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PHYSICS FORM THREE

CHAPTER ONE

LINEAR MOTION

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Define distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration;

b) Describe experiments to determine velocity and acceleration;
c) Determine acceleration due to gravity;
d) Plot and explain motion time graphs;
e) Apply the equations of uniformly accelerated motion;
f) Solve numerical problems on uniformly accelerated motion.

Content
a.) Distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration(Experimental treatment required).
b.) Acceleration due to gravity free - fall, simple pendulum.
c.) Motion-time graphs- displacement time graphs, Velocity time graphs.
d.) Equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
e.) Problems on uniformly accelerated motion

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Introduction
Study of motion is divided into two;
1. Kinematics
2. Dynamics
In kinematics forces causing motion are disregarded while dynamics deals with motion of objects and the
forces causing them.
I. Displacement
Distance moved by a body in a specified direction is called displacement. It is denoted by letter‘s’ and
has both magnitude and direction. Distance is the movement from one point to another. The Si unit for
displacement is the metre (m).
II. Speed
This is the distance covered per unit time.
Speed= distance covered/ time taken. Distance is a scalar quantity since it has magnitude
only. The SI unit for speed is metres per second (m/s or ms-1) Average
speed= total distance covered/total time taken Other units for speed
used are Km/h.
Examples 1. A body covers a distance of 10m in 4 seconds. It rests for 10 seconds and finally covers a
distance of 90m in 60 seconds. Calculate the average speed.
Solution
Total distance covered=10+90=100m
Total time taken=4+10+6=20 seconds
Therefore average speed=100/20=5m/s
2. Calculate the distance in metres covered by a body moving with a uniform speed of 180 km/h in
30 seconds. Solution
Distance covered=speed*time
=180*1000/60*60=50m/s
=50*30
=1,500m
3. Calculate the time in seconds taken a by body moving with a uniform speed of 360km/h to cover a
distance of 3,000 km?
Solution
Speed: 360 km/h=360*1000/60*60=100m/s
Time=distance/speed
3000*1000/100
=30,000 seconds.

III. Velocity
This is the change of displacement per unit time. It is a vector quantity.
Velocity=change in displacement/total time taken
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The SI units for velocity are m/s Examples

1. A man runs 800m due North in 100 seconds, followed by 400m due South in 80 seconds.
Calculate,
a. His average speed
b. His average velocity
c. His change in velocity for the whole journey
Solution
a. Average speed: total distance travelled/total time taken
=800+400/100+80
=1200/180
=6.67m/s
b. Average velocity: total displacement/total time
=800-400/180
=400/180
=2.22 m/s due North
c. Change in velocity=final-initial velocity
= (800/100)-(400-80)
=8-5
=3m/s due North

2. A tennis ball hits a vertical wall at a velocity of 10m/s and bounces off at the same velocity.
Determine the change in velocity.
Solution
Initial velocity (u) =-10m/s
Final velocity (v) = 10m/s
Therefore change in velocity= v-u
=10- (-10)
=20m/s
IV. Acceleration
This is the change of velocity per unit time. It is a vector quantity symbolized by ‘a’.
Acceleration ‘a’=change in velocity/time taken= v-u/t
The SI units for acceleration are m/s2
Examples
1. The velocity of a body increases from 72 km/h to 144 km/h in 10 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration. Solution
Initial velocity= 72 km/h=20m/s
Final velocity= 144 km/h=40m/s
Therefore ‘a’ =v-u/t
= 40-20/10
2m/s2

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2. A car is brought to rest from 180km/h in 20 seconds. What is its retardation?

Solution
Initial velocity=180km/h=50m/s
Final velocity= 0 m/s
A = v-u/t=0-50/20
= -2.5 m/s2
Hence retardation is 2.5 m/s2

Motion graphs
Distance-time graphs
a)

Stationary body

b)

A body moving with

uniform speed

c)

A body moving with

variable speed

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Area under velocity-time graph

Consider a body with uniform or constant acceleration for time‘t’ seconds;

Distance travelled= average velocity*t

= (0+v/2)*t
=1/2vt
This is equivalent to the area under the graph. The area under velocity-time graph gives the distance
covered by the body under‘t’ seconds.
Example
A car starts from rest and attains a velocity of 72km/h in 10 seconds. It travels at this velocity for 5
seconds and then decelerates to stop after another 6 seconds. Draw a velocity-time graph for this motion.
From the graph;
i. Calculate the total distance moved by the car
ii. Find the acceleration of the car at each stage.
Solution

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a. From the graph, total distance covered= area of (A+B+C)

= (1/2×10×20) + (1/2×6×20) + (5×20)
=100+60+100
=260m
Also the area of the trapezium gives the same result.

b. Acceleration= gradient of the graph

Stage A gradient= 20-0/ 10-0 = 2 m/s2
Stage b gradient= 20-20/15-10 =0 m/s2
Stage c gradient= 0-20/21-15 =-3.33 m/s2

Using a ticker-timer to measure speed, velocity and acceleration.

It will be noted that the dots pulled at different velocities will be as follows;

Most ticker-timers operate at a frequency of 50Hz i.e. 50 cycles per second hence they make 50
dots per second. Time interval between two consecutive dots is given as,
1/50 seconds= 0.02 seconds. This time is called a tick.
The distance is measured in ten-tick intervals hence time becomes 10×0.02= 0.2 seconds.
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Examples
a. A tape is pulled steadily through a ticker-timer of frequency 50 Hz. Given the
outcome below, calculate the velocity with which the tape is pulled.

A B C

Solution
Distance between two consecutive dots= 5cm
Frequency of the ticker-timer=50Hz
Time taken between two consecutive dots=1/50=0.02 seconds
Therefore, velocity of tape=5/0.02= 250 cm/s
b. The tape below was produced by a ticker-timer with a frequency of 100Hz. Find the
acceleration of the object which was pulling the tape.

Solution
Time between successive dots=1/100=0.01 seconds
Initial velocity (u) 0.5/0.01 50 cm/s
Final velocity (v) 2.5/0.01= 250 cm/s
Time taken= 4 × 0.01 = 0.04 seconds
Therefore, acceleration= v-u/t= 250-50/0.04=5,000 cm/s2

Equations of linear motion

The following equations are applied for uniformly accelerated motion; v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2
v2= u2 +2as
Examples
1. A body moving with uniform acceleration of 10 m/s2 covers a distance of 320 m. if
its initial velocity was 60 m/s. Calculate its final velocity. Solution
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V2 = u2 +2as
= (60) +2×10×320
=3600+6400
= 10,000
Therefore v= (10,000)1/2
v= 100m/s
2. A body whose initial velocity is 30 m/s moves with a constant retardation of 3m/s.
Calculate the time taken for the body to come to rest.
Solution v
= u + at
0= 30-3t 30=3t
t= 30 seconds.
3. A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to a final velocity of 100m/s in 10
seconds. Calculate the distance covered.
Solution s=ut +
½ at2
=0 × 10 + ½ ×10 × 102
= 1000/2=500m

Motion under gravity.

1. Free fall
The equations used for constant acceleration can be used to become, v =u + g t s
=ut + ½ gt2 v2= u + 2gs
2. Vertical projection
Since the body goes against force of gravity then the following equations hold v =u- g t
……………1 s =ut - ½ gt2 ……2 v2= u-2gs …………3
N.B time taken to reach maximum height is given by the following t=u/g since
v=0 (using equation 1)

Time of flight
The time taken by the projectile is the time taken to fall back to its point of projection. Using eq.
2 then, displacement =0
0= ut - ½ gt2
0=2ut-gt2 t (2u-
gt)=0
Hence, t=0 or t= 2u/g t=o corresponds to the start
of projection t=2u/g corresponds to the time of
flight
The time of flight is twice the time taken to attain maximum height.
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Maximum height reached.

Using equation 3 maximum height, Hmax is attained when v=0 (final velocity).
Hence v2= u2-2gs;- 0=u2-2gHmax, therefore
2gHmax=u2
Hmax=u2/2g

Velocity to return to point of projection.

At the instance of returning to the original point, total displacement equals to zero.
v2 =u2-2gs hence v2= u2
Therefore v=u or v=±u
Example
A stone is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 30m/s from the ground.
Calculate,
a. The time it takes to attain maximum height
b. The time of flight
c. The maximum height reached
d. The velocity with which it lands on the ground. (take g=10m/s)
Solution
a. Time taken to attain maximum height
T=u/g=30/10=3 seconds

b. The time of flight

T=2t= 2×3=6 seconds
Or T=2u/g=2×30/10=6 seconds.

c. Maximum height reached

2
Hmax= u /2g= 30×30/2×10= 45m

d. Velocity of landing (return)

2 2
v = u -2gs, but s=0,
Hence v2=u2
Therefore v = (30×30)1/2=30m/s
3. Horizontal projection
The path followed by a body (projectile) is called trajectory. The maximum horizontal distance
covered by the projectile is called range.

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The horizontal displacement ‘R’ at a time‘t’ is given by s=ut+1/2at2

Taking u=u and a=0 hence R=u t, is the horizontal displacement and h=1/2gt2 is the vertical
displacement.

NOTE
The time of flight is the same as the time of free fall.

Example
A ball is thrown from the top of a cliff 20m high with a horizontal velocity of 10m/s.
Calculate,
a. The time taken by the ball to strike the ground
b. The distance from the foot of the cliff to where the ball strikes the ground.
c. The vertical velocity at the time it strikes the ground. (take g=10m/s)
Solution
a. h= ½ gt2
20= ½ × 10 × t2
40=10t2
t2=40/10=4 t=2
seconds
b. R=u t
=10×2
=20m
c. v=u +a t=g t
= 2×10=20m/s

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End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

LINEAR MOTION

1. a) The diagram below shows part of the motion of a tennis ball, which is projected vertically

upwards from the ground and allowed to bounce on the ground. Use this information to

answer questions that follow.

i) Describe the motion of the ball relating it to different positions of

the ball along the following AB, BC, CDE.

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ii) From the graph, calculate the acceleration due to gravity. iii)

How high does the ball rise initially? iv) Explain why E is not at

the same level as A.

2. Sketch a velocity- time graph showing the motion of a ball vertically upwards with an initial

velocity of u.

3. Calculate the acceleration shown by the tickers-tape that was made using a ticker timer

vibrating at 50HZ.

A B C D E

4. What is the difference between speed and velocity?

5. An object is projected vertically upwards at a speed of 15m/s. How long will it take to return

to the same level of projection?

6. A block slides off a horizontal table 4 meters high with a velocity of 12-m/s. Find:

a) The horizontal distance from the table at which the block hits the floor.

b) The horizontal and vertical components of the velocity when it reaches the floor.

7. A particle initially at A moves along an arc AB of a horizontal circle of radius 4m and centre

O.A is south of O and angle AOB is 600. Determine the displacement AB.

O
600

A B

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8. The figure represents dots made by a ticker-timer. The dots were made at a frequency of 50

dots per second. (Diagram not drawn to scale)

a) What is time interval between two consecutive dots?

b) The arrow on the tape indicates the dots made at time t = 0. Copy the diagram and indicate

in a similar way the dots made at t= 0.1s, 0.2s, 0.3s.

c) Determine the average velocities of the tape over time intervals -0.02s to

0.02s, 0.08s to

0.12s, 0.18s to 0.22s and 0.28s to 0.32s

d) Draw a suitable graph and from it determine the acceleration of the tape.

9. A mass is projected horizontally from height of 5m above the ground with a velocity of

30m/s. Calculate:

a) The time taken to reach the ground

b) The horizontal distance traveled before hitting the ground

c) The vertical velocity with which the mass hits the ground

10. The data in the table below represents the motion over a period of 7 seconds
Time s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

D is m 0 20 40 60 80 95 105 110

a) Plot on graph paper a graph of displacement (y-axis) against time.

b) Describe the motion of the vehicle for the first 4 seconds.

c) Determine the velocities at 4.5s and 6.5 s. Hence or otherwise determine the average

acceleration of the vehicle over this time interval.

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11. a) A body accelerates uniformly from initial velocity, U to the final velocity V, in time t, the

distance traveled during this time interval is S. If the acceleration is shown by the letter a,

show that;

i) V= U + at ii) s= ut + ½ at2 iii) V2 =U2 + 2 as

b) A body initially moving at 50m/s decelerates uniformly at 2m/s until it comes to rest.

What distance does it cover from the time it started to decelerate?

12. An object dropped from a height h attains a velocity of 6m/s just before hitting the ground,

find the value of h.

13. a) A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the edge of a platform eventually the stone

lands without bouncing on the ground below the platform. Taking the upward velocity to be

positive, sketch the velocity-time graph of the motion of the stone.

b) A car can be brought to rest from a speed of 200m/s in a time of 2s.

i) Calculate the average deceleration

ii) If the driver reaction time is 0.2s, Determine the shortest stopping distance.

14. The figure shows a speed-time graph for part of the journey of a motorcar.

Determine the distance the car travels in the first 40 seconds

15. Draw axes and sketch a graph of velocity (v versus time (t) for uniformly accelerated motion

given that when t = 0, v is greater than zero.

16. a) The figure below shows the displacement time graph of the motion of a

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particle.

State the nature of the motion of the particle between:

i) A and B ii) B

and C iii) C

and D

b) A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of a vertical tower and strikes the ground at a point

50m from the bottom of the tower. Given that the height of the tower is 45m, determine the;-

i) Time taken by the ball to hit the ground ii) Initial

horizontal velocity of the ball.

iii) Vertical velocity of the ball, just before striking the ground. (Take acceleration due to gravity
g as 10ms-2)

16. The graph bellows shows how the velocity varies with time for a body thrown

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vertically upwards.

Determine the total distance moved by the body. (3mks)

17. A bullet is fired horizontally from a platform 15m high. If the initial speed is 300ms-1,

determine the maximum horizontal distance covered by the bullet.

18. Fig 14 shows the velocity-

time graph for a small

metal sphere falling

through a viscous fluid.

On the axes provided sketch the graph of momentum against time for the same

mass

Given that the reading of the spring balance is 0.6N, determine the weight of the

bar. (3mks)

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The graph in figure 6 shows the velocity of a car in the first 8 seconds as it

accelerates from rest along a straight line. Use the graph to answer question 19

and 20.

Determine the distance traveled 3.0 seconds after the start. (3mks)

Determine the acceleration of the car at 4.0 seconds. (2mks)

21. A bomber flying horizontally at 100m/s releases a bomb from a height of 300m.

Calculate:

a) Time taken for the bomb to hit the ground.

b) The horizontal distance traveled when hitting the ground.

c) The magnitude and direction of the velocity when hitting the ground?

22 An airplane is flying horizontally over a camp at 250m/s and drops a pack. How far from the

camp will the pack land if the plane was flying 300m above the ground?

23. An object is projected horizontally at a velocity of 40m/s from a cliff 20m high.

Calculate:

a) The time taken to hit the ground

b) The distance from the foot of the cliff when the object hits the ground.
24. A ball-bearing X is dropped vertically downwards, from the edge of a table and it takes 0.5s

to hit the floor below. Another bearing Y leaves the edge of the table horizontally with a

velocity of 5m/s. find:

a) The time taken for bearing Y to reach the floor.

b) The horizontal distance traveled by Y before hitting the floor.

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c) The height of the table-top above the floor level.

25. A helicopter, which was ascending vertically at a steady velocity of 20m/s, released a parcel

that took 20 second to reach the ground.

i) State the direction in which the parcel moved immediately it was released. ii) Calculate the

time taken by the parcel to reach the ground from the maximum height. iii) Calculate the

velocity of the parcel when it strikes the ground. iv) Calculate the maximum height above the

ground the parcel reached.

v) What was the height of the helicopter at the instant the parcel was dropped.

26. A stone is thrown horizontally from a building that is 50 m high above a horizontal ground.

The stone hits the ground at a point, which is 65m from the foot of the building. Calculate the

initial of the stone.

LINEAR MOTION ANSWERS

1.

a) AB- ball rising to max height

BC- ball falling to ground

CDE- ball rebouncing/ changing velocity from +ve to –ve

b) Acceleration = gradient = 19.8 = 9.9 m/s2

c) Displacement = area = ½ x 2 x 19.8 = 19.8m

d) Upon hitting the ground the ball looses

some energy.

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2.

3 Time interval between any two dots = 1/50 =0.02S

Dist d1 between 1st and 2nd dots = 2.2 cm

= V1 = 0.022m = 1.1ms-1

0.02S

Dist d2 between 4th and 5th dots = 3.3cm, v2 = 0.033 =1.65m/s

0.02
Note: the average velocity between any two dots = the velocity of a point half

way between the pts. Label the pts A.B.C.D & E label a pt x and y half way

between D and E respectively (i.e. halfway in time not distance)

T x y = 0.01+ 0.02 x 2 + 0.01 = 0.06s

Therefore a = V2 – V =1.65-1.1 = 0.54 = 9m/s2

T 0.06 0.06

4. Speed is a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector quality.

5. v-u +at 0=15-10t t= 15s (to max height) therefore total time = 2 x 1.5=3s

6. (a) Initial vertical velocity = 0, a=10, S=4m

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Therefore: S= ut + 1/2 gt2

4 = 0+5t2 t =

0.8944

Range (horizontal dist) = initial vel. (constant) x time

= 12 x 0.8944

= 10.73m

b) Initial and final horizontal velocities are equal =12m/s

Final vertical velocity = V= u + at

V= 0+10x0.8944

V= 8.944m/s

7. OA = OB therefore OAB is isosceles

Displacement is distance covered in a straight line i.e. AB since <OBA =

AOB = 60 then the triangle is equilateral. So AB=AO=4m

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8. (a) t=1/f= 1/50 = 0.02S

(b) 0.1s is equal to 5 time intervals

Diagram not drawn to scale (refer from the actual paper)

Average vel between - 0.02S to 0.02 = X1/0.04 (=vel at t=0s) Similarly for

0.08 to 0.12, V2 = X2 = vel at t = 0.1s

0.04

For 0.18 to 0.22, V3 = X3 = vel at t = 0.2s

0.04

For 0.28 to 0.32, V4 = X4 = vel at t= 0.3s

0.04

(d) Note: The average velocities above represent the actual velocities halfway

between the three dots.

