcend the
limitations of everyday experience and glimpse the profound truths that lie beneath the surface of
reality.
In essence, Shelley's distinction between reason and imagination underscores the dual nature
of human cognition. Reason provides the analytical tools to understand the world, while imagination
sparks the creativity to reshape and transform our perceptions. Together, these faculties enable us to
navigate the complexities of life and to find meaning and beauty in the world around us.

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19. Why does Shelley say "Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world?" Discuss
Ans: Percy Bysshe Shelley’s famous proposition that “poets are the unacknowledged legislators of
the world” comes from his essay “A Defence of Poetry,” written in 1821. This statement
encapsulates Shelley’s belief in the profound societal influence of poets.
Shelley’s argument is that poets, through their powers of imaginative understanding, are able
to identify and articulate emerging socio-cultural trends. They create and maintain the norms and
mores of a society. In this sense, poets lay the foundation for the moral and civil laws that govern a
community.
However, Shelley also acknowledges the “profound ambiguity inherent in linguistic means,”
considering language as both an instrument of intellectual freedom and a vehicle for political and
social subjugation. This suggests that while poets play a crucial role in societal progression, their
contributions often go unrecognized, hence they are "unacknowledged legislators".
In essence, Shelley sees poets as philosophers and visionaries who inspire the legal norms in
a civil society, thus creating a foundation for other institutions of a community. Their work awakens
and enlarges the mind, making it receptive to new combinations of thought. Despite their significant
role, poets often remain unacknowledged, hence Shelley’s description of them as "the
unacknowledged legislators of the world."
OR

In his seminal essay "A Defence of Poetry," Percy Bysshe Shelley boldly declares that "poets
are the unacknowledged legislators of the world." This provocative statement encapsulates Shelley's
profound belief in the transformative power of poetry and its ability to shape human thought and
action.
Shelley argues that poets, through their creative genius, possess the unique ability to perceive
the underlying truths and potentialities of the world. They are able to tap into the "imaginative
reason," as Shelley calls it, which transcends the limitations of rational analysis and reveals the
interconnectedness of all things.
Shelley contends that poetry, infused with this imaginative reason, has the power to awaken
the human spirit and inspire moral action. Through their poems, poets can stir the passions, kindle
the imagination, and instill a sense of empathy and compassion among their readers.
Despite their profound influence, Shelley laments that poets often remain "unacknowledged
legislators." Their role in shaping society is often overlooked, overshadowed by the more visible
and tangible actions of politicians and lawmakers. Yet, Shelley asserts that poets' influence is far
more pervasive and enduring, shaping the very foundation of human thought and behavior.
To illustrate his point, Shelley points to the enduring impact of great poets like Homer and
Virgil, whose works continue to inspire and shape human consciousness centuries after their
creation. He argues that these poets, through their imaginative insights, have had a profound impact
on the course of human history, often surpassing the achievements of kings and conquerors.
In essence, Shelley's assertion that "poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world" is
a testament to the transformative power of poetry. It is a call to recognize the profound influence of
poets on human thought and action, and to appreciate the unique role they play in shaping our
world.

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