PDF BY AISHWARYA U RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4TH SEMESTER M.

SC

UNIT-II

[10 Hours]
Quantitative Methods for problem solving: Statistical Modeling and Analysis, Time Series Analysis, Probability
Distributions, Fundamentals of Statistical Analysis and Inference, Multivariate methods, Concepts of correlation and
Regression, Fundamentals of Time Series Analysis and Spectral Analysis, Error Analysis, Applications of Spectral
Analysis.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1) Write a Short Note on Spectral Analysis and its Application in Research Methodology? (5MARKS)

Spectral Analysis and Its Application in Research Methodology

Spectral Analysis is a statistical technique used to analyze the frequency components of signals or time series
data. Instead of focusing on how a signal changes over time, spectral analysis examines how the signal's
energy or power is distributed across different frequencies. This approach is particularly useful for identifying
underlying periodic patterns or oscillations in data that might not be obvious in the time domain.

Key Concepts of Spectral Analysis

• Frequency Domain Analysis: Unlike traditional time series analysis, which is performed in the time
domain, spectral analysis shifts focus to the frequency domain. The Fourier Transform is a common
tool used to decompose a time series into its frequency components.
• Power Spectrum: A primary output of spectral analysis, the power spectrum displays the power or
variance of a signal as a function of frequency, allowing researchers to identify dominant cycles and
periodicities within the data.

Application in Research Methodology

1. Identifying Cyclical Patterns: Spectral analysis is widely used in fields such as economics, climate
science, and engineering to identify recurring cycles (e.g., business cycles, seasonal patterns) that may
not be apparent in time domain analysis.
2. Signal Processing: In research areas like neuroscience or biomedical engineering, spectral analysis
is employed to analyze physiological signals like EEG or ECG. It helps in detecting abnormalities in
brain waves or heart rhythms by identifying the frequency components of these signals.
3. Environmental Studies: Researchers use spectral analysis to study environmental data, such as
temperature records, to detect long-term climate cycles or patterns of natural phenomena like ocean
currents.
4. Astronomy and Astrophysics: Spectral analysis is essential in analyzing the light from stars and
galaxies to determine their composition, velocity, and other characteristics by examining the
frequency distribution of the light spectrum.
5. Noise Reduction and Filtering: In research involving complex datasets, spectral analysis can help
separate signal from noise, allowing for clearer analysis of the data's essential components.

Overall, spectral analysis is a critical tool in research methodology for uncovering hidden patterns,
understanding periodic behaviors, and enhancing the interpretability of complex data across various scientific
disciplines.

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2) What do you Mean by a Probability Distribution? Explain any two Probability Distributions in Detail.(8MARKS)

Probability distributions describe how the values of a random variable are distributed. They provide a
mathematical function that gives the probabilities of occurrence of different possible outcomes in an experiment.
Below are two commonly used probability distributions explained in detail: the Normal Distribution and the
Binomial Distribution.

1. Normal Distribution

Overview:

• The Normal Distribution, also known as the Gaussian Distribution, is a continuous probability distribution
that is symmetric around its mean. It is one of the most important distributions in statistics due to its wide
applicability in natural and social sciences.

Characteristics:

• Bell-Shaped Curve: The graph of a normal distribution is bell-shaped and symmetric about the mean.
• Mean, Median, and Mode: In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode of the data are all equal and
located at the center of the distribution.
• Standard Deviation: The spread of the distribution is determined by its standard deviation. A smaller standard
deviation results in a steeper curve, while a larger standard deviation results in a flatter curve.
• 68-95-99.7 Rule: Approximately 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% within
two standard deviations, and 99.7% within three standard deviations.

Mathematical Formula: The probability density function (PDF) of a normal distribution is given by:

Applications:

• Natural Phenomena: Heights, weights, blood pressure, and test scores often follow a normal distribution.
• Statistical Inference: Many statistical tests and confidence intervals assume normality due to the Central Limit
Theorem, which states that the sum of a large number of independent random variables tends toward a normal
distribution, regardless of the original distribution.