Tabulating the results

Time 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Vel V1 V2 V3 V4

Plot v against t and draw the best line of fit. Find gradient =

acceleration.
9. (a) Initial vertical velocity = 0, a = g; s= 5m
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S=ut+1/2gt2

S = 0 + 5t2

T= 1s

(b) Range = Uμ x t = 30 x 1 = 30m (c)

Vv =UV + gt

Vv = 0 + 10 x 1 = 10m/s

10. (a) Plot the graph

Note: the graph is a straight line for the first 4 seconds then a curve

(b) Velocity constant

(c) Draw tangents to the graph at t = 4, 5 s and t = 6.5 s. Obtains the gradients

of the tangents g1 and g2 which are equal to

velocities at t = 4.5 s (V1) and at t

= 6.5s (V2)

Acc = V2 - V1 ≈4.9m/s2

6.5-4.5

11. (a) acc = (change in vel/time)

a = (v - u) t
v = u + at.... (i)

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Displacement = average vel x time s = (u

+ u + at)t = ut +2t2

2 Square equation (ii) v2 = (u +

at)2 v2 = u2 + 2aut + a2t2 Factorizing v2 =

u2 + 2a (ut + 1/2at2) but ut+ 2/2at2 = (from

equ.(ii) .

v2 = u2 + 2as

(b) u = 50m/s a =2m/s2

V = 0 v2 = u2 +

2as

0 = 2500 - 4s S=

625m

mgh = 1/2mv2

L = 1.8m

1
/2 v2 = gh

2
/2 x 36/10 = h
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13. (a)

(b) (i) u = 20m/s, t=2s, v=0

V = u + at

0 = 20 + a x 2

A = -10m/s

Deceleration = 10m/s2

(ii) Distance traveled before starting to break = 0.2 x 20 = 4m

Distance moved after breaks are applied, U=20,

a=-10, v=0 v2 = u2 + 2as 0 = 400 - 20s s = 20m

Total distance = 24m

14. (i) Initial horizontal velocity of the bullet (50m/s) does change so it

will move horizontally and parallel to the track despite its vertical movement.

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(ii) Uv= a =-10m/s2, s=45, v=0

V2=u2 + 2as a= u2-900

u=30m/s

Therefore time to max height (t) horizontal distance covered in that

time =6 x 50=300m

15. (a) (i) Time between two dots = 1/f =1/50 = 0.02s

1.5 x 10-2 m/s = 0.15m/s

0.02 x 5

V2=3.2x10-2 m/s = 0.32m/s

0.02x5

(ii) From half way between AB to half way between CD time

= (0.02 x 20 + (21/2 x 2x 0.02)

= 0.4 + 0.1

= 0.5s.

Therefore acc= (V2-V1)/t = (0.32-0.15/0.5 = 0.34m/s2)

(b) P.e is converted to k.e or u=o, a=g, s=h, v=?

Therefore mgh= 1/4 mv2 Sub: V2= U2+2as

V2=2gh V2=0+2gh

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V=√2gh V=√2gh

(c)

16. (a)

(i) Particle stationary/at rest.

(ii) Increasing vel. (grad=vel)

(iii) Particle moving at cost. vel in the opp. direction i.e. towards origin.

(b)

(i) Uv=0, S=45m, a=10m/s2t=?

S=ut+ 1/2 at2 45 =

0+5t2 t=3S

(ii) Range =50m

t=35

Um=50/3=16.67m/s

(iii) Vv = Uv + at Vv = 0 + 10 x 3

Vv = 30m/s

Total distance =area bound by x-axis and the line of graph

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=20m + 20m

=40m

Note: Since distance is scalar quantity the -ve area is taken to be +ve.

17. s=15, Um=300m/s, av=10m/s2, Uv=0m/s

Therefore s=ut+1/2 at2

15 – 0 + 5t2 t=3.873s

Therefore d=UH x t=300 x 3.873 = 1161m

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19. Distance = area under curve between 0 and 3.0 second.

= 120 x 3x 0.2 = 72m

Accept 70.5, 73.5, 76.5

20. Acceleration = slope of graph at t = 4.0s

16 x 3

17 x 0.2 = 14.11m/s2

21. 24.45s, 2445m, 264.2m/s or 67.80 to the horizontal

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22. 1936.5m

23. 2s, 80m/s

24. 0.5s, 2.5m, 1.25m

25. Upwards, 18s, 180m/s, 1620m, 1,600m

26. 20.6m/s

27. 40.9°

28. 50m/s, 125m, 10s

29. 31.25m, 2.5s

30. 0.0333s, 18m/s.

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Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Describe simple experiments to illustrate refraction of light;

b) State the laws of refraction of light;
c) Verify Snell's law;
d) Define refractive index;;
e) Determine experimentally the refractive index;
f) Describe experiments to illustrate dispersion of white light;
g) Explain total internal reflection and its effect;
h) State the application of total internal reflection;
i) Solve numerical problems involving refractive index and critical angle.

Content
a.) Refraction of light - laws of refraction (Experimental treatment required)
b.) Determination of refractive index- Snell's law, Real/apparent depth, Critical angle
c.) Dispersion of white light (Experimental treatment required)
d.) Total internal reflection and its effects: critical angle
e.) Applications of total internal reflection - Prism periscope, Optical fibre
f.) Problems involving refractive index and critical angle

Introduction
Refraction is the change of direction of light rays as they pass at an angle from one medium to
another of different optical densities.

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Exp. To investigate the path of light through rectangular glass block.

Apparatus: - soft-board, white sheet of paper, drawing pins (optical), rectangular glass block.
Procedure
1. Fix the white plain paper on the soft board using pins.
2. Place the glass block on the paper and trace its outline, label it ABCD as shown
below.
3. Draw a normal NON at point O.
4. Replace the glass block to its original position.
5. Stick two pins P1 and P2 on the line such that they are at least 6cm apart and
upright.
6. Viewing pins P1 and P2 from opposite side, fix pins P3 and P4 such that they’re in
a straight line.
7. Remove the pins and the glass block.
8. Draw a line joining P3 and P4 and produce it to meet the outline face AB at point
O

Explanation of refraction.
Light travels at a velocity of 3.0×108 in a vacuum. Light travels with different velocities in
different media. When a ray of light travels from an optically less dense media to more dense
media, it is refracted towards the normal. The glass block experiment gives rise to a very
important law known as the law of reversibility which states that “if a ray of light is reversed, it
always travels along its original path”. If the glass block is parallel-sided, the emergent ray will
be parallel to the incident ray but displaced laterally as shown

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‘e’ is called the angle of emergence. The direction of the light is not altered but displaced
sideways. This displacement is called lateral displacement and is denoted by‘d’. Therefore
XY= t/Cos r YZ= Sin (i - r) × x y
So, lateral displacement, d = t Sin (i - r)/Cos r
Laws of refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on
the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant for a given pair of media.
Sin i/sin r = constant (k)

Refractive index
Refractive index (n) is the constant of proportionality in Snell’s law; hence
Sin i/ sin r = n
Therefore sin i/sin r=n=1/sin r/sin i

Examples
1. Calculate the refractive index for light travelling from glass to air given that ang= 1.5
Solution gna= 1/ang = 1/1.5=0.67

2. Calculate the angle of refraction for a ray of light from air striking an airglass interface,
making an angle of 600 with the interface. (ang = 1.5)

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Solution
Angle of incidence (i) = 900- 600=300
1.5=sin 30o/sin r, sin r =sin 300/ 1.5=0.5/1.5
Sin r=0.3333, sin-10.3333= 19.50
R= 19.50

Refractive index in terms of velocity.

Refractive index can be given in terms of velocity by the use of the following equation;

n = velocity of light in medium 1/velocity of light in medium 2

1 2

When a ray of light is travelling from vacuum to a medium the refractive index is referred to as
absolute refractive index of the medium denoted by ‘n’
Refractive index of a material ‘n’=velocity of light in a vacuum/velocity of light in material ‘n’
The absolute refractive indices of some common materials is given below
Material Refractive index

1 Air (ATP) 1.00028

2 Ice 1.31
3 Water 1.33
4 Ethanol 1.36
5 Kerosene 1.44
6 Glycerol 1.47
7 Perspex 1.49
8 Glass 1.55
(crown)
9 Glass (flint) 1.65
10 Ruby 1.76
11 Diamond 2.72

Examples
1. A ray of light is incident on a water-glass interface as shown. Calculate ‘r’. (Take the
refractive index of glass and water as 3/2 and 4/3 respectively)

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Solution
Since anw sin θw=ang sing
4/3 sin 300= 3/2 sin r
3/2 sin r= 4/3× 0.5
Sin r =4/6×2/3=4/9= 0.4444 r =
26.40
2. The refractive index of water is 4/3 and that of glass is 3/2. Calculate the refractive index
of glass with respect to water. Solution wng= gna × ang, but wna = 1/ anw=3/4
wng=3/4×3/2=9/8= 1.13

Real and apparent depth

Consider the following diagram

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The depth of the water OM is the real depth, and the distance IM is known as the apparent depth.
OI is the distance through which the coin has been displaced and is known as the vertical
displacement. The relationship between refractive index and the apparent depth is given by;

Refractive index of a material=real depth/apparent depth

NB
This is true only if the object is viewed normally.

Example
A glass block of thickness 12 cm is placed on a mark drawn on a plain paper. The mark is
viewed normally through the glass. Calculate the apparent depth of the mark and
hence the vertical displacement. (Refractive index of glass =3/2) Solution
ang= real depth/apparent depth

apparent depth= real depth/ ang=(12×2)/3= 8 cm vertical

displacement= 12-8=4 cm

Applications of refractive index

Total internal reflection
This occurs when light travels from a denser optical medium to a less dense medium. The
refracted ray moves away from the normal until a critical angle is reached usually 900 where the
refracted ray is parallel to the boundary between the two media. If this critical angle is exceeded
total internal reflection occurs and at this point no refraction occurs but the ray is reflected
internally within the denser medium.
Relationship between the critical angle and refractive index.
Consider the following diagram

From Snell’s law

gnw = sin C/sin 900,but ang = 1/gna since sin 900 = 1

Therefore ang= 1/sin C, hence sin C=1/n or n=1/sin C

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Example
Calculate the critical angle of diamond given that its refractive index is 2.42

Solution
Sin C= 1/n=1/ 2.42= 0.4132= 24.40

Effects of total internal reflection

1. Mirage: These are ‘pools of water’ seen on a tarmac road during a hot day. They are
also observed in very cold regions but the light curves in opposite direction such that
a polar bear seems to be upside down in the sky.
2. Atmospheric refraction: the earths’ atmosphere refracts light rays so that the sun can
be seen even when it has set. Similarly the sun is seen before it actually rises.

Applications of total internal reflection

1. Periscope: a prism periscope consists of two right angled glass prisms of angles 450,900
and 450 arranged as shown below. They are used to observe distant objects.

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2. Prism binoculars: the arrangement of lenses and prisms is as shown below. Binoculars
reduce the distance of objects such that they seem to be nearer.

3. Pentaprism: used in cameras to change the inverted images formed into erect and actual
image in front of the photographer.
4. Optical fibre: this is a flexible glass rod of small diameter. A light entering through them
undergoes repeated internal reflections. They are used in

medicine to observe or view internal organs of the body

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5. Dispersion of white light: the splitting of light into its constituent colours is known as
dispersion. Each colour represents a different wavelength as they strike the prism and
therefore refracted differently as shown.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

1. The diagram below shows a transparent water tank containing water. An electric light is
fixed at corner A of the tank. A light ray from the slit shines on the

water surface BC at an angle of 480 as shown

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a) i) Determine the angle of refraction for the ray shown in the diagram. ii)

Complete the diagram to show the refracted ray.

b) Determine the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 900

c) Calculate the speed of light in water (nw = 4/3, C= 3 x 108ms)

2. The figure shows the path of a yellow light through a glass prism. The speed of yellow light
in the prism is 1.88 x 108 m/s.

a) Determine the refractive index of the prism material for the light. (Speed of light in vacuum =
3.0 x 108 ms-1)

b) Show on the figure the critical angle C and determine the value.

c) Given that r= 21.20, determine angle Q.

d) On the same figure, sketch the path of the light after striking the prism if the prism was
replaced by another of similar shape but lower refractive index. (Use dotted line for your
answer).

3. The figure below shows two rays A and B entering a semi circular glass block

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which has critical angle of 420. The rays are incident at an air glass boundary at
point O

Complete the path of the two rays from point O. Label A1 and B1 the corresponding rays.

4. A ray of light is directed at an angle of 500 on to a liquid-air boundary. The refractive index

of the liquid is 1.4.Show on a diagram the patch taken by the ray on striking the liquid-air

boundary. Show how you arrive at your answer.

5. Figure 13 shows a coin placed in a large empty container. An observer looking into the

container from the position shown is unable to see the coin.

Sketch two rays from a point on the coin to show how the observer is able to see the image of

the coin after the container is filled with water.

6. Figure 6 show a ray of light incident on the face of a water prism.

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Sketch the path of the rays as it passes through the prism. Critical angle for water is 490

7. Calculate the refractive index of glass given that the velocity of light in air is 3x 108 ms-1 and
velocity of light in glass is 2.4 x 108ms-1.

8. The real thickness of crown glass block of refractive index 1.58 is 10cm is 10cm.

Calculate the apparent thickness of the glass. 9. You are

provided with the following;

-A 50cm beaker full of water.

-Stand and clangs

-A half metre rule

-2 optical pins

-Cork

a) Explain briefly how you would determine the refraction index of water using the materials

provided.

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b) The data below shows the results obtained when such an experiment was performed by form

three students using various values of real depths, Y of a liquid.

Real depth cm 30 50 70 90 110 130

Apparent depth cm 22 37 52 66 81 96

i) Plot a graph of the real depth (y-axis) against apparent depth. ii) From the

graph, determine the refractive index of the liquid.

10. Paraffin has a greater refractive index than that of water. Comment about the relative

velocity of light in paraffin and in water.

11. a) State SNELL’S LAW

b) A ray of light travels from air into medium 1 and 2 as shown.

Calculate;

i) The refractive index of medium 1.

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ii) Critical angle of medium 1 iii) The refractive index of medium 2

relative to medium (1n2)

12. Explain with the aid of a diagram, how a suitable glass prism may be used to turn a ray of
light 1800

13. What measurable quantity is associated with colour of light?

14. State TWO uses of total internal reflection.

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15.The graph shown below shows, the apparent depth (y-axis) against real depth.

Use it to calculate the refractive index of glass.

16. The refractive index for air-water boundary is 4/3. Calculate the critical cycle for water–air

interface.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT ANSWERS

1. 1989:

(a) (i) Sin 48 = 3 Sin r = 0.9906

Sin r 4 = 82.20

(ii)

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(b) Sin C = 1 = 0.75

C= 48.60

i.e. when r= 90, I= C

Va = n

Vw

3 x108= 4 Vw=2.25 x 108 m/s

Vw 3
2. a) n= Va = 3.00 x 108 =1.6

Vp 1.88 x 10 8

b)

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Sin C=1/1.6

C=38.8

c) Sin Q = 1.6

Sin 21.2

Q= 35.40
3

4. Sin C= 1/n = 1/1.4

C= 45.6

Total internal reflection will take place.

5.

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6.

7.

ang = Velocity of light in air

= Velocity of light in glass

= 3x 108

= 2.4 x 108

= 1.25

8. g = Real thickness

Apparent thickness

1.58= 10

Apparent thickness

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Apparent thickness = 10/1.58 = 6.33cm

The apparent thickness of crown glass block = 6.33cm

9 a)

- Set the apparatus as shown above.

- Adjust the search pin to no-parallax position.

- Using the metre rule, measure the apparatus distance x and the real depth y of the

water.

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- Repeat the experiment for other values of y

- Plot a graph of y against x.

Refractive index = gradient of graph

= Real depth

Apparent depth

w = y/x

i) Graph

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ii) 1 = Real depth = gradient of the graph

Apparent depth

Gradient = 135 = 1.35

100

Refractive index, 1==1.35

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10. Bending of light is more in paraffin than in water.

Thus speed of light in paraffin is less than that in water.

11. a) Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is always a

constant i.e.

= Sin I in medium 1

Sin r in medium 2

b) i)

a 1 = Sin i

sin r

= sin 400 =
0.6428

Sin 240 = 0.4067

= 1.581

(iii) a 1 = 1 Where C is the critical angle then

Sin C

1.581= 1

Sin C
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1 1 = 0.6325

Sin C 1.581

C= sin -1 0.6325

= 39.230

Critical angle = 39.230

(iv) a 1 = sin I in 1

Sin r in 2

= Sin 240 = 0.4067

Sin 260 = 0.4384

= 0.9277

12. Solution;Use a right angled prism.

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Ray meets longest side of prism at 900 and passes undeviated. It makes an angle of 450 with

normal at O1 and is totally internally reflected. The reflected ray makes an angle of 45 0 with

normal at O2 and is totally reflected as shown. Total deviation = (4 x 45)0 = 1800

13. Frequency or wavelength

14. Used in;

• Prism periscope

• Optical fibre

• Prism binocular

15. Solution;

Gradient of the graph = Apparent depth

Real depth

= 10/20 = ½

But refractive index = Real depth

Apparent depth

1
g= /gradient

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Refractive index of glass = 2

16. Solution;

For light passing from water to air then

3
w g= /4

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) State Newton's laws of motion;

b) Describe simple experiments to illustrate inertia;
c) State the law of conservation of linear momentum;
d) Define elastic collision, inelastic collision and impulse;
e) Derive the equation F = ma;
f) Describe the application of frictional force;
g) Define viscosity;
h) Explain terminal velocity;
i) Solve numerical problems involving Newton's laws and the law of conservation of linear
momentum.

Content
a.) Newton's laws of motion (Experimental treatment on inertia required)
b.) Conservation of linear momentum elastic collisions, inelastic collisions, recoil

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velocity, impulse (oblique collisions not required) c.)

The relation F = ma
d.) Frictional forces:
• Advantages and disadvantages,
• Viscosity and terminal velocity (qualitative treatment only).
f.) Problems involving Newton's Laws and law of conservation of linear momentum(exclude
problems on elastic collisions).

Newton’s first law (law of inertia)

This law states that “A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless an
unbalanced force acts on it”. The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. Inertia is the
property that keeps an object in its state of motion and resists any efforts to change it.
Newton’s second law (law of momentum)
Momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity. Momentum ‘p’=mv.
The SI unit for momentum is kgm/s or Ns. The Newton’s second law states that “The rate of
change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction in which the force acts”
Change in momentum= mv-mu
Rate of change of momentum= mv-mu/∆t
Generally the second law gives rise to the equation of force F=ma
Hence F=mv-mu/∆t and F∆t=mv-mu
The quantity F∆t is called impulse and is equal to the change of momentum of the body. The SI
unit for impulse is Ns.

Examples
1. A van of mass 3 metric tons is travelling at a velocity of 72 km/h. Calculate the
momentum of the vehicle.
Solution
Momentum=mv=72km/h = (20m/s) ×3×103 kg
=6.0×104 kgm/s

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2. A truck weighs 1.0×105 N and is free to move. What force will give it an acceleration of
1.5 m/s2? (take g=10N/kg)
Solution
Mass of the truck = (1.0×105)/10=6.0×104
Using F=ma
=1.5×10×104
=1.5×104 N
3. A car of mass 1,200 kg travelling at 45 m/s is brought to rest in 9 seconds. Calculate the
average retardation of the car and the average force applied by the brakes.

Solution
Since the car comes to rest, v=0, a= (v-u)/t = (0-45)/9=-5m/s (retardation)
F=ma = (1200×-5) N =-6,000 N (braking force)
4. A truck of mass 2,000 kg starts from rest on horizontal rails. Find the speed 3 seconds
after starting if the tractive force by the engine is 1,000 N.
Solution
Impulse = Ft=1,000×3= 3,000 Ns
Let v be the velocity after 3 seconds. Since the truck was initially at rest then u=0.
Change in momentum=mv-mu
= (2,000×v) - (2,000×0)
=2,000 v
But impulse=change in momentum
2,000 v = 3,000
v = 3/2=1.5 m/s.

Weight of a body in a lift or elevator

When a body is in a lift at rest then the weight
W = mg
When the lift moves upwards with acceleration ‘a’ then the weight becomes
W = m (a + g)
If the lift moves downwards with acceleration ‘a’ then the weight becomes
W = m (g-a)
Example
A girl of mass stands inside a lift which is accelerated upwards at a rate of 2 m/s2. Determine the
reaction of the lift at the girls’ feet.
Solution

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Let the reaction at the girls’ feet be ‘R’ and the weight ‘W’
The resultant force F= R-W
= (R-500) N
Using F = ma, then R-500= 50×2, R= 100+500 = 600 N.

Newton’s third law (law of interaction)

This law states that “For every action or force there is an equal and opposite force or reaction”
Example
A girl of mass 50 Kg stands on roller skates near a wall. She pushes herself against the wall with
a force of 30N. If the ground is horizontal and the friction on the roller skates is negligible,
determine her acceleration from the wall.
Solution
Action = reaction = 30 N
Force of acceleration from the wall = 30 N
F = ma
a = F/m = 30/50 = 0.6 m/s2

Linear collisions
Linear collision occurs when two bodies collide head-on and move along the same straight
line. There are two types of collisions;
a) Inelastic collision: - this occurs when two bodies collide and stick together i.e. hitting
putty on a wall. Momentum is conserved.
b) Elastic collision: - occurs when bodies collide and bounce off each other after collision.
Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

Collisions bring about a law derived from both Newton’s third law and conservation of
momentum. This law is known as the law of conservation of linear momentum which states
that “when no outside forces act on a system of moving objects, the total momentum of the
system stays constant”.
Examples

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1. A bullet of mass 0.005 kg is fired from a gun of mass 0.5 kg. If the muzzle velocity of the
bullet is 300 m/s, determine the recoil velocity of the gun.
Solution
Initial momentum of the bullet and the gun is zero since they are at rest.
Momentum of the bullet after firing = (0.005×350) = 1.75 kgm/s
But momentum before firing = momentum after firing hence
0 = 1.75 + 0.5 v where ‘v’ = recoil velocity
0.5 v = -1.75
v =-1.75/0.5 = - 3.5 m/s (recoil velocity)
2. A resultant force of 12 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg for 10 seconds. What is the change
in momentum of the body?
Solution
Change in momentum = ∆P = mv – mu= Ft
= 12×10 = 12 Ns
3. A minibus of mass 1,500 kg travelling at a constant velocity of 72 km/h collides head-on
with a stationary car of mass 900 kg. The impact takes 2 seconds before the two move
together at a constant velocity for 20 seconds. Calculate a) The common velocity
b) The distance moved after the impact
c) The impulsive force
d) The change in kinetic energy
Solution
a) Let the common velocity be ‘v’
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
(1500×20) + (900×0) = (1500 +900) v
30,000 = 2,400v
v = 30,000/2,400 = 12.5 m/s (common velocity)
b) After impact, the two bodies move together as one with a velocity of 12.5 m/s
Distance = velocity × time
= 12.5× 20
= 250m
c) Impulse = change in momentum
= 1500 (20-12.5) for minibus or
=900 (12.5 – 0) for the car
= 11,250 Ns
Impulse force F = impulse/time = 11,250/2 = 5,625 N
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d) K.E before collision = ½ × 1,500 × 202 = 3 × 105 J

K.E after collision = ½ × 2400 × 12.52 = 1.875× 105 J
Therefore, change in K.E = (3.00 – 1.875) × 105 = 1.25× 105 J

Some of the applications of the law of conservation of momentum

1. Rocket and jet propulsion: - rocket propels itself forward by forcing out its exhaust gases.
The hot gases are pushed through exhaust nozzle at high velocity therefore gaining
momentum to move forward.
2. The garden sprinkler: - as water passes through the nozzle at high pressure it forces the
sprinkler to rotate.

Solid friction
Friction is a force which opposes or tends to oppose the relative motion of two surfaces in
contact with each other.
Measuring frictional forces
We can relate weight of bodies in contact and the force between them. This relationship is called
coefficient of friction. Coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of the force needed to
overcome friction Ff to the perpendicular force between the surfaces Fn. Hence
µ = Ff / Fn
Examples
1. A box of mass 50 kg is dragged on a horizontal floor by means of a rope tied to its front.
If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor and the box is 0.30, what is the force
required to move the box at uniform speed? Solution
Ff = µFn
Fn= weight = 50×10 = 500 N
Ff = 0.30 × 500 = 150 N

2. A block of metal with a mass of 20 kg requires a horizontal force of 50 N to pull it with

uniform velocity along a horizontal surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction between
the surface and the block. (take g = 10 m/s)

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Solution
Since motion is uniform, the applied force is equal to the frictional force Fn =
normal reaction = weight = 20 ×10 = 200 N Therefore, µ =Ff / Fn = 50/ 200 =
0.25.

Laws of friction
It is difficult to perform experiments involving friction and thus the following statements should
therefore be taken merely as approximate descriptions: -
1. Friction is always parallel to the contact surface and in the opposite direction to the force
tending to produce or producing motion.
2. Friction depends on the nature of the surfaces and materials in contact with each other.
3. Sliding (kinetic) friction is less than static friction (friction before the body starts to
slide).
4. Kinetic friction is independent of speed.
5. Friction is independent of the area of contact.
6. Friction is proportional to the force pressing the two surfaces together.
Applications of friction
1. Match stick
2. Chewing food
3. Brakes
4. Motion of motor vehicles
5. Walking
Methods of reducing friction
1. Rollers
2. Ball bearings in vehicles and machines
3. Lubrication / oiling
4. Air cushioning in hovercrafts

Example
A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a rough floor. The coefficient of friction between the floor
and the box is 0.6. Calculate
a) The force required to just move the box
b) If a force of 200 N is applied the box with what acceleration will it move?

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Solution
a) Frictional force Ff = µFn = µ(mg)
= 0.6×30×10 = 180 N
b) The resultant force = 200 – 180 = 20 N From F
=ma, then 20 = 30 a
a = 20 / 30 = 0.67 m/s2

Viscosity
This is the internal friction of a fluid. Viscosity of a liquid decreases as temperature increases.
When a body is released in a viscous fluid it accelerates at first then soon attains a steady
velocity called terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is attained when F + U = mg where F is
viscous force, U is upthrust and mg is weight.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

1. Two masses of 3kg and 7kg are connected by a light string. The 3 kg mass rests on a smooth

incline plane 300 to the horizontal. The 7 kg mass hangs freely from the frictionless pulley

attached to the top of plane.

i) Draw a diagram showing the bodies and identify the forces acting on the 3 kg mass.

ii) Calculate the acceleration of the masses.

2. A rocket propelled upward with a constant thrust. Assuming friction due to air is negligible

and the burning of the fuel is steady. Explain its motion.

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3. A 2 kg body slides down a smooth slope from a height of 5m. As it reaches the horizontal, it

strikes another body of mass 3 kg which is at rest. Both bodies stick together. Calculate the

velocity of the bodies after collision.

4. A girl of mass 40 kg stands on a scale balance in a lift. The lift is accelerating upwards. At

one instant the acceleration of the lift is 2m/s. Calculate the reading on the scale at that

instant.

5. The diagram shows a tall measuring cylinder containing a viscous liquid. A very small steel

ball is released from rest at the surface of the liquid as shown. Sketch the velocity- time graph

for the motion of the ball from the time it is released to the time just before it reaches the

bottom of the cylinder.

6. A body of mass 5 kg is ejected vertically from the ground when a force of 600N acts on it for

0.1s. Calculate the velocity with which the body leaves the ground.

7. a) i) A body is initially in motion. If no external force acts on the body, describe the

subsequent motion.

ii) A car of mass 800 kg is initially moving at 25 m/s. Calculate the force needed

to bring the car to the rest over a distance of 20 m.

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b) Two trolleys of masses 2 kg and 1.5 kg are traveling towards each other at

0.25m/s and 0.40 m/s respectively. Two trolleys combine on collision.

i) Calculate the velocity of the combined trolleys.

ii) In what direction do the trolleys move after collision?

8. a) The diagram shows a block of mass 5 kg sliding down from rest on a plane incline at an

angle of 300 to the horizontal. A frictional force of 6N acts between the block and the plane.

i) Copy the diagram and show the forces acting on the block.

ii) Calculate the resultant force on the block. iii) Calculate the time taken by the block

to cover the distance of 25cm.

b) The table shows the value of the resultant force, F, and the time t for a bullet traveling inside

the gun barrel after the trigger is pulled.

Force, F (N) 360 340 300 240 170 110

Time, (t) (milliseconds) 3 4 8 12 17 22

(i) Plot a graph of Force, f against time t. ii)

Determine from the graph.

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i) The time required for the bullet to travel the length of the barrel assuming that the

force becomes zero just at the end of the barrel.

ii) The impulse of the force.

iii) Given that the bullet emerges from the muzzle of the gun with a velocity of 200 m/s,

calculate the mass of the bullet.

9. The diagram shows two identical strings A and B attached to a large mass

M. String A is attached to the ceiling. State the reason why string B cuts when its free and is

suddenly pulled downward.

10. The fig. shows a 2 kg block attached to 0.5 kg mass by a light inextensible string which

passes over a pulley. The force of friction between the horizontal bench and block is 3N.

The block is released from rest so that both masses move through a distance of 0.6m.

Calculate the velocity of the string.

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11. A trolley is moving at constant speed in a friction compensated track. Some plasticine is

dropped on the trolley and sticks to it. State with a reason what is observed about the motion

of the trolley.

12. Fig. 4 shows a block of mass 30.0 kg being pulled up a slope by force P at a constant speed.

The frictional force on the block is 20.0N

a) i) On the same figure name and indicate other forces acting on the block.
ii) Determine the component of the weight acting on the trolley down the

slope iii) Determine the value

of P.

b) On reaching the top of the slope, the block is left to run freely down the slope.

i) Which one of the forces previously acting on the block would then act in the opposite

direction?

ii) Determine the acceleration of the block down slope.

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iii) What is the effect of increasing the angle of slope on your answer in (ii) above?

13. A high jumper usually lands on a thick soft mattress. Explain how the mattress helps in

reducing the force of impact.

14. A resultant force F acts on a body of mass m causing an acceleration a1 on the body. When

the same force acts on a body of mass 2m, it causes an acceleration

a2. Express a2 in terms of a1.

15.

The figure above shows two trolleys of mass 2.0 kg and 1.5 kg traveling towards each other

at 0.25m/s and 0.4m/s respectively. The trolleys combine on collision. Calculate the

velocity of the combined trolley and show the direction in which they move after collision.

16. Two identical stones A and B are released from the same height above the ground. B falls

through air while A falls through water. Sketch the graphs of kinetic energy (KE) against

time (t) for each stone. Label the graph appropriately.

17. A trolley is moving at uniform speed along a track. A piece of plasticine is dropped on the

trolley and sticks on it. Explain why the trolley slows down.
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18. a) State the Newtons law of motion. (1 mk)

b) A wooden block resting on a horizontal bench is given an initial velocity, u, so that it

The values of d were measured and recorded for various values of initial velocity.

Figure 10 shows the graph of u against d.

slides on the bench surface for a distance, d, before coming to a stop.

i) Determine the slope, s, of the graph ii) Given that u2 = 20kd, where k is a constant for the

bench surface, determine the value of k from the graph.

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iii) State how the value of k would be affected by change in the roughness of the bench surface.

c) A car of mass 800kg starts from the rest and accelerates at 1.2ms-2. determine its

momentum after it has moved 400m from the starting

19. A force of 6N acts on a 2kg trolley and accelerates at 2 m/s2. Calculate the retarding force

acting on the trolley.

20. A boulder is sliding down a slope, with a uniform acceleration of 3 ms -2

; calculate its

velocity after it has slid 10m down the slope.

21. A man whose mass is 70 kg stands on a spring weighing machine. When the lift starts to

ascend its acceleration is 2.45m/s. What is the reading on the scale?

22. A bullet of mass 22 g traveling at a velocity of 18/ms penetrates a sand bag and is brought to

rest in 0.6 seconds. Find:

The depth of penetration in metres

The average retarding force of the sand

23. A bullet of mass 10g traveling horizontally with a velocity of 300m/s strikes a block of wood

of mass 290g which rests on rough horizontal floor. After impact they move together and

come to rest after traveling a distance of 15m.

Calculate the common velocity of the bullet and the block.

Calculate the acceleration of the bullet and the block.

Calculate the coefficient of sliding friction between the block and the floor.

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a) A body of mass m initially at rest is acted on by a force F for a time t, as a result its velocity

changes to a final value V. Use this information to show that the gain is kinetic energy E= ½

MV 2

b) Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 1000 kg traveling at 36 km/h

24. Under a driving force of 400N a car of mass 1250 kg has an acceleration of 2.5 m/s. Find the

frictional force acting on the car.

25. An apple of mass 100g falls a distance of 2.5m to the ground from a branch of a tree.

a) Calculate the speed at which it hits the ground and the time taken for it to fall.

(Ignore air resistance).

b) Assuming the apple takes 100 milliseconds to come to rest. Calculate the average force

experienced by the apple.

26. A helicopter of mass 3000 kg rises vertically at a constant speed of 25 ms-1 if the acceleration

due to gravity is 10 ms-2; determine the resultant force working on the helicopter.

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NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION ANSWERS

1. 1989

R - Reaction

W - Weight

T - Tension

(ii) Net force= 70N – mgsinx= 70N- 30Xsin 30sin 30

F= ma

55= (7 + 3) a

a= 5.5m/s2

2. The rocket will accelerate due to 2 reasons

- The total mass of the rocket decreases as the fuel burns but thrust force is

constant

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- The gravitational pull decreases with increase in distance from the centre of

the earth so it will be less.

3. P.E = K.E
Mgh = ½ mv2 therefore V= √2gh = √20x5 = 10m/s

Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision

M1U1 = (M1 + M2)20

10 x 2 5 x 20

V= 4m/s

4. Total force downward = weight of the girl = 400N. Since the lift is moving

upwards the upward force T, is greater than 400N therefore from

F=ma

(T-400)=40x2 T=

480N= reading

5.

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6. Force upward = 600N, Force downward = 50N (wt).Therefore Net force

550N upwards.

F= ma = m(v-u)/t = m (v)/t since u= 0

550 = (50 x v)/0.1

V = 11m/s

7. (a) (i) The body continues in its uniform state of motion velocity

(ii) U= 25m/s, V=0, S= 20m a=?

V2 = U2 + 2as 0= 625 +

40a

a= -15.625m/s2

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F= ma = 800x – 15.625

= -12500N
Therefore decelerating force= 12500N

(b) Since one is moving towards the other one is +ve while the other

is –ve.

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision

(i) M1u1 + m2u2 = (m1+m2) v

(2x 0.25) – (1.5 x 0.4) = 3.5 x v

0.5 – 0.6 = 3.5 V

v= -0.02867m/s

= -2.867 x10-2m/s

(ii) The original direction of the 1.5kg mass

8. (a) (i)

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Fr= Frictional force

(ii) Force= mg sin 30-6

= 5 x 10 x 0.5-6

= 19N

(ii) F= ma

19=5a = a = 3.8m/s2

U= 0m/s

S= 0.25m t

=?

s= ut + ½ at2 0.25 =

0+ 1.9t2 t2 = 0.3627s

= 0.36s

(b) (i) Plot the graph

(ii) Let it touch y and x – axis

(I) Time taken by bullet = x intercept (30ms)

(II) Impuse = force x time = area bound between x – axis and the line

of the graph (6Ns)

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(iii) V= 200m/s m=?

Impulse = Ft = Mv – Mu

= 6Ns = M x 200-0 since u= 0

Therefore m= 0.03kg

9. M tends to remain in its state of uniform rest

due to its inertia. This

protects string A

10. Propelling force= 0.5 x 10= 5N Opposing

force= frictional force = 3 N

Net Force = 5-3 = 2N

Using F= ma 2= (2+

0.5)a

a= 0.8m/s2

s= 0.6m u=0

V2 = U2 + 2as

= 0+ 2+ 0.8 + 0.6

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= 0.96

Therefore V= 0.9798
V= 0.098m/s

11. Speed decrease. Since momentum before collision is equal to momentum

after collision i.e M1V1 = M2V2 then increase in mass implies/cause a decrease in

velocity.

12. (a) (i) R=Reaction

(ii) Mg sin 10 = 30 x 10 sin 10

= 52.1 + 20

(iii) Since the velocity is constant then the net force = 0

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p= mgsinӨ + Fr

p= 52.1 + 20
72. 1N

(b) (i) Frictional force

(ii) F= ma

(52.1- 2.0) = 30a

32.1 = 30a

a= 1.07m/s2
13. The mattress increase time taken to land. Thus from f= (Change in momentum)

Time taken

When time is more the force that will decelerate the jumper will be smaller (safer)

Fr= frictional force

F= ma

F= 2ma

Dividing

1= a1

2a2

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i.e. a2 = (½) a1 OR read the value of x- intercept i.e. when a=0 m=mo and substitute in the

equation to get m.

14. Since one is moving towards the other one has +ve vel while the other is –ve

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision

(i) m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1m2)v

(2 x 0.25) - (1.5x0.4) = 3.5 x v

0.5 – 0.6 = 3.5 v

V= 0.02867m/s

= -2.867 x 10-2m/s

(ii) The original direction of the 1.5 kg mass

15.

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16. Speed decreases. Since momentum before collision is equal to momentum after collision

i.e. M1V1 = M2V2 then increase in mass implies/cause a decrease in velocity.

(a) A body at rest or in motion at uniform velocity tends to stay in that state unless

acted on by an unbalanced force.