2. Binomial Distribution

Overview:

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• The Binomial Distribution is a discrete probability distribution that models the number of successes in a fixed
number of independent and identically distributed Bernoulli trials, each with the same probability of success.

Characteristics:

• Two Outcomes: Each trial in a binomial experiment has only two possible outcomes: success or failure.

• Fixed Number of Trials: The number of trials, denoted by n, is fixed.

• Probability of Success: The probability of success in each trial is denoted by p, and the probability of failure is
1− p .
• Independent Trials: The outcome of each trial is independent of the others.

Applications:

• Quality Control: In manufacturing, the binomial distribution is used to model the number of defective items in
a batch.
• Survey Analysis: It is used in surveys to model the number of respondents who support a particular opinion.
• Genetics: It can model the inheritance of traits where there are two possible alleles (dominant or recessive).

3) Explain Statistical Modeling and Analysis in Detail.

1. Statistical Modeling

Definition:

• Statistical modeling involves creating a mathematical representation (a model) of a real-world process or system.
The model is based on observed data and is used to understand the relationships between different variables or to
predict future outcomes.

Types of Statistical Models:

• Descriptive Models: Used to summarize and describe data. Examples include measures of central tendency
(mean, median) and dispersion (variance, standard deviation).

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• Inferential Models: Used to make predictions or inferences about a population based on sample data. These
include hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.
• Predictive Models: Used to predict future outcomes based on historical data. Common examples are linear
regression, logistic regression, and time series forecasting.
• Prescriptive Models: Suggest actions to achieve specific outcomes by optimizing certain criteria. These are often
used in operations research and decision analysis.

Key Concepts:

• Dependent and Independent Variables: In a model, the dependent variable is what you are trying to predict or
explain, while independent variables are the factors that you believe have an influence on the dependent variable.
• Model Fitting: The process of finding the model parameters that best fit the observed data. Techniques like least
squares estimation are commonly used for this purpose.
• Overfitting and Underfitting: Overfitting occurs when a model is too complex and captures noise rather than
the underlying pattern, while underfitting occurs when a model is too simple to capture the underlying structure
of the data.

2. Statistical Analysis

Definition:

• Statistical analysis is the process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, presenting, and organizing data. It allows
researchers to make sense of large volumes of data and draw meaningful conclusions.

Common Techniques in Statistical Analysis:

• Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes the main features of a dataset. It includes measures like mean, median, mode,
standard deviation, and correlation.
• Inferential Statistics: Involves making inferences about a population based on a sample. Techniques include
hypothesis testing (e.g., t-tests, chi-square tests), confidence intervals, and ANOVA (Analysis of Variance).
• Regression Analysis: A powerful tool for understanding the relationship between variables. Linear regression is
used for continuous dependent variables, while logistic regression is used for binary dependent variables.
• Time Series Analysis: Used to analyze data that are collected over time. Techniques include moving averages,
autoregressive models (AR), and ARIMA (AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average) models.

Applications:

• Business and Economics: Statistical modeling and analysis are used for market analysis, demand forecasting,
financial risk assessment, and decision-making.
• Healthcare: In medical research, these methods are used for analyzing clinical trials, epidemiological studies,
and health outcomes.
• Engineering: Used for quality control, reliability testing, and optimization of processes.
• Social Sciences: Applied in survey analysis, public opinion research, and behavioral studies.

Importance in Problem Solving:

• Data-Driven Decisions: Statistical modeling and analysis provide a scientific basis for making decisions,
reducing uncertainty, and improving accuracy.
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• Optimization: These methods help in optimizing resources, processes, and strategies to achieve the best possible
outcomes.
• Risk Management: By analyzing data, organizations can identify potential risks and mitigate them effectively.

4)Explain Time Series and Forecasting in detailed.(8MARKS)

Time Series Analysis is a statistical technique that deals with data collected over time. Unlike cross-sectional
data, which represents observations at a single point in time, time series data captures changes over a sequence
of time intervals. This type of analysis