(b) (i) Slope s= 97.5 - 0 (m/s)2

16 - 0

20k = s = 6.09

(ii) k = 6.17 = 0.304

20

(iii) Increase in roughness increase k and vice versa

(c) Applying equation

V2 – U2 = 2as

V2 – 0= 2x 1.2 x 400

Momentum P = mv

= 800 x 2 x 1.2 x 400

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24787.09

24790 (table)

PREDICTION QUESTIONS ON THE TOPIC

17. 2N

18. 7.75m/s

19. 5.4m, 0.66N

20. (a) 10m/s, -3.33m/s, (b) 0.333 (c) 50,000J

21. 875N

22. (a) 7.07 m/s, 0.71s,

(b) (i) 0.071kgm/s (ii) 0.71N (iii) 0.71N

23. 30000N

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Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Describe energy transformations

b) State the law of conservation of energy
c) Define work, energy, power and state their SI units
d) Define mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of machines
e) Solve numerical problems involving work, energy, power and machines.

Content
a.) Forms of energy and energy transformations
b.) Sources of energy- Renewable, Non-renewable.
c.) Law of conservation of energy
d.) Work, energy and power (work done by resolved force not required)
e.) Kinetic energy and potential energy
f.) Simple machines
g.) Problems on work, energy, power and machines

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Energy
This is the ability to do work.
Forms of energy.
1. Chemical energy: - this is found in foods, oils charcoal firewood etc.
2. Mechanical energy: - there are two types;
i. Potential energy – a body possesses potential energy due to its relative
position or state
ii. Kinetic energy – energy possessed by a body due to its motion i.e. wind,
water
iii. Wave energy – wave energy may be produced by vibrating objects or
particles i.e. light, sound or tidal waves.
iv. Electrical energy – this is energy formed by conversion of other forms of
energy i.e. generators.
Transformation and conservation of energy
Any device that facilitates energy transformations is called transducer. Energy can be
transformed from one form to another i.e. mechanical – electrical – heat energy. The law of
conservation of energy states that “energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
transformed from one form to another”.

Work
Work is done when a force acts on a body and the body moves in the direction of the force.
Work done = force × distance moved by object
W=F×d
Work is measured in Nm. 1 Nm = 1 Joule (J)

Examples
1. Calculate the work done by a stone mason lifting a stone of mass 15 kg through a height
of 2.0 m. (take g=10N/kg)

Solution
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Work done = force × distance

= (15× 10) × 2 = 300 Nm or 300 J
2. A girl of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of 12 steps. If each step is 30 cm high, calculate the
work done by the girl climbing the stairs.
Solution
Work done = force × distance
= (50× 10) × (12 ×30) ÷ 100 = 500 × 3.6 = 1,800 J
3. A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by 5 cm. How much work is done in stretching
this spring by 8.0 cm?
Solution
A force of 7.5 produces an extension of 5.0 cm.
Hence 8.0 cm = (7.5 ×8)/ 5 = 12.0 N
Work done = ½ × force × extension
= ½ × 12.0 × 0.08 = 0.48 J
4. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is uniformly retarded by an application of brakes
and comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg.
Calculate; a) The breaking force
b) The work done in bringing it to rest
Solution
a) F = ma and a
= v – u/t But 72 km/h =
20m/s a = 0 -20/8 = - 2.5 m/s
Retardation = 2.5 m/s
Braking force F = 1,250 × 2.5
= 3,125 N
b) Work done =
kinetic energy lost by the car
= ½ mv2 – ½ mu2
= ½ × 1250 × 02 – ½ × 1250 × 202
= - 2.5 × 105 J

5. A spring constant k = 100 Nm is stretched to a distance of 20 cm. calculate the work done
by the spring.
Solution
Work = ½ ks2
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= ½ × 100 × 0.22
=2J
Power
Power is the time rate of doing work or the rate of energy conversion.
Power (P) = work done / time
P=W/t
The SI unit for power is the watt (W) or joules per second (J/s).
Examples
1. A person weighing 500 N takes 4 seconds to climb upstairs to a height of 3.0
m. what is the average power in climbing up the height?
Solution
Power = work done / time = (force × distance) / time
= (500 ×3) / 4 = 375 W
2. A box of mass 500 kg is dragged along a level ground at a speed of 12 m/s. If the force of
friction between the box and floor is 1200 N. Calculate the power developed.
Solution
Power = F v
= 2,000 × 12
= 24,000 W = 24 kW.
Machines
A machine is any device that uses a force applied at one point to overcome a force at another
point. Force applied is called the effort while the resisting force overcome is called load.
Machines makes work easier or convenient to be done. Three quantities dealing with machines
are;-
a) Mechanical advantage (M.A.) - this is defined as the ratio of the load (L) to the effort (E).
It has no units.
M.A = load (L) / effort (E)
b) Velocity ratio – this is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved
by the load
V.R = distance moved by effort/ distance moved by the load
c) Efficiency – is obtained by dividing the work output by the work input and the getting
percentage
Efficiency = (work output/work input) × 100
= (M.A / V.R) × 100
= (work done on load / work done on effort) × 100

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Examples
1. A machine; the load moves 2 m when the effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used to
raise a load of 60 N, what is the efficiency of the machine?
Solution
Efficiency = (M.A / V.R) × 100 M.A = load/effort =60/20 = 3
V.R =DE/ DL = 8/2 = 4
Efficiency = ¾ × 100 = 75%
Some simple machines
a) Levers – this is a simple machine whose operation relies on the principle of moments
b) Pulleys – this is a wheel with a grooved rim used for lifting heavy loads to high levels.
The can be used as a single fixed pulley, or as a block-and-tackle system.

M.A = Load/ Effort

V.R = no. of pulleys/ no. of strings supporting the load
Example

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A block and tackle system has 3 pulleys in the upper fixed block and two in the lower moveable
block. What load can be lifted by an effort of 200 N if the efficiency of the machine is 60%?
Solution
V.R = total number of pulleys = 5
Efficiency = (M.A /V.R) × 100 = 60%
0.6 = M.A/ 5 =3, but M.A = Load/Effort
Therefore, load = 3 ×200 = 600 N
c) Wheel and axle – consists of a large wheel of big radius attached to an axle of smaller
radius.

V.R = R/r and M.A = R/r

Example
A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 280 N by a force of 40 N applied to the rim of the
wheel. If the radii of the wheel and axle are 70 cm and 5 cm respectively. Calculate the M.A, V.R
and efficiency.
Solution
M.A = 280 / 40 = 7
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V.R = R/r = 70/5 = 14

Efficiency = (M.A/ V.R) × 100 = 7/14 × 100 = 50 %
d) Inclined plane: -
V.R = 1/ sin θ M.A = Load/ Effort

Example
A man uses an inclined plane to lift a 50 kg load through a vertical height of 4.0 m. the inclined
plane makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is 72%,
calculate;
a) The effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at a constant velocity.
b) The work done against friction in raising the load through the height of 4.0 m. (take g=
10 N/kg)
Solution
a) V.R = 1 / sin C = 1/ sin 300 = 2 M.A = efficiency × V.R = (72/100)× 2 = 1.44 Effort =
load (mg) / effort (50×10)/ 1.44 = 347.2 N

b) Work done against friction = work input – work output

Work output = m g h = 50×10×4 = 2,000 J
Work input = effort × distance moved by effort
347.2 × (4× sin 300) = 2,777.6 J
Therefore work done against friction = 2,777.6 – 2,000 = 777.6 J
e) The screw: - the distance between two successive threads is called the pitch
V.R of screw = circumference of screw head / pitch P
= 2πr / P
Example
A car weighing 1,600 kg is lifted with a jack-screw of 11 mm pitch. If the handle is 28 cm from
the screw, find the force applied.
Solution
Neglecting friction M.A = V.R
V.R = 2πr /P = M.A = L / E
1,600 / E = (2π × 0.28) / 0.011
E = (1,600 × 0.011 × 7) / 22×2×0.28 =10 N
f) Gears: - the wheel in which effort is applied is called the driver while the load wheel is the
driven wheel.
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V.R = revolutions of driver wheel / revolutions of driven wheel

Or
V.R = no. of teeth in the driven wheel/ no. of teeth in the driving wheel Example

g) Pulley belts: -these are used in bicycles and other industrial machines V.R =
radius of the driven pulley / radius of the driving pulley

h) Hydraulic machines
V.R = R2 / r2 where R- radius of the load piston and r- radius of the effort piston Example
The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 1.4 cm while that of the load piston is 7.0 cm.
This machine is used to raise a load of 120 kg at a constant velocity through a height of 2.5 cm.
given that the machine is 80% efficient, calculate;
a) The effort needed
b) The energy wasted using the machine
Solution
a) V.R = R2 / r2 = (7×7) / 1.4 × 1.4 = 25
Efficiency = M.A / V.R = (80 /100) × 25 = 20
But M.A = Load / Effort = (120×10) / 20 = 60 N
b) Efficiency = work output / work input = work done on load (m g h) /80
= (120 × 10× 2.5) / work input
80 / 100 = 3,000 / work input
Work input = (3,000 × 100) /80 = 3,750 J
Energy wasted = work input – work output
= 3,750 – 3,000 = 750 J

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

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If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

WORK, ENERGY, POWER AND MACHINES

1. The figure shows positions of a ball

bouncing on a floor. State the energy

changes at C.

2.

a) Explain why a burn from the steam of boiling water more severe that of water itself?

b) An energy saving stove when burning steadily has an efficiency of 69%. The stove melts
0.03 kg lf ice 00C in 180 seconds.

Calculate: -

i) The power rating of the stove.

ii) The heat energy wasted by the stove.

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c) A pump uses 1g of a mixture of petrol and alcohol in the ratio 4:1 by mass to raise 1000 kg of

water from a well 200m deep.

i) How much energy is given by 1g of mixture?

ii) If the pump is 40% efficient, what mass of this mixture is needed to raise the water? (1g of

alcohol = 7000J, of petrol= 48000J)

d) Suggest two energy changes that accompany the changing of a liquid in a vapour phase.

3. A bullet of mass 0.80 g traveling at 400 m/s is stopped by a concrete wall.

4. A small mass m is suspended freely at the lower end of a spring as shown.

The mass is displaced by a small distance and then released and allowed to oscillate. What

form of energy does the mass have at a point midway between

A and B?

. What makes the amplitude of osculation of a simple pendulum to decrease with time?

6. A screw advances 1mm when the screw is turned through two revolutions. What is the pitch

of the screw?

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7. A ball rolls on a table in a straight line. A part from the transitional kinetic energy, state the

other form of kinetic energy possessed by the ball.

8. A car of mass 800 kg is initially moving at 25 m/s. Calculate the force needed to bring the

car to rest over a distance of 20 m.

9. A workshop has the following simple machines for lifting heavy loads, a wheel and axle, and

a movable pulley. The wheel has a diameter of 30cm while the axle has diameter of 3.0cm.

i) Sketch force diagrams to show how each machine works.

ii) Assuming that the machines are perfect. Calculate the mechanical advantage for each of

the machines and show which machine is more advantageous in

lifting loads.

10. A body has 16 Joules of kinetic energy. What would be its kinetic energy if its velocity was

double?

11. Define the efficiency of a machine and give a reason why it can never be 100%

12. a) The fig shows a loaded wheelbarrow. Indicate and label on the diagram three forces acting

on the wheelbarrow when a worker is just about to lift the handle.

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b) Suppose the handlebars of the wheelbarrow were extended, which force(s) would change and

how?

13. Sketch a labeled diagram to show how an arrangement of a single pulley may be used to

provide a mechanical advantage of 2.

14. The fig. below shows a force distance graph for a car being on a horizontal ground

a) Calculate the total work done

b) If the velocity just before reaching point D is 6m/s, calculate the power developed by the

agent providing the force at this point.

c) An electric pump can raise water from a lower-level reservoir to the high level reservoir to

the high level reservoir at the rate of 3.0 x 105 kg per hour. The vertical height of the water is

raised 360m. If the rate of energy loss in form of heat is 200 kW, determine the efficiency of

the pump.

15. The figure below shows how the potential Energy (P.E) of a ball thrown vertically upwards.

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On the same axes, plot a graph of kinetic energy of the ball.

16. Using a pulley system, a girl lifts a load of 1800N using an effort of 400N. If the system is

65% efficient, determine the velocity ratio of the system.

17. a) A crane lifts a load of 200 kg through a vertical distance of 3.0m in 6 seconds.

Determine the;

i) Work done ii) Power developed by the crane iii) Efficiency of the crane given that it is

operated by an electric motor rated 12.5 kw.

18. A certain machine uses an effort of 400N to raise a load of 600N. If the efficiency of the

machine is 75%, determine its velocity ration. (3mks)

19. Figure 5 shows a uniform bar of length 1.0 pivoted near one end. The bar is kept in

equilibrium by a

spring balance as shown.

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Given that the reading of the spring balance is 0.6N. Determine the weight of the bar.

20. When an electric pump whose efficiency is 70% raises water to a height of 15m, water is

delivered at the rate of 350 litres per minute.

What is the power rating of the pump?

What is the energy lost by the pump per second?

21. In the arrangement shown, the mass of 30 kg hanging on the pulley helps to raise the

unknown load. The person pulling up the other string finds that he had to do

800 Joules of work in order to raise the load 4m.

a) Calculate the value of the unknown mass.

b) State the assumptions you make in calculating the value (a) above

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22. A load of 100N is raised 20m in 50s. Calculate;

The gain in potential energy

The power developed

23. Gitonga has a mass of 60kg and climbs up a slop of 200m long and inclined at an angle of
100 to the horizontal. Calculate the minimum work done by Gitonga.

24. A force of 8N stretches a spring by 10cm. How much work is done in stretching this spring

by 13cm?

25. A simple pendulum is released from rest and it swings towards its lowest position. If the

speed at the lowest position is 1.0m/s, calculate the vertical height of the bob when it is

released.

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WORK, ENERGY, POWER & MACHINE ANSWERS

1. Kinetic- potential – kinetic

2. (a) Steam has more energy and would release its latent heat of

vaporization before turning to water at 1000C.

(b) (i) Q= m1

= 0.03 x 336000

= 10080J

Power output = 10080 = 56W

180

Po x 100 = 60

Pi

56 x 100 = 60

Pi

Pi = 93.33w

(ii) E= Pt = 93.33 x 180

= 16,800J
Energy wasted = 16800 – 10080 = 6720J.
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1
(c) /5 g of alcohol will give 2.7 x 104J

4
/5 of petrol will give 3.84 x 104 J

1g of mixture gives

= 5.4 x 103 + 38.4 x 103J

= 43. 8 x 103J

w.d = mgh = 1000 x 200 x 10 = 2 x 106

Energy required = (2 x 106) x100

40

Mass required = 2 x 107

4 x 43.8 x 103

= 114.2g

(d) P.E → Heat

Heat →K.e
3. : K.e
4. : Air resistance causes damping of vibration

5. : Quality of heat = k.e = ½ mv2

= ½ x 0.8 x 10-3 x 400 x 400

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= 64J

6. Pitch=distance the screw moves in or out when turned one revolution=0.5mm

7. Rotational K.e

8. u= 25m/s, v= 0m/s s= 20m

v2 = u2 + 2as O=

625 + 40a

a= -15.625 m/s2

F= ma = 800 x – 16.625

= 12, 500N

9. (a)

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(a) If E = 100% then M.A = V.R = R/r= 15/1.5 = 10

(b) 2E = L or 2 = L/E = M.A

Wheel and axle is more advantageous

10. 16 = ½ mv2

K.e = ½ m (2V1)2 =

Dividing K.e = 4/16 Ke2 = 64J

11. Ratio of work output to work input expressed as a percentage.

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12. (a)

E= Effort

W= Weight

R= Reaction

(b) Effort decreases because the far the force applied is from the pivot, the

smaller the value of force required to produce the same moment/turning

effect.

13.

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14.

(a) Total work done= area under graph i.e between the x-axis and the line graph

w.d = 240000J. (Note that w.d is a scalar quantity and thus the –ve is consider as

+ve)

(b) Power output = mgh= 3 x 10 x 10 x 360 = 300 KW

T 3600

Power input = power output + power loses

= 300 + 200 = 500KW

E = Po x 100 = 300 x 100 = 60%

P1 500

15.

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MA = 1800= 4.5

400

MA x 100 = 65 VR

VR = 4.5 x 100

65

v.r = 6.9

=7

16. (i) w.d = F x d

= 20,000 x 3

= 60000J

(ii) P = W.d = 60000

t 6

= 10kw

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(iii) E= Po/pi x 100= 10/12.5 x 100 = 80%

17. 2005: MA x 100 = 75%

VR

But MA = 600/400 = 1.5

1.5 x 100 = 75

VR

VR = 2

18. 1250W, 875J

19. 50kg

20. 2000J, 40W

21. 2.08 x 104

22. 0.676J

23. 0.05m

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
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a) Define potential difference and state its SI unit,

b) Measure potential difference and electric current in a circuit;

c) Verify Ohm's law;

d) Define resistance and state its SI unit;

e) Determine experimentally the voltage - current relationships for various

Conductors;

f) Define emf and explain internal resistance of a cell;

g) Derive the formulae for effective resistance of resistors in series and in parallel;

h) Solve numerical problems involving ohm's law, resistors in series and in parallel.

Content

a.) Scale reading: Ammeter, Voltmeter

b.) Electric circuits: current, potential difference
c.) Ohm's law (experimental treatment required)
d.) Resistance: types of resistors, measurement of resistance, unit of resistance
e.) Electromotive force (emf) and internal resistance of a cell The relation (E = V + Ir)
f.) Resistors in series and in parallel
g.) Problems involving Ohm's law, resistors in series and in parallel

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Electric potential difference and electric current

Electric current
Electric potential difference (p. d) is defined as the work done per unit charge in moving
charge from one point to another. It is measured in volts.
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. P. d is measured using a voltmeter while current is
measured using an ammeter. The SI units for charge is amperes (A).

Ammeters and voltmeters

In a circuit an ammeter is always connected in series with the battery while a voltmeter is always
connected parallel to the device whose voltage is being measured.

Ohm’s law
This law gives the relationship between the voltage across a conductor and the current flowing
through it. Ohm’s law states that “the current flowing through a metal conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the wire provided that temperature
and other physical conditions remain constant”
Mathematically V α I
So V /I = constant, this constant of proportionality is called resistance

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V / I = Resistance (R)
Resistance is measured in ohms and given the symbol Ω

Examples
1. A current of 2mA flows through a conductor of resistance 2 kΩ. Calculate the voltage
across the conductor.
Solution
V = IR = (2 × 10-3) × (2 × 103) = 4 V.

2. A wire of resistance 20Ω is connected across a battery of 5 V. What current is flowing in

the circuit?
Solution
I = V/R = 5 / 20 = 0.25 A

Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors

Ohmic conductors are those that obey Ohms law (V α I) and a good example is nichrome wire
i.e. the nichrome wire is not affected by temperature.
Non-ohmic conductors do not obey Ohms law i.e. bulb filament (tungsten), thermistor couple,
semi-conductor diode etc. They are affected by temperature hence non-linear.

Factors affecting the resistance of a metallic conductor

1. Temperature – resistance increases with increase in temperature
2. Length of the conductor – increase in length increases resistance
3. Cross-sectional area – resistance is inversely proportional to the crosssectional area of a
conductor of the same material.
Resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance of a material of unit length and
unit cross-sectional area. It is symbolized by ρ and the units are ohmmeter (Ωm). It is given by
the following formula;
ρ = AR /l where A – cross-sectional area, R – resistance, l – length
Example
Given that the resistivity of nichrome is 1.1× 10-6 Ωm, what length of nichrome wire of diameter
0.42 mm is needed to make a resistance of 20 Ω? Solution ρ = AR /l, hence l = RA/ ρ = 20 ×
3.142 × (2.1×10-4) / 1.1 × 10-6 = 2.52 m

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Resistors

Resistors are used to regulate or control the magnitude of current and voltage in a circuit
according to Ohms law.
Types of resistors
i) Fixed resistors – they are wire-wound or carbon resistors and are designed to give a fixed
resistance.

Carbon resistor
ii) Variable resistors – they
consist of the rheostat and potentiometer.
The resistance can be varied by sliding a metal contact to generate desirable resistance.

Wire- wound resistor

Resistor combination
a) Series combination
Consider the following loop

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Since it is in series then,

VT = V1 + V2 + V3
The same current (I) flows through the circuit (resistors), hence
IRT = I (R1 + R2 + R3), dividing through by I, then
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore for resistors connected in series the equivalent resistance (Req) is equal to the total sum
of their individual resistances. Req = R1 + R2 + R3

b) Parallel combination
Consider the following circuit

Total current is given by;

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IT = I1 + I2 + I3. But IT = VT/RT = V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3

Since in parallel, VT = V1 = V2 = V3
Then 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3, for ‘n’ resistors in parallel
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3 ………… 1/R n
If only two resistors are involved then the equivalent resistance becomes
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = (R1 + R2)/ R1 R2

Examples
1. Calculate the effective resistance in the following

Solution
This reduces to

Combining the two in parallel;

1/Req = (R1 + R2)/R1 R2 = 20/96
1/Req = 20/96, therefore Req = 96/20 = 4.8 Ω
Lastly combining the two in series;
Then Req = 4 Ω + 4.8 Ω = 8.8 Ω
2. In the diagram below, a current of 0.8 A, passing through an arrangement of resistors as
shown below. Find the current through the 10 Ω resistor.

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Solution
Combining those in series then this can be replaced by two resistors of 60 Ω and 40 Ω.
Current through 10 Ω = (p.d. between P and R)/ (30 + 10) Ω
p.d between P and R = 0.8 × Req. Req = (40 × 60)/ 40 + 60 = 2400/ 100 = 24 Ω
p.d across R and P = 0.8 × 24 (V=IR) therefore, current through 10
Ω = 19.2 / 10 + 30 = 0.48 A

Electromotive force and internal resistance

Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the p.d across a cell when no current is being drawn from the
cell. The p.d across the cell when the circuit is closed is referred to as the terminal voltage of the
cell. Internal resistance of a cell is therefore the resistance of flow of current that they generate.
Consider the following diagram;

The current flowing through the circuit is given by the equation,

Current = e.m.f / total resistance
I = E / R + r where E – e.m.f of the cell
Therefore E = I (R + r) = IR + I r = V + I r
Examples
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1. A cell drives a current of 0.6 A through a resistance of 2 Ω. if the value of resistance is

increased to 7 Ω the current becomes 0.2 A. calculate the value of e.m.f of the cell and its
internal resistance.
Solution
Let the internal resistance be ‘r’ and e.m.f be ‘E’.
Using E = V + I r = IR + I r
Substitute for the two sets of values for I and R
E = 0.6 × (2 + 0.6 r) = 1.2 + 0.36 r
E = 0.6 × (7 × 0.2 r) = 1.4 + 0.12 r
Solving the two simultaneously, we have,
E = 1.5 v and R = 0.5 Ω
2. A battery consists of two identical cells, each of e.m.f 1.5 v and internal resistance of 0.6
Ω, connected in parallel. Calculate the current the battery drives through a 0.7 Ω
resistor.
Solution
When two identical cells are connected in series, the equivalent e.m.f is equal to that of only one
cell. The equivalent internal resistance is equal to that of two such resistance connected in
parallel. Hence Req = R1 R2 / R1 + R2 = (0.6 × 0.6) / 0.6 + 0.6 = 0.36 / 1.2 = 0.3 Ω
Equivalent e.m.f =1.5 / (0.7 + 0.3) = 1.5 A
Hence current flowing through 0.7 Ω resistor is 1.5 A

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

CURRENT ELECTRICITY II

1. A student learnt that a battery of eight dry cells each 1.5v has a total e.m.f of 12V the same as

a car battery. He connected in series eight new dry batteries to his car but found that they

could not start the engine. Give a reason for this observation
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2. a) You are required to determine the resistance per unit length of a nichrome wire x, you are

provided with A.D.C. power supply an ammeter and voltmeter.

i) Draw a circuit diagram to show how you would connect the circuit.

ii) Describe how you would use the circuit in (a) (i) above to determine the

resistance per unit length of x.

b) i) State Ohm’s Law.

ii) A filament lamp and a thermostat are ohmic devices to a certain extent. Explain.

c) i) Explain why moving coil meters are unstable for the use of alternating voltages.

d) Four 5 resistors are connected to a 10V d. c. supply as shown in the diagram below.

Calculate;-

i) The effective resistance in the circuit. ii) The

current I following in the circuit.

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3. Study the circuit diagram. Determine the potential drop across the 3 resistor.

4. State two conditions that are necessary for a conductor to obey Ohm’s law.

5. a) State Ohm’s law.

b) Describe with aid of a diagram and experiment to verify Ohm’s law

c) Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series to a 10V battery. The current flowing then is

0.5A. When R1 only is connected to the battery the current flowing is 0.8A.

Calculate the

i) Value of R2

ii) Current flowing when R1 and R2 are connected in parallel with the same batter.

d) Recharging is one of the practices of maintenance of accumulators. State two measurements,

which need to be taken to help you decide when an accumulator is due for charging.

6. A current of 0.08A passes in circuit for 2.5 minutes. How much charge passes through a

point in the circuit?

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7. An ammeter, a voltmeter and a bulb are connected in a circuit so as to measure the current

flowing and the potential difference across both. Sketch a suitable circuit diagram for the

arrangement.

8. a) In the circuit diagram shown,

calculate the effective

resistance between Y and Z.

b) Determine the current through the 3 resistor.

c) One of the 6 resistors has a length of 1m and cross-sectional area of 5.0 x 10-5m2. Calculate
the resistivity of the material.

9. In the circuit diagram five resistors are connected to a battery of e.m.f. 4V,

and negligible internal resistance. Determine:

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i) The total resistance of the circuit.

ii) The current flowing through the 5.5 resistor.

iii) The potentials at points Y and O.

iv) The potential difference between Y and O

10. An electric bulb with a filament of resistance 480 is connected to a 240V mains supply.

Determine the energy dissipated in 2 minutes.

11. A student wishes to investigate the relationship between current and voltage for a certain

device X. In the space provide, draw a circuit diagram including two cells, rheostat,

ammeter, voltmeter and the device X that would be suitable in obtaining the desired results.

12. In the circuit diagram shown in figure 7, the ammeter has negligible resistance.

When the switch S is closed, the ammeter reads 0.13A.

Determine the internal resistance of the cell.

13 a) State Ohm’s law.

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b) The graph in figure 9 shows

the current voltage

characteristics of a

device, X.

i) State with a reason whether the device obeys Ohm’s laws.

ii) Determine the resistance of the device, X, when the current through it is 60m A.

iii) When the device, X, is connected in the circuit below, the voltage across it is 0.70V.

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Calculate the value of the resistance R.

c) The cell in figure 10 has an emf of 2.1V and negligible internal resistance.

Determine the

i) Total resistance in the circuit.

ii) Current in the circuit iii)

Reading on the voltmeter

14. The diagram below shows an electrc circuit. When the switch is close the ammeter reading is

0.3A

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Determine the voltmeter reading.

15. a) In the circuit diagram shown,

calculate the effective resistance

between Y and Z

b) Determine the current through the 3 resistor.

16. A battery of e.m.f. 3v drives a current through a 20 resistor. The p.d across the resistor is

2.8v as measured by a voltmeter. Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.

17. A torch uses two identical dry cells connected in series. When a bulb of resistance 2.0 ohm’s

is connected across the cells the pd across the bulb is 2.0

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v. When a bulb of resistance 1.5 ohms is used, the p.d is 1.8v, calculate the e.mf and internal

resistance of each cell.

18. Suppose a high–resistance voltmeter reads 1.5v connected across a dry battery on open

circuit and 1.2v. when the same battery is in a closed circuit when it is supplying a current of

0.3A through a lamp of resistance R. Draw a circuit diagram to show the above

experiment when in;

i) Open circuit
ii) Closed circuit.

What is

i) The emf of the battery.

ii) The internal resistance of the battery iii) The

value of R?

19. When a resistor is connected across the terminals of a battery a current of

0.20A flows.

What is the time taken for 2.0 coulombs of charge to pass a given point in the circuit?

If e.m.f of the battery is 4.0v and its internal resistance is 0.20hm determine the rate at which

heat is produced in the resistor.

20. a) State Ohm’s law.

b) In an experiment to determine the resistance of a resistor x, it is connected in parallel

with a 100 resistor. The current through the combination and the p.d across the
combination is tabulated as shown below.
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Potential difference 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5

(v)

Current (A) 0.075 0.015 0.225 0.30 0.375

Draw a diagram of the circuit that could have been used

c) i) plot a graph of current against potential difference.

ii) Calculate the gradient of the slope

iii) Calculate the resistance of resistor x.

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY ANSWERS

1. Dry cells have a very high internal resistance

hence give very little current that start a

vehicle.

2. (i)

(ii) - Measure length of wire (L)

- Take readings of ammeter (I) and voltmeter (V)

- Calculate its resistance R

- Then find the value R/L

(b) (i) The current flowing through a resistor is directly proportional to the

p.d. applied as long as the physical factors remain constant.

(ii) If the temperature is controlled to remain constant then they obey ohm’s law. If

temp is changed, they don’t obey.

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(c) Every time the current is reversed the direction of key pointer also reversed. This

would give an average of zero.

(d) (i) For the two 3Ω resistors in parallel their total = product/sum=1.5 Ω

For series connection i.e. 3.3 and 1.5Ω, total 7.5 Ω

RT = 7.5 Ω

(ii) I = E = 10v = 1.33A

RT 7.5

3. RT = product/ sum = 9x18= 4.5 Ω

I = 12/4.5 = 8/3 Amps

I through the 3 Ω is equal to I through the Ω since total resistance in each route are equal

= 8 /3 A x ½

p.d = 4/3 x 3 = 3V

4. Constant temperature, magnetic field, tension, compression, kinks etc.

5. (a) The current flowing through a resistor is directly proportional to the p.d

applied as long as the physical constants are held constant.

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(b)

- By varying R obtain a set of corresponding values for I and p.d readings

- Tabulate them

- Plot V against I

- If it is a straight line the law is obeyed, over wise not.

(c) (i) When R1 only is connected I = 0.8a R1

= E/I = 10/0.8 = 12.5 Ω

When both are connected, then

(R1 + R2) 0.5 = 10

(R2 + 12.5) = 20

R2 = 7.5 Ω

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(ii) When in parallel RT = products/ sum = 4.6875 Ω

I= 10/4.6875 = 2.133A
(d) - Rod of the acid

- Voltage emf of the battery

6. Q= It = 0.08 x 2.5 x 60 = 12C

7.

8. 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 4 = 2 RT = 1.5 Ω

RT 6+ 3 + 6 = 6 = 3

(b) For the whole circuit Rt = 1.5 + 2.5 = 4 Ω

Main current = E = 2 = 0.5A

RT 4

p.d across YZ = IR = 0.5 x 1.5 = 0.75V

p.d across any of the resistors in parallel

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3 x 1 = 0.75A

I = 0.25 A
9. (i) For parallel connection RT = Products/ sum

= (5 x 5) = 2.5 Ω

(5 + 5)

Total resistance = 2.5 + 5.5 = 8.0 Ω

(ii) Current= main current = R/RT = 4/8 = 0.5 Ω

(iii) Note currents through Y and Q are equal since the resistance values are equal –

through the two routes.

Let potential be rep. by P

Py – Pp = 0 (earthed)

Py = IV

PQ = PP = P.dQP = 0.25 x 2 = 0.5V

PQ – 0= 0.5

PQ = 0.5V

(iv) P.DYQ = Py – PQ = 0.5V

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10. E= Pt = V2 x 2 x 60 = 240 x 240 x 120

R 480

= 14400J

= 14.4KJ

11.

12. I = 1.5

R+r

0.13 = 1.5

10 + r

R= 1.5Ω

13. (a) The ratio of the pd across the ends of a metal conductor to the current

passing through it is a constant.

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(b)
(i) It does not obey Ohm’s law; because the current – voltage graph is not linear

throughout

(ii) Resistance = V/I = inverse of slope

(0.74 – 0.70)V

(80- 50)mA

= 0.40V

30 x 10-3A

= 1.33 Ω

(iii) From the graph current flowing when pd is 0.70 is 60mA

Pd across R= 6.0 – 0.7 = 5.3V

R= 5.3V

60mA

= 88.3 Ω

(c) (i) Parallel circuit I + I = 5

30 20 60

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R= 12 Ω
Total resistance = 10 + 12 = 22 Ω

(ii) I = V/R = 2.1/22 = 0.095 A

(iii) V= IR = 10 x 2.1
22

= 0.95V

- Alkaline cell last longer than lead acid cell

- Alkaline cell is more rugged than lead acid cell

- Alkaline cell is lighter than lead acid cell

I= 1.5

R+ r

0.13 = 1.5
10 + r

R= 1.5 Ω

(a) The ratio of the pd across the ends of a metal conductor to the current passing

through it is a constant.

(b) (i) It does not obey Ohm’s law because the current – voltage graph

is

not linear throughout

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(ii) Resistance = V/I inverse of slope

= (0.74 – 0.70) V

(80 – 50)mA

= 0.40V

30x 10-3 A

= 1.33 Ω

(iii) From the graph current flowing when pd is 0.70 is 60mA

Pd across R = 6.0 – 0.7 = 5.3V

R= 5.3V

60mA

= 88.3 Ω

(c) (i) Parallel circuit 1 + 1 = 5

30 20 60

R = 12 Ω

Total resistance = 10 + 12 = 22 Ω

(ii) I = V = 2.1 = 0.095 A

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R 22

(iii) V= 1R = 10 x 2.1/22

= 0.95V

14. 2V

15. 4 Ω, 0.5A

16. 1.43 Ω

17. 1.5v, 0.5 Ω

18. b i 1.5, ii 1Ω, 4 Ω

19. 10s, 0.792w

20. No answer

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Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Describe experiments to illustrate the properties of waves;

b) Sketch wave-fronts to illustrate the properties of waves;
c) Explain constructive interference and destructive interference;
d) Describe experiments to illustrate stationary waves.

Content
a.) Properties of waves including sound waves, reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference (Experimental treatment required)
b.) Constructive interference and destructive interference (qualitative treatment only)
c.) Stationary waves (qualitative and experimental treatment required)

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Properties of waves
Waves exhibit various properties which can be conveniently demonstrated using the ripple tank.
It consists of a transparent tray filled with water and a white screen as the bottom. On top we
have a source of light. A small electric motor (vibrator) is connected to cause the disturbance
which produces waves.

The wave fronts represent wave patterns as they move along.

Rectilinear propagation
This is the property of the waves travelling in straight lines and perpendicular to the wave front.
The following diagrams represent rectilinear propagation of water waves.

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Refraction
This is the change of direction of waves at a boundary when they move from one medium to
another. This occurs when an obstacle is placed in the path of the waves. The change of
direction occurs at the boundary between deep and shallow waters and only when the waves hit
the boundary at an angle.

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Diffraction of waves
This occurs when waves pass an edge of an obstacle or a narrow gap, they tend to bend
around the corner and spread out beyond the obstacle or gap.

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Interference of waves
This occurs when two waves merge and the result can be a much larger wave, smaller wave
or no wave at all. When the waves are in phase they add up and reinforce each other. This is
called a constructive interference and when out of phase they cancel each other out and this is
known as destructive interference.

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A ripple tank can be used to produce both constructive and destructive waves as shown below in
the following diagram.

Interference in sound

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Two loud speakers L1 and L2 are connected to the same signal generator so that sound waves
from each of them are in phase. The two speakers are separated by a distance of the order of
wavelengths i.e. 0.5 m apart for sound frequency of 1,000 Hz.

If you walk along line AB about 2m away from the speakers, the intensity of sound rises and
falls alternately hence both destructive and constructive interference will be experienced.

Stationary waves
They are also known as standing waves and are formed when two equal progressive waves
travelling in opposite direction are superposed on each other.
When the two speakers are placed facing each other they produce standing waves.
A rope tied at one end will still produce stationary waves.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic

WAVES II

1. Explain how you would make a diffraction grating on a piece of glass slide.

2. One range of frequencies used in broadcasting varies from 0.5 x 100 Hz to 2.0 x 107 Hz.
What is the longest wavelength of this range? Velocity of light air =3x108

/s

3. State one effect that would be observed when water waves pass from deep to shallow water.

4. The fig. shows a wave profile. Determine the frequency of the wave.

5. What happens to the wavelength of a water wave when it moves from the deep part to the

shallow part of a ripple tank?

6. A source generates 40 waves in a second. If the wavelength is 8.5m. Calculate the time

taken to reach a wall 102m from the source.

7. What condition is necessary for a wave incident on a slit to be diffracted?

8. a) Sketch a displacement-time graph of a wave of amplitude 0.5 cm and frequency 4Hz over

a time interval of 1.25s

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b) i) State one condition not involving a phase difference for interference pattern to be

observed.

ii) Two points sources s1 s2 oscillate in phase producing waves of wavelength

= 1cm. The separation of the sources is 3cm

a) Draw to scale a series of 10 semicircular lines to represent the wave fronts produced at

intervals of one periodic time (T) for each of the two sources.

b) Draw on the same diagram, lines which represent positions of constructive interference.

c) Mark a point P on one of the lines drawn in II. Determine the magnitude of (S 2P – S1P)

in terms of wavelength.

9. Light travels through glass of refractive index 1.5 with a speed v. Calculate the value of v.
(Speed of light in air =3.0 x 108 m/s).

10. Name a property of light that shows it is a transverse wave.

11. In an experiment using a ripple tank the frequency, f of the electric pulse generator was

reduced to one third of its original value. How does the new wave length compare with the

initial wavelength? Explain your answer.

12. a) Distinguish between stationary and progressive waves.

i) Describe how a young’s double slit may be made in a laboratory.

ii) State the condition for a minimum to occur in an interference pattern.

The sketch graph shows the results of an experiment to study diffraction

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patterns using double silt.

i) Sketch an experimental set up that may be used to obtain such a pattern.

ii) Name an instrument for measuring intensity iii) Explain how the peaks labelled A

and B and troughs labeled C are formed.

13. What measurable quantity is associated with colours of light?

14. Circular water waves generated by a point source at the centre O of the pond are observed to

have the pattern shown in the Fig. Explain the pattern.

15. Explain how a piece of Polaroid reduces the sun’s glare.

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16. In an experiment to observe interference of light waves, a double slit is place close to the

source.

i) State the function of the double silt. ii)

Describe what is observed on the screen. iii) State

what is observed on the screen when

a) The slit separation S1S2 is reduced.

b) White light is used instead of monochromatic source.

17. The Fig. shows an experimental arrangement. S1 and S2 are narrow slits. State

what is observed on the screen when the source is:-

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i) Monochromatic (ii) White light

18. (a) (i) Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves.

(ii) Give one example of a transverse wave and one example of a longitudinal wave.

(b) The fig shows the displacement of a practice in progressive wave incident on a boundary

between deep and shallow regions.

(i) Complete the diagram to show what is observed after boundary. (Assume no loss of

energy).

(ii) Explain the observation in (i) above.

19. State one difference between mechanical and electromagnetic waves.

20. Figure 4 shows the displacement-time graph for a certain wave.

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Determine the frequency of the wave. (3mks)

21. Figures 5 (a) and (b). Show wave fronts incident on barriers blocking part of the path.

On the same figures sketch the wave fronts to show the behaviour of the waves as they pass

each barrier and after passing the barrier.

(1mk)

22. A source generates 40 waves per second. If the wavelength is 8.5cm. Calculate the time

waves takes to reach a wall 120 meters from the source.

23. A gun is fired and an echo heard at the same place 0.5 s later. How far is the barrier which

reflected the sound from the gun? (Velocity of sound = 340 m/s)

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24. A man standing between two parallel walls fires a gun. He hears an echo after 1.5 seconds

and another one after 2.5 seconds and yet another one after 4 seconds. Determine the

separation of the walls. (Take velocity of sound 340 m/s) WAVES II ANSWERS

1. Make the glass sooty. Make very small markings with the edge of a razor blade.

The marking (slits) run parallel, to each other light passes through the slit as the

rest of the glass has been blacken.

2. The longer the wavelength the lower the frequency.

Wavelength = C = 3 x 108 = 600m

0.5 x 106

3. Speed and wavelength decrease

4. T = 0.45

F= 1/T = 1/0.4 = 2.5 Hz

5. The wave length decrease

6. f = 40.λ = 8.5m

V= f λ = 40 x 8.5

= 340m/s

T= d/V = 102/340 = 0.3s

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7. The slit and the wavelength of the wave have to be of the same order.
8. (a) T= I = 1 = 0.25s

F 4

So no. of waves S= t/T

= 1.25 = 5 wavelengths

(b) (i) Same wavelength & same frequency

(c) S2P – S1P = 9λ - 7 λ

9. n= V air

V medium

V= 3 x 108 = 2 x 108m/s

10. Light can be plane polarized

11. C= f λ

F = c/λ where c is constant so f is inversely proportional to λ. If f decreases by ¼

then value of λ is tripled

12. (a) Stationary waves has nodes and antinodes but progressive wave

does not have them

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(b) (i) By using a pin to rule two parallel lines about a third of a

millimeter apart on a piece of thin glass coated with graphite and allowed

to dry.

(ii) Path difference = (n+ ½), where n= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…….

(c) (i) Copy diagram of on 17

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(ii) Light meters

(iii) A is formed when path difference of the waves is zero so there

is
constructive interference. B is also due to constructive interference, but

path differences is equal to one wavelength, C is as a result of destructive

interference due to path differences being equal to half of one wavelength.

13. Wavelength

14. Tank becoming shallower outwards from the centre. The speed of waves

decreases and hence the wavelength decreases outwards.

15. They block certain directions of vibration of the light going through the glass

16. Diffract the light waves and give interference

(i) To produce 2 coherent monochromatic sources

(ii) Fringes of light separated by areas of some darkness

(iii) (i) More fringes

(ii) Central white fringe and fringe of different colours on either side of

central fringe

17. (i) Fringes of light

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(ii) Central white fringe and fringes of other colours on either side of white fringe

18. Transverse- oscillations are perpendicular to direction of wave propagation

Longitudinal – oscillations are parallel to direction of wave propagation

(b) (i) No energy was lost, therefore the intensity remained the

same and

there was no amplitude change.

(c)(i) 0.5 Hz (ii) 6m

19. Mechanical waves require a material medium to travel through while the em

waves do not.

T = 0.007s f= 3 x 5 = 15 cm

F= 1/T = 3/0.007 = 429 Hz

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Correct diffraction effect for both

20. 0.35S

21. 85M

22. 680M

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Sketch electric field patterns around charged bodies;

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b) Describe charge distribution on conductors of various shapes;

c) Define capacitance and state its SI unit;

d) Describe charging and discharging o f a capacitor (calculation involving curves not required);

e) State the factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitors;

f) State the applications of capacitors;

h) Solve numerical problems involving capacitors.

Content

a.) Electric field patterns

b.) Charge distribution on conductors: spherical and pear shaped conductors
c.) Action at points: lightning arrestors.
d.) Capacitance: unit of capacitance (farad, microfarad) factors affecting capacitance.
e.) Applications of capacitors.
f.) Problems involving capacitors {using Q=CV, CT=CI+C2 },

Electric fields
An electric field is the space around a charged body where another charged body would be
acted on by a force. These fields are represented by lines of force. This line of force also
called an electric flux line points in the direction of the force.

Electric field patterns

Just like in magnetic fields, the closeness of the electric field-lines of force is the measure of the
field strength. Their direction is always from the north or positive to the south or negative.

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Electric field pattern for an isolated Electric field pattern for an isolated positive charge
negative charge

Electric field pattern for appositive

Electric field pattern for a dipole charge and a line of charge

Charge distribution on conductors’ surface

A proof plane is used to determine charge distribution on spherical or pear-shaped conductors.
For an isolated sphere it is found that the effect is the same for all points on the surface meaning
that the charge is evenly distributed on all points on the spherical surface. For appear-shaped
conductor the charge is found to be denser in the regions of large curvature (small radius). The
density of charge is greatest where curvature is greatest.

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stand

Charge distribution for an isolated spherical Charge distribution for an isolated pear-shaped
conductor conductor

Charges on or action at sharp points

A moving mass of air forms a body with sharp points. The loss of electrons by molecules
(ionization) makes the molecules positively charged ions. These ions tend to move in different
directions and collide producing more charged particles and this makes the air highly ionized.
When two positively charged bodies are placed close to each other, the air around them may
cause a spark discharge which is a rush of electrons across the ionized gap, producing heat, light
and sound in the process which lasts for a short time. Ionization at sharp projections of isolated
charged bodies may sometimes be sufficient to cause a discharge. This discharge produces a
glow called corona discharge observed at night on masts of ships moving on oceans. The same
glow is observed on the trailing edges of aircrafts. This glow in aircrafts and ships is called St.
Elmo’s fire. Aircrafts are fitted with ‘pig tails’ on the wings to discharge easily.

The lightning arrestors

Lightning is a huge discharge where a large amount of charge rushes to meet the opposite
charge. It can occur between clouds or the cloud and the earth. Lightning may not be prevented
but protection from its destruction may be done through arrestors. An arrestor consists of a
thick copper strip fixed to the outside wall of a building with sharp spikes.

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Capacitors and capacitance

A capacitor is a device used for storing charge. It consists of two or more plates
separated by either a vacuum or air. The insulating material is called ‘dielectric’. They are
symbolized as shown below,

Capacitance C = Q / V where Q- charge and V – voltage.

The units for capacitance are coulombs per volt (Coul /volt) and are called farads.
1 Coul/ volt = 1 farad (F)
1 µF = 10-6 F and 1pF = 10-12
Types of capacitors are;
a) Paper capacitors
b) Electrolyte capacitors
c) Variable capacitors
d) Plastic capacitors
e) Ceramic capacitors
f) Mica capacitors

Factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor

1. Distance between the plates: - reducing separation increases capacitance but the plates
should not be very close to avoid ionization which may lead to discharge.

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2. Area of plate: - reduction of the effective area leads to reduction in capacitance.

3. Dielectric material between plates: - different materials will produce different
capacitance effects.

Charging and discharging a capacitor

When the switch S1 is closed the capacitor charges through resistor R and discharges through the
same resistor when switch S2 is closed.

Applications of capacitors
1. Variable capacitor: - used in tuning radios to enable it transmit in different frequencies.
2. Paper capacitors: - used in mains supply and high voltage installations.
3. Electrolytic capacitors: - used in transistor circuits where large capacitance values are
required.

Other capacitors are used in reducing sparking as a car is ignited, smoothing rectified
current and increasing efficiency in a. c. power transmission.

Example
A capacitor of two parallel plates separated by air has a capacitance of 15pF. A potential
difference of 24 volts is applied across the plates,
a) Determine the charge on the capacitors.
b) When the space is filled with mica, the capacitance increases to 250pF. How much more
charge can be put on the capacitor using a 24 V supply?
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Solution
a) C= Q / V then Q = VC, hence Q = (1.5 × 10-12) × 24 = 3.6 × 10-10 Coul.
b) Mica C = 250pF, Q = (250 × 10-12) × 24 = 6 × 10-9 Coul.
Additional charge = (6 × 10-9) – (3.6 × 10-10) = 5.64 × 10-9 Coul.

Capacitor combination
1. Parallel combination – for capacitors in parallel the total capacitance is the sum of all
the separate capacitances.
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ………..

2. Series combination – for capacitors in series, the reciprocal of the total capacitance is
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of all the separate capacitances.
1/ CT = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3
For two capacitors in series then total capacitance becomes,
CT = (C1 C2) / (C1 + C2)

Examples
1. Three capacitors of capacitance 1.5µF, 2µF and 3µF are connected to a potential
difference of 12 V as shown.

Find;
a) The combined capacitance
b) The charge on each capacitor
c) The voltage across the 2 µF capacitor
Solution
a) 1 /CT = 1/ 1.5 + 1 / 3.0 + 1 /20 = 3/2 hence CT = 0.67 µF
b) Total charge, Q = V C , (2/3 × 10-6) × 12.0 V = 8 × 10-6 = 8 µC.

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c) The charge is the same for each capacitor because they’re in series hence = 8 µC.
d) V = Q / C, then V = 8 µC / 2 µF = 4 V.
2. Three capacitors of capacitance 3 µF, 4 µF and 5 µF are arranged as shown.
Find the effective capacitance.

Solution
Since 4 µF and 5 µF are in parallel then, CT = 9 µF, then the 9 µF is in series with 3 µF,
Hence CT = 27/ 12 = 2.25 µF
3. Calculate the charges on the capacitors shown below.

Solution
The 2 µF and 4 µF are in parallel then combined capacitance = 6 µF
The 6 µF is in series with the 3 µF capacitor hence combined capacitance = 18 / 9 = 2 µF
Total charge Q = CV then Q = (2.0 × 10-6) × 100 = 2.0 × 10-4 C
The charge on the 3 µF capacitor is also equal to 2.0 × 10-4 C
The p.d across the 3 µF capacitor => V = Q / C => (2.0 × 10-4)/ 3.0 × 10_6
= 2/3 × 102 = 66.7 V
The p.d across the 2 µF and 4 µF is equal to 100 V – 66.7 V = 33.3 V,
Hence Q1 = CV = 2.0 × 10-6 × 33.3 = 6.66 × 10-5 C
Q2 = CV = 4.0 × 10-6 × 33.3 = 1.332 × 10-4 C
N.B
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Energy stored in a capacitor is calculated as;

Work done (W) = average charge × potential difference
W = ½ QV or ½ CV2
Example
A 2 µF capacitor is charged to a potential difference of 120 V. Find the energy stored in
it.
Solution
W = ½ CV2 = ½ × 2 × 10-6 × 1202 = 1.44 × 10-2 J

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

ELECTROSTATICS II

1. a) i) State coulombs law of electrostatics force.

ii) Define capacitance.

b) Describe how the type of charge on a charged metal rod can be determined.

c) The fig. shows a hollow negatively charged sphere with metal disk attached to an

insulator placed inside. State what would happen to the leaf of an

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uncharged electroscope if the metal disk were brought near the cap of electroscope. Give

a reason for your answer.

d) State two ways of charging the magnitude of the deflection of the leaf of an electroscope.

e) The fig. shows an arrangement of capacitors connected to a 10v. D.C supply determine:-

i) The charge stored in the 2 F capacitor ii) The

total capacitance of the arrangement

2. The figure below represents two parallel plates of a capacitor separated by a distance d. Each

plate has an area of A square units. Suggest two adjustments that can be made so as to

reduce the effective capacitance.

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3. The Fig. Shows part of a circuit containing three capacitors. Write an expression for C T. The

effective capacitance between A and B.

4. State the law of electrostatic charge.

5. The capacitors in the circuit in Fig. 14 are identical and initially uncharged.

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Switch S1 is opened and switch S2 closed. Determine the final reading of the voltmeter, V.

b) In the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 4 each cell has an e.m..f of 1.5 and internal resistance

of 0.5 . The capacitance of each capacitor is 1.4 F.

When the switch s is closed determine the:

(i) Ammeter reading

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(ii) Charge on each capacitor

6 A 2 F capacitor is charged to a potential of 200V, the supply is disconnected.

The capacitor is then connected to another uncharged capacitor. The p.d. across the parallel

arrangement is 80V. Find the capacitance of the second capacitor.

7 A 5 F capacitor is charged to a p.d of 200v and isolated. It is then connected to another

uncharged capacitor of 10 F. Calculate

i) The resultant p.d ii)

The charge in each capacitor.

8 Three capacitors of 1.5 F, 2.0 F and 3.0 F are connected in series to p.d. of

12V. Find;-

a) The combined capacitance.

b) The total charge stored in the arrangement

c) The charge in each capacitor.

9 In the circuit of the figure 3 C1=2 F, C2 =C3 = 0.5 F and E is a 6V battery. Calculate the

total charge and p.d across C1

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10. In an experiment to study the variation of charge stored on capacitor and the potential

difference across it, the following results were obtained.

Charge Q 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.40 0.56

( )

p.d (v) 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 14.0

Plot a graph of charge Q. against p.d

Use your graph to determine:-

a) Capacitance of the capacitor.

b) Energy stored in the capacitor when the p.d across its plate is 10V.

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ELECTROSTATICS II ANSWERS

1. ( a) (ii) Ability to store charge given by the quality of charge it can store

per unit p.d

(b) Bring it near a charged electroscope (say +ve). If there is divergence then the rod

is +vely charged. If not, charge the electroscope -vely and bring the rod near. If

divergence is observed then they have the same charge. Note that if decrease in

divergence is observed in both cases then the rod is simply a conductor and its not

charged.

(c) Nothing would happen to the leaf of the electroscope. This is because in a hollow

charged conductor, the charges are distributed on the surface of the charged

conductor and not inside.

(d) Earthing or using another charged body

(i) Q= CV

= 2 x 10

= 20 μC

(ii) Series = 1/C = 1/3 + 1/3

1 /c = 2 /3

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C= 3/2 = 1.5 u F

Parallel Ct = 1.5 + 2

= 3.5 Uf

2. Parallel = CT = C1 + C2

Series = 1/CT = 1/C3 + 1/ (C1+ C2)

1/CT = (C1 + C2) + C3

C3 (C1 + C2)

CT = C3 (C1 + C2)

C1 + C2 + C3

3. Like charges repel while unlike charges attract.

4. (a) When S1is closed V= 3V Charge stored in C2 is Q = CV = 3C

When S1 is opened, ½ Q is transferred from C1 to C2

Since they are in parallel p.d = 1.5V

(b) (i) RT = 6 + 5 + 0.5 = 11.5 Ω

I = E = 3.0 = 0.26A

RT 11.5
Q= CV = 1.4 x 3

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= 4.2 μ C

5. QT = CV = 400 μc

CT = (2 + x)

QT = 80

(400uc) = 80

(2+x)

X= 3 μF

6. (i) Ct = (5+ 10) μf = 15 μf

Q= 200 x 5

= 1000 μf

Q= 15 μf V

1000 = V

15

V= 66.7V

(ii) Q = C
V

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Q=5

66.7

Q= 66.7 x 5

= 333.5 μf

Q = 10 Q = 10

V 66.7
Q= 66.7 x 10

= 66.7μf

7.

(a) 1 = 1/1.5 + ½ + 1/3

C1
= 0.67 + 0.5 + 0.33

1/CT = 1.5

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Ct = 0.67 μc

(b) Q= CTV

= 0.67 x 12

Q= 8.04 μc

(c) 8.04uc this is because they are in series arrangement therefore the quantity of charge

is equal in all the capacitors.

8. For parallel CT = C1 + C2

= 1.0 μF

Series CT = product/ sum = 2/3 = 0.667 μF

QT = CV = 2/3 x 6 = 4 μC

QC1 = CV = QT = 4 μC VC1

= QT = 4/2 = 2V.

9. (a) Graph of change against p.d

(b) Q= CV

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C= gradient = 0.24 – 0.08

6.0 – 2.0

= 0.16

= 4.0

= 0.04 μF

(c) Energy stored = ½ QV = area = ½

x 40 x 10-6 = 2.00 x 10-4J.

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Perform and describe experiments to illustrate heating effect of an electric current;

b) State the factors affecting heating by an electric current;
c) Derive the equations for electrical energy and electrical power;
d) Identify devices in which heating effect of an electric current is applied ;
e) Solve numerical problems involving electrical energy and electrical power.

Content
a.) Simple experiments on heating effect
b.) Factors affecting electrical energy, The relation E=VIt and P = V I
c.) Heating devices: electric kettle, electric iron, bulb filament, electric heater
d.) Problems involving electrical energy and electrical power

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e.) When current flows, electrical energy is transformed into other forms of energy i.e. light,
mechanical and chemical changes.

Factors affecting electrical heating

Energy dissipated by current or work done as current flows depends on, a) Current
b) Resistance
c) Time

This formula summarizes these factors as, E = I2 R t, E = I V t or E = V2 t / R

Examples
1. An iron box has a resistance coil of 30 Ω and takes a current of 10 A. Calculate the heat
in kJ developed in 1 minute.
Solution
E = I2 R t = 102 × 30 × 60 = 18 × 104 = 180 kJ

2. A heating coil providing 3,600 J/min is required when the p.d across it is 24 V. Calculate
the length of the wire making the coil given that its crosssectional area is 1 × 10-7 m2 and
resistivity 1 × 10-6 Ω m.
Solution
E = P t hence P = E / t = 3,600 / 60 = 60 W
P = V2 / R therefore R = (24 × 24)/ 60 = 9.6 Ω
R = ρ l/ A, l = (RA) / ρ = (9.6 × 1 × 10-7) / 1 × 10-6 = 0.96 m

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Electrical energy and power

In summary, electrical power consumed by an electrical appliance is given by;
P=VI
P = I2 R
P = V2 / R
The SI unit for power is the watt (W)
1 W = 1 J/s and 1kW = 1,000 W.
Examples
1. What is the maximum number of 100 W bulbs which can be safely run from a 240 V
source supplying a current of 5 A?
Solution
Let the maximum number of bulbs be ‘n’. Then 240 × 5 = 100 n So ‘n’ =
(240 × 5)/ 100 = 12 bulbs.
2. An electric light bulb has a filament of resistance 470 Ω. The leads connecting the bulb to
the 240 V mains have a total resistance of 10 Ω. Find the power dissipated in the bulb
and in the leads.
Solution
Req = 470 + 10 = 480 Ω, therefore I = 240 / 480 = 0.5 A.
Hence power dissipated = I2 R = (0.5)2 × 470 = 117.5 W (bulb alone)
For the leads alone, R = 10 Ω and I = 0.5 A
Therefore power dissipated = (0.5)2 × 10 = 2.5 W.

Applications of heating of electrical current

1. Filament lamp – the filament is made up of tungsten, a metal with high melting point
(3.400 0C). It is enclosed in a glass bulb with air removed and argon or nitrogen injected
to avoid oxidation. This extends the life of the filament.
2. Fluorescent lamps – when the lamp is switched on, the mercury vapour emits ultra violet
radiation making the powder in the tube fluoresce i.e. emit light.
Different powders emit different colours.

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3. Electrical heating – electrical fires, cookers e.tc. their elements are made up nichrome (
alloy of nickel and chromium) which is not oxidized easily when it turns red hot.

4. Fuse – this is a short length of wire of a material with low melting point (often thinned
copper) which melts when current through it exceeds a certain value. They are used to
avoid overloading.

End of topic

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Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

ELECTROSTATICS II

1. a) i) State coulombs law of electrostatics force.

ii) Define capacitance.

b) Describe how the type of charge on a charged metal rod can be determined.

c) The fig. shows a hollow negatively charged sphere with metal disk attached to an

insulator placed inside. State what would happen to the leaf of an uncharged electroscope

if the metal disk were brought near the cap of electroscope. Give a reason for your

answer.

d) State two ways of charging the magnitude of the deflection of the leaf of an electroscope.

e) The fig. shows an arrangement of capacitors connected to a 10v. D.C supply determine:-

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i) The charge stored in the 2 F capacitor ii) The

total capacitance of the arrangement

2. The figure below represents two parallel plates of a capacitor separated by a distance d.

Each plate has an area of A square units. Suggest two adjustments

that can be made so as to reduce the effective capacitance.

3. The Fig. Shows part of a circuit containing three capacitors. Write an expression for CT. The

effective capacitance between A and B.

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www.kenyanexams.com

4. State the law of electrostatic charge.

5. The capacitors in the circuit in Fig. 14 are identical and initially uncharged.

Switch S1 is opened and switch S2 closed. Determine the final reading of the voltmeter, V.

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www.kenyanexams.com

b) In the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 4 each cell has an e.m..f of 1.5 and internal resistance

of 0.5 . The capacitance of each capacitor is 1.4 F.

When the switch s is closed determine the:

(i) Ammeter reading

(ii) Charge on each capacitor

6 A 2 F capacitor is charged to a potential of 200V, the supply is disconnected.

The capacitor is then connected to another uncharged capacitor. The p.d. across the parallel

arrangement is 80V. Find the capacitance of the second capacitor.

7 A 5 F capacitor is charged to a p.d of 200v and isolated. It is then connected to another

uncharged capacitor of 10 F. Calculate

i) The resultant p.d ii)

The charge in each capacitor.

8 Three capacitors of 1.5 F, 2.0 F and 3.0 F are connected in series to p.d. of

12V. Find;-

a) The combined capacitance.

b) The total charge stored in the arrangement

c) The charge in each capacitor.

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www.kenyanexams.com

9 In the circuit of the figure 3 C1=2 F, C2 =C3 = 0.5 F and E is a 6V battery. Calculate the

total charge and p.d across C1

10. In an experiment to study the variation of charge stored on capacitor and the potential

difference across it, the following results were obtained.

Charge Q 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.40 0.56

( )

p.d (v) 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 14.0

Plot a graph of charge Q. against p.d

Use your graph to determine:-

a) Capacitance of the capacitor.

b) Energy stored in the capacitor when the p.d across its plate is 10V.

DOWNLOADED FROM WWW.USHEYA.COM

www.kenyanexams.com

ELECTROSTATICS II ANSWERS

1. ( a) (ii) Ability to store charge given by the quality of charge it can store per unit p.d

(b) Bring it near a charged electroscope (say +ve). If there is divergence then the rod

is +vely charged. If not, charge the electroscope -vely and bring the rod near. If

divergence is observed then they have the same charge. Note that if decrease in

divergence is observed in both cases then the rod is simply a conductor and its not

charged.

(c) Nothing would happen to the leaf of the electroscope. This is because in a hollow

charged conductor, the charges are distributed on the surface of the charged

conductor and not inside.

(d) Earthing or using another charged body

(i) Q= CV

= 2 x 10

= 20 μC

(ii) Series = 1/C = 1/3 + 1/3

1 /c = 2 /3

C= 3/2 = 1.5 u F

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www.kenyanexams.com

Parallel Ct = 1.5 + 2
= 3.5 Uf

2. Parallel = CT = C1 + C2

Series = 1/CT = 1/C3 + 1/ (C1+ C2)

1/CT = (C1 + C2) + C3

C3 (C1 + C2)

CT = C3 (C1 + C2)

C1 + C2 + C3

3. Like charges repel while unlike charges attract.

4. (a) When S1is closed V= 3V Charge stored in C2 is Q = CV = 3C

When S1 is opened, ½ Q is transferred from C1 to C2

Since they are in parallel p.d = 1.5V

(b) (i) RT = 6 + 5 + 0.5 = 11.5 Ω

I = E = 3.0 = 0.26A

RT 11.5

Q= CV = 1.4 x 3

= 4.2 μ C

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5. QT = CV = 400 μc

CT = (2 + x)

QT = 80

(400uc) = 80

(2+x)

X= 3 μF

6. (i) Ct = (5+ 10) μf = 15 μf

Q= 200 x 5

= 1000 μf

Q= 15 μf V

1000 = V

15

V= 66.7V

(ii) Q = C

Q=5
66.7
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Q= 66.7 x 5

= 333.5 μf

Q = 10 Q = 10

V 66.7
Q= 66.7 x 10

= 66.7μf

7.

(a) 1 = 1/1.5 + ½ + 1/3

C1

= 0.67 + 0.5 + 0.33

1/CT = 1.5
Ct = 0.67 μc

(b) Q= CTV

= 0.67 x 12
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Q= 8.04 μc

(c) 8.04uc this is because they are in series arrangement therefore the quantity of charge

is equal in all the capacitors.

8. For parallel CT = C1 + C2

= 1.0 μF

Series CT = product/ sum = 2/3 = 0.667 μF

QT = CV = 2/3 x 6 = 4 μC

QC1 = CV = QT = 4 μC VC1

= QT = 4/2 = 2V.

9. (a) Graph of change against p.d

(b) Q= CV
C= gradient = 0.24 – 0.08

6.0 – 2.0

= 0.16

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= 4.0

= 0.04 μF

(c) Energy stored = ½ QV = area = ½

x 40 x 10-6 = 2.00 x 10-4J.

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Define heat capacity and specific heat capacity;

b) Determine experimentally specific heat capacity of solids and liquids;
c) Define specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporization of steam;
d) Determine experimentally the specific latent heat of fusion of ice and the
Specific latent heat of vaporization of steam;
e) State factors affecting melting point and boiling point;
f) Explain the functioning of a pressure cooker and a refrigerator;
g) Solve problems involving quantity of heat.

Content
a.) Heat capacity, specific heat capacity, units(Experimental treatment required)
b.) Latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vaporization, units(Experimental treatment required)
c.) Boiling and melting points
d.) Pressure cooker, refrigerator
e.) Problems involving quantity of heat (Q=mcA8, Q = mL)

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Heat is a form of energy that flows from one body to another due to temperature
differences between them. Heat capacity
Heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a
given mass of a substance by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin. It is denoted by ‘C’.
Heat capacity, C = heat absorbed, Q / temperature change θ.
The units of heat capacity are J / 0C or J / K. Specific heat
capacity.
S.H.C of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 0C or 1 K. It is denoted by ‘c’, hence, c = Q / m θ where Q – quantity of heat,
m – mass and θ – change in temperature.
The units for ‘c’ are J kg-1 K-1. Also Q = m c θ.
Examples
1. A block of metal of mass 1.5 kg which is suitably insulated is heated from 30 0C to 50 0C
in 8 minutes and 20 seconds by an electric heater coil rated54 watts. Find;
a) The quantity of heat supplied by the heater
b) The heat capacity of the block
c) Its specific heat capacity
Solution
a) Quantity of heat = power × time = P t
= 54 × 500 = 27,000 J
b) Heat capacity, C = Q / θ = 27,000 / (50 – 30) = 1,350 J Kg-1 K-1
c) Specific heat capacity, c = C / m = 1,350 / 1.5 = 900 J Kg-1 K-1
2. If 300 g of paraffin is heated with an immersion heater rated 40 W, what is the
temperature after 3 minutes if the initial temperature was 20 0C?
(S.H.C for paraffin = 2,200 J Kg-1 K-1).
Solution

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Energy = P t = m c θ = Q = quantity of heat. P t =

40 × 180 = 7,200 J m = 0.30 kg c = 2,200, θ = ..?
Q = m c θ, θ = Q / m c = 7,200 / (0.3 × 2,200) = 10.9 0C
3. A piece of copper of mass 60 g and specific heat capacity 390 J Kg-1 K-1 cools from 90
0
C to 40 0C. Find the quantity of heat given out.
Solution
Q = m c θ, = 60 × 10-3 × 390 × 50 = 1,170 J.

Determination of specific heat capacity

A calorimeter is used to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance. This uses the
principle of heat gained by a substance is equal to the heat lost by another substance in contact
with each other until equilibrium is achieved. Heat losses in calorimeter are controlled such
that no losses occur or they are very minimal.

Examples
1. A 50 W heating coil is immersed in a liquid contained in an insulated flask of negligible
heat capacity. If the mass of the liquid is 10 g and its temperature increases by 10 0C in 2
minutes, find the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
Solution
Heat delivered (P t) = 50 × 2 × 60 = 2,400 J
Heat gained = 0.1 × c × 10 J
Therefore ‘c’ = 2,400 / 0.1 × 10 = 2,400 J Kg-1 K-1

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2. A metal cylinder mass 0.5 kg is heated electrically. If the voltmeter reads 15V, the
ammeter 0.3A and the temperatures of the block rises from 20 0C to 85 0C in ten minutes.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal cylinder.
Solution
Heat gained = heat lost, V I t = m c θ 15 × 3 × 10
× 60 = 0.5 × c × 65 c = (15 × 3 × 600)/ 0.5 × 65 =
831 J Kg-1 K-1

Fusion and latent heat of fusion

Fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid. Change of state from liquid to solid is called
solidification. Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy absorbed or given out during fusion.
Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat energy required to change
completely 1 kg of a substance at its melting point into liquid without change in temperature. It
is represented by the symbol (L), we use the following formula,
Q = m Lf
Different substances have different latent heat of fusion.
Factors affecting the melting point
a) Pressure
b) Dissolved substances
Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change completely 1 kg
of a liquid at its normal boiling point to vapour without changing its temperature. Hence
Q=mLv
The SI unit for specific latent heat of vaporization is J / Kg.
Example
An immersion heater rated 600 W is placed in water. After the water starts to boil, the heater is
left on for 6 minutes. It is found that the mass of the water had reduced by 0.10 kg in that time.
Estimate the specific heat of vaporization of steam.

Solution
Heat given out by the heater = P t = 600 × 6 × 60
Heat absorbed by steam = 0.10 × L v
Heat gained = heat lost, therefore, 600 × 6 × 60 = 0.10 × L v = 2.16 × 106 J / Kg
Evaporation
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation
a) Temperature
b) Surface area
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c) Draught (hot and dry surrounding)

d) Humidity
Comparison between boiling and evaporation
Evaporation Boiling
1. Takes place at all temperature - takes place at a specific temperature
2. Takes place on the surface (no bubbles formed)- takes place throughout the liquid ( bubbles formed)
3. Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases the rate –decreases as atmospheric pressure lowers
Applications of cooling by evaporation
a) Sweating
b) Cooling of water in a porous pot
c) The refrigerator

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

QUANTITY OF HEAT

1. An electric heater rated 6000W is used to heat 1kg of ice initially at -100c

until all the mass turns to steam. Given that

Latent heat of fusion =334kJ-1

-1 -1
Specific heat capacity of ice= 2,260J kg K Specific heat

capacity of water = 4, 200J kg-1 K-1

Latent heat of vaporization = 2, 260KJ kg -1 K -1

Calculate the minimum time required for this activity.

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2 a) Explain why a burn from the steam of boiling water more severe

that of water itself?

b) An energy saving stove when burning steadily has an efficiency of

60%. The stove melts 0.03kg of ice at 00c in 180 seconds.

Calculate; -

i) The power rating of the stove.

ii) The heat energy wasted by the stove.

c) A pump uses a mixture of petrol and alcohol in the ratio 4: 1 by mass to

raise 100kg of water from a well 200m deep.

i) How much energy is given by 1g of mixture?

ii) If the pump is 40% efficient, what mass of this mixture is needed

to raise the water?

d) i) Suggest two energy changes that accompany the changing

of a liquid in a vapour phase.

ii) Explain why the time calculated in (i) above is minimum

3. An immersion heater rated 90W is placed in a liquid of mass 2kg. When

the heater is switched on for 15 minutes, the temperature of the liquid rises from
200C to 300C. Determine the specific heat of the liquid.

4. State two factors that would raise the boiling point of water to above 1000c

5. a) State what is meant by the term specific latent heat of vaporization

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b) In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of water,

steam at 1000c was passed into water contained in a well-lagged copper
calorimeter. The following measurements were made:

Mass of calorimeter = 50g

Initial mass of water = 70g

Final mass of calorimeter + water + condensed steam = 123g

Final temperature of mixture = 300C

(Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg -1K and specific heat capacity for
copper = 390 J kg -1 K-1)

Determine the

i) Mass of condensed steam ii) Heat gained by the calorimeter

and water iii) Given that L is the specific latent heat of evaporation of steam

I. Write an expression for the heat given out by steam

II. Determine the value of L.

6. A heating element rated 2.5 KW is used to raise the temperature of 3.0 kg of

water through 500C. Calculate the time required to effect this. (Specific heat

capacity of water is 4200 J/kgK)

7. An electric heater is connected to the mains supply. A fault in the mains reduces

the supply potential slightly. Explain the effect on the rate of heating of the heater.

8. In an experiment to determine the power of an electric heater, melting ice was

placed in a container with an outlet and the heater placed in the ice as

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for some time. The melted ice was collected.

shown in Fig. 2. The

heater was connected to a power supply and switched on

a) Other than the current and voltage, state the measurement that would be taken to

determine the quantity of heat absorbed by the melted ice in unit time.

b) If the latent heat of fusion of ice is L, show how measurements in (i) above would

be used in determining the power P, of the heater,

(2mks)

c) It is found that the power determined in this experiment is lower than the

manufacturer’s value indicated on the heater. Explain.

(1mk)
Fig 11 shows the variation of temperature

‘ ’ with time t, when an immersion

heater is used to heat a certain liquid. Study

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the figure and answer questions 9 and 10.

9. State the reason for the shape of the graph in the section labelled BC.

10. Sketch on the same axes the graph for another liquid of the same mass but higher

specific heat capacity when heated from the same temperature.

11 State two factors that affect the melting point of ice. (2mks)

12.

a) Define the term specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance.

b) Figure 11 shows the features of a domestic refrigerators. A volatile liquid

circulates the capillary tubes under the action of the compression pump.

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(i) State the reason for using a volatile liquid. (1mk)

(ii) Explain how the volatile liquid is made to vaporize in

the

cooling compartment and to condense in the cooling fins.

(iii) Explain how cooling takes place in the refrigerator.

(3mks)

(iv) What is the purpose of the double wall?

(1mk)

c) Steam of mass 3.0g at 1000c is passes into water of mass 400g at 100c.
The final temperature of the mixture is T. The container absorbs negligible

heat. (Specific latent heat of vaporization of steam= 2260 kJ/kg, specific

heat capacity of water= 4200Jk-1)

(i) Derive an expression for the heat lost by the steam as it

condenses to water at temperature T.

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(2mks)

(ii) Derive an expression for the heat gained by the water.

(2mks) iii) Determine the value of T.

(2mks)

13. A can together with stirrer of total head capacity 60j/k contains 200g of water at 10 0 c. dry
steam at 1000c is passed in while the water is stirred until the whole reaches a temperature of
300c Calculate the mass of steam condensed.

14. An immersion heater which takes a current of 3A from 240V mains raised the temperature of
10kg of water 300c to 500c. How long did it take?

15. 100g of boiling water are poured into a metal vessel weighing 800g at a temperature of 20 0c

if the final temperature is 500c. What is the specific heat capacity of the metal? (Specific

Heat capacity of water 4.2 x 103J/kgk)

16. 0.02kg of ice and 0.01kg of water 00c are in a container. Steam at 1000c is passed in until all

the ice is just melted. How much water is now in the container?

17. In a domestic oil-fired boiler, 0.5kg of water flows through the boiler every second. The

water enters the boiler at a temperature of 300c and leaves at a temperature of 700c, re-

entering the boilers after flowing around the radiators at 300c. 3.0x 107J of heat is given to

the water by each kilogram of oil burnt.

The specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg -1K-1

Use the information above to calculate the energy absorbed by the water every second as it

passes through the boiler

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Use the same information above to calculate the mass of oil which would need to be burnt in

order to provide this energy.

18. You are provided with two beakers. The first beaker contains hot water at 700c. The second

beaker contains cold water at 200c. The mass of hot water is thrice that of cold water. The

contents of both beakers are mixed. What is the temperature of the mixture?

19. Calculate the heat evolved when 100g of copper are cooled from 900c to 100c. (Specific Heat

Capacity of Copper = 390J/Kgk).

19. An-immersion heater rated 150w is placed in a liquid of mass 5 kg. When the heater is

switched on for 25 minutes, the temperature of the liquid rises from 20 - 2700c. Determine

the specific heat capacity of the liquid. (Assume no heat losses)

QUANTITY OF HEAT ANSWERS

1. 1989

(i) Heat absorbed by ice from – 100 = 1x 2,100 x 10 = 2.1 x 104

Heat absorbed by melting ice= 1 x 334 x 104 = 3.34 x 105

Heat absorbed by water from 00 to 1000 = 1 x 4,200 x 100J = 4.2 x

106J

Heat absorbed water at 1000 = ML = 1 x 2,260 x 103 J= 2.26 x 106J.

Total heat absorbed = 301.5 x 104 = 3.035 x 106J

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Heat given out by heater = power x time

Time = 3.035 x 106 =

6 x 103

= 0.5025 x 103

= 505 .83s = 8.43min

(ii) Some heat is used to heat up the heater, some is absorbed by the container/ due to

energy losses more time for heating will be required.

2. 1991: (a) It has more heat energy than water at the same temperature.
(b) (i) At 60%, Q = ML = 0.03 x 3.36 x 105

At 100% power = 93.3 V or

P = E= 0.03 x 3.36 x 105

T 100

= 56W

(ii) 100% energy = 100 x 10080

60

= 16,800J

40 x 16,800 = 6,720J
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= 60J

(c) (i) 1/5g alcohol gives 5.4 x 103J

4
/5 petrol gives 38.4 x 103J

1g mixture gives (5.4 x 103 J) + (38.4 x 103J)

(ii) Work done= Mgh = 1000 x 20x 10

1,000 x 20 x 10 x 100 = 1.14 x 102g

43.8 x 103 40
OR Energy output x 100 = 40%

Energy input

Energy output = 2 x 106J

Energy input = 100 x 2 x 106J

40

Mass = 100/40 x 2x 106

43.3 x 103

(d) PE→ Heat energy

Heat → Kinetic Lost

3. 2002: Heat gained = Heat Lost

MC∆ θ= Vlt
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2 x C x 10 = 90 x 15 x 60

C = 9 x 15 x 60 = 4050 Jkg-1K K-1

20

4. 2004: - Increased Pressure

- Impurities

5. 2003:

(a) Specific Latent Heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg
of liquid at 1s boiling point completely to vapour at constant temperature.

(b) (i) (I) 123 – 120 = 3g or 0.003 kg

(II) Heat for water Heat calorimeter

0.070 x 4,200 0.05 x 390

x 25 x 25

= 7,350J = 487.5J

Total = 487.5 + 7,350 = 7,837.5J

(ii) I. ML + MC∆ θ = 7837.5

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II. 0.003L + 0.003 x 4200 x 70 = 7837.5

0.003L + 882 = 7837.5

L= 2.3185 x 106

Or L= 2.32 x 106J/kg

6. p x t = MC ∆ θ

2.5 x 1000t = 3 x 4200 x 50

T= 252s

= 4.2 min

7. 2004: Decrease in V increases I hence the

heating rate increase (P=

12R)

8. (a) Current, time, mass of water formed (b)

Power x time = MLf.

Power = m x Lf

Time

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(c) Energy lost is not accounted for

e.g energy absorbed by heater, container and radiation.

9. BC- Liquid boiling at constant temp (at boiling pt)

10.

11. 2007: Pressure impurities

12. 2007

(a) Quantity of heat required to change completely into vapour 1kg of a substance at

its normal boiling without change of temperature.

(b) (i) So that it vaporizes readily/ easily

(ii) In the freezing compartment the pressure in the volatile liquid is lowered
suddenly by increasing the diameter of the tube causing vaporization; in
the cooling finns, the pressure is increased by the compression pump and
heat lost to the outside causing condensation.

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(iii)

When the volatile liquid evaporates, it takes away heat of vaporization

from the freezing compartment; reducing the temperature of the later; this
heat is carried away and dissipated at the cooling finns where the vapour
is compressed to condensation giving up heat of vaporization.

(iv) Reduces rate of heat transfer to or from outside (insulates)

(c) (i) Heat lost by steam = 0.003 x 2.26 x 10b

Heat lost by steam water = 0.003 x 4200 (100- T)

= 6780 + 126 (100-T)

(ii) Heat gained by water = MC θ

= 0.4 x 4200 (T- 10)

(iii) Heat lost = heat gained

1680 (T- 10) – 6780 + 12.6 (100- T)

1680T – 16800 = 6780 + 1260 – 12.6T

13. 7g

14. 1167s

15. 875 J/kgK

16. 32.51g
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17. 84000 J/s, 2.8g

18. 57.50C

19. 3120J

20. 180 J/kgK

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) State the gas laws for an ideal gas;

(b)Verify experimentally the gas laws;
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(c) Explain how the absolute zero temperature may be obtained from the
Pressure - temperature and volume-temperature graphs;
(d)Convert Celsius scale to Kelvin scale of temperature;
(e) State the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases; (f) Explain the gas laws using the
kinetic theory of gases; (g) Solve numerical problems involving gas laws.

Content
a.) Boyle's law, Charles' law, pressure law, absolute zero
b.) Kelvin scale of temperature
c.) Gas laws and kinetic theory of gases
d.) ( p = not required)
e.) Problems involving gas laws
[including P = constant]

Pressure law
This law states that “the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature if the volume is kept constant”. The comparison between Kelvin scale and degrees
Celsius is given by; θ0 = (273 + θ) K, and T (K) = (T – 273) 0C.
Examples
1. A gas in a fixed volume container has a pressure of 1.6 × 105 Pa at a temperature of 27 0C.
What will be the pressure of the gas if the container is heated to a temperature of 2770C?
Solution
Since law applies for Kelvin scale, convert the temperature to kelvin
T1 = 270C = (273 + 27) K = 300 K
T2 = 2270C = (273 + 277) = 550 K

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P1 / T1 = P2 / T2, therefore P2 = (1.6 × 105) × 550 / 300 = 2.93 × 105 Pa.

2. At 200C, the pressure of a gas is 50 cm of mercury. At what temperature would the pressure
of the gas fall to 10 cm of mercury?
Solution
P / T = constant, P1 / T1 = P2 / T2, therefore T2 = (293 × 10) / 50 = 58.6 K or (– 214.4 0C)

Charles law
Charles law states that “the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature (Kelvin) provided the pressure is kept constant”. Mathematically
expressed as follows,
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2 Examples
1. A gas has a volume of 20 cm3 at 270C and normal atmospheric pressure. Calculate the new
volume of the gas if it is heated to 540C at the same pressure.
Solution
Using, V1 / T1 = V2 / T2, then V2 = (20 × 327) / 300 = 21.8 cm3.
2. 0.02m3 of a gas is at 27 0C is heated at a constant pressure until the volume is 0.03 m3.
Calculate the final temperature of the gas in 0C.
Solution
Since V1 / T1 = V2 / T2, T2 = (300 × 0.03) / 0.02 = 450 K 0r 1770C

Boyle’s law
Boyle’s law states that “the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
its volume provided the temperature of the gas is kept constant”. Mathematically
expressed as,
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Examples
1. A gas in a cylinder occupies a volume of 465 ml when at a pressure equivalent to 725
mm of mercury. If the temperature is held constant, what will be the volume of the gas
when the pressure on it is raised to 825 mm of mercury?
Solution
Using, P1 V1 = P2 V2, then V2 = (725 × 465) / 825 = 409 ml.

2. The volume of air 26 cm long is trapped by a mercury thread 5 cm long as shown below.
When the tube is inverted, the air column becomes 30 cm long.
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What is the value of atmospheric pressure?

Solution
Before inversion, gas pressure = atm. Pressure + h p g
After inversion, gas pressure = atm. Pressure - h p g
From Boyle’s law, P1 V1 = P2 V2, then let the atm. Pressure be ‘x’,
So (x + 5) 0.26 = (x – 5) 0.30
0.26x + 1.30 = 0.3x - 1.5, x = 2.8/ 0.04 = 70 cm.

A general gas law

Any two of the three gas laws can be used derive a general gas law as follows,
P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2 or
P V / T = constant – equation of state for an ideal gas.
Examples
1. A fixed mass of gas occupies 1.0 × 10-3 m3 at a pressure of 75 cmHg. What volume does
the gas occupy at 17.0 0C if its pressure is 72 cm of mercury?
Solution
P V / T = constant so V1 = (76 × 1.0 × 10-3 × 290) / 273 ×72 = 1.12 × 10-3 m3.
2. A mass of 1,200 cm3 of oxygen at 270C and a pressure 1.2 atmosphere is compressed
until its volume is 600 cm3 and its pressure is 3.0 atmosphere. What is the Celsius
temperature of the gas after compression?
Solution
Since P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2, then T2 = (3 × 600 × 300) / 1.2 × 1,200 = 375 K or 102 0C.

End of topic

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic

THE GAS LAW

1. a) The table shows the results, which were obtained in an experiment on the behaviour
of a gas.

0
Temperature C 15 30 45 60 76 90

Volume (Cm3) 42 45 47.5 51 54 57

(i) Plot a graph of volume against temperature,

(ii) Using the graph, determine the constant of proportionally k of the

relationship for this range of temperature.

b) The pressure of helium gas of volume 10cm3 decreases to one third of its original

value at a constant temperature. Determine the final volume of the gas.

2. On a certain day when the temperature is 370c, the pressure in an open gas jar is 640mm

of mercury. The jar is then sealed and cooled to the temperature of 170c. Calculate the

final pressure.

3. a) State Boyle’s Law.

b) The table shows the results of Boyle’s law experiment.

Pressure (Atmospheres) 1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.6 3.2 2.7

Length of air column 441 31 27.522 22 18 16 12.5 11

L(MM)

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i) Copy the table and add values of 1/L (mm-1) ii) With the aid of a labelled

diagram describe the apparatus and arrangements used in getting these

results. iii) Plot a graph of pressure against 1/L

4. A student used the set up to investigate the variation of the volume of a trapped mass of

air with pressure at constant temperature. By raising the open end of the tube he

measured the corresponding values of the length I of the

air column and the excess pressure, h.

(a) In determining the volume V of the air he measured the length I of the air

column.

(i) What is the relationship between I and V?

(ii) State the assumption made?

(iii) what is the significance of the excess pressure.

(b) The table shows the results obtained using the set up.
Volume of gas 5.1 5.5 6.0 6.8 8.2 9.7

(cm3)

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Excess pressure 291 224 123 77 -55 -139

(i) What does the negative excess pressure mean?

(ii) Copy the table and add the values of I/V (cm3) and plot a graph of I/V

against excess pressure.

(iii) From the graph:

a) Write an expression relating pressure and the volume of air.

b) Determine the slope of the graph.

c) Find the value of x of I/V when h = 0 and hence evaluate

x/s. Comment on your answer.

5. a) i) Draw and label a diagram of the apparatus you would use to verify Charle’s law.

ii) Describe how to use the apparatus to verify the law.

b) A gas has a volume of 20cm3 at 270C and normal atmospheric pressure.

Calculate the new volume of the gas if it is heated to 540C at the same

pressure.

c) Show that the density of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the

pressure at constant temperature.

6. The figure shows changes in pressure, P, and volume V for a fixed mass of

a certain gas. Write down a statement of the gas law, which holds

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true from A to B. (2)

7. a) State the law that relates the volume of a gas to the temperature of the gas.

b) The fig. below shows an experimental set up that may be used to

investigate one of the laws. The glass tube has a uniform bore and it is

graduated in millimeters.

Drop of sulphuric acid

Thermometer
Water

i) Describe how the experiment is carried out and explain how the results

obtained verify the law.

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ii) State two limitations of the set up.

8. Draw axes and sketch the P – V graph for a gas obeying Boyle’s Law.

9. Two identical containers A and B are placed on a bench. Container A is filled with

oxygen gas and B with hydrogen gas masses. If the containers are maintained at the

same temperature, state with reason, the container in which pressure is higher.

10. a) The figure below shows a simple set up for pressure law apparatus.

Describe how the apparatus may be used to verify pressure law.

b) The graph in the figure below shows the relationship between the pressure

and temperature for a fixed mass of an ideal gas at constant volume.

i) Given that the relationship between pressure, P, and temperature, t in

Kelvin is of the form P=kT + C, where k and C are constants, determine

from the graph, values of k and C.

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ii) Why would it be impossible for pressure of the gas to be reduced to zero

in practice?

c) A gas is put into a container of fixed volume at a pressure of 2.1 x 105

Nm-2 and temperature 270C. The gas is then heated to a temperature of

3270C. Determine the new pressure.

11. Draw axes and sketch a graph of pressure (p) against reciprocal of volume (1/v) for a

fixed mass of an ideal gas at a constant temperature.

12. A balloon is filled with air to a volume of 200ml at a temperature of 293 k. Determine the

volume when the temperature rises to 353 k at the same

pressure

The graph in figure 7 shows the relationship between the pressure and temperature for an

ideal gas. Use this information in the figure to answer questions 13 and 14.

Pressure

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13. State the unit of the horizontal axis. (1mk)

14. Write a statement of the gas law represented by the relationship.

15. A balloon filled with organ gas a volume of 200 cm3 at the earth’s surface where the

temperature is 200C, and the pressure 760mm of mercury. If it is allowed to ascend to a

height where the temperature is 00C and the pressure 100mm of mercury, calculate the

volume of the balloon.

16. A mass of Oxygen occupies a volume of 0.01m3 at a pressure of 1 x 105 pa and a

temperature 00C. If the pressure is increased to 5 x 106 pa and the temperature is

increased to 250C. What volume will the gas occupy?

17. An empty barometer tube of length 90cm is lowered vertically with its mouth downwards

into a tank of water. What will be the depth at the top of the tube when the water has

risen 15cm inside the tube, given that the atmospheric pressure is 10m head of water?

18. A hand pump suitable for inflating a football has a cylinder which is 0.24m in length and

an internal cross-sectional area of 5.0 x 10-4 m2. To inflate the football the pump handle

is pushed in and air is pumped through a one-way valve. The valve opens to let air in to

the ball when the air pressure in the pump has reached 150 000 pa. (Assume the air

temperature remains constant}

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a) If the pressure in the pump is initially 100 000 pa, calculate how far the piston must be

pushed inwards before the one way valves opens.

(b) When the one-way valve opens the total pressure in the cylinder will be 150

000 pa. What force will be exerted on the piston by the air in the cylinder?

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GAS LAWS ANSWERS

1. 1989: (a) (i) Plot the graph (straight line)

(ii) From PV = k, since P = const.

V= Const x T

Or y =mx

Where the constant = gradient of the graph

(b) P1V1 = P2V2

But P2 = 1/3 P1

V2 = P1 x V1 = P1 x 10 = 30cm3

1
P2 /3 P1

2. 1989: P1 = P2

T1 T2

P2 = P1 T2 = 740 x 290

T1

310 =

692.3 mm Hg

3. 1990:
(i) Obtain reciprocal values for L (ii)

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Raise or lower the open end and record corresponding values of pressure (dgh)

against length of trapped air L (it represents volume) Plot a graph of pressure

against reciprocal values of length.

4. (A) (i) Directly proportional since X- sec is uniform.

(ii) Area of x- section is assumed to be constant

(iii) Pressure above atmospheric pressure

(B) (i) Pressure is below atmospheric value

(ii) Plot the graph (straight line)

(iii) Plot = K x 1/V

5.
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(a) A short pallet of mercury/ concentrated sulphuric acid is introduced into the glass

tube. As the temperature of air in the tube rises, it expands and pushes the

mercury index further up the tube. The volume of air can be got from the length

up to the level of the mercury index and temperature from the thermometer. The

mercury thread is always at the same length so the total pressure in the tube

remains constant. Plotting a graph of volume against temperature gives straight

line which when extrapolated cuts the temperature axis at approximately 2730C.

(b) V1 = V2

T1 T2

V2 = 20 x 327

300

= 21.8cm3

(c) For a fixed mass of gas, pressure is inversely proportional to volume if

temperature is kept constant.

P 1

Volume

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1 or density
Mass/ density mass

P Density

6. (a) Charle’s Law – For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure the volume is

directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

(b) (i)

- Volume of gas is trapped by a drop of H2SO4. Water is heated and the gas

is heated in a water bath.

- Volume / height of gas in tube is increased as the temperature rises

- Value of height, h, and temperature T are tabulated.

- A graph of volume V against temperature T is plotted

- A straight line graph cutting temperature axis at 2730C is obtained.

- Therefore volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

(ii) Limitations
- Short temperature range

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- Keeping pressure constant is difficult

7.

8. Hydrogen is higher than oxygen hence moves faster, molecules collide more

frequently with walls of container causing pressure to be more.

9. (a) - Heating of water/gas

- Recording values of temperature, pressure at intervals of different

values

- Conversion of temperature to kelvin

- Plot a graph of temperature against absolute temperature or find the

values of P/T = K

- Straight line graph obtained

(b) (i)

C is the intercept and C=O

K is the gradient given by

15.2 104 – 4 x 104
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400 – 105

11.2 x 103 = 380 + 10

295

(ii) The gas would liquify

(c) C= 270C= 300K

3270C = 600K

P1 = P2 = 2.1 x 105 = P2

T1 T2 300 600

P2 = 4.2 x 105 p.a

10.

11. 2004: V1 = V2

T1 T2

V2 =T2 x V1

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T1

= 353 x 200 ml

293

= 241 m

.
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Describe converging lenses and diverging lenses;

b) Describe using ray diagrams the principal focus, the optical centre and the focal length of a
thin lens;

c) Determine experimentally the focal length of a converging lens;

d) Locate images formed by thin lenses using ray construction method;

e) Describe the characteristics of images formed by thin lenses*;

f) Explain image formation in the human eye;

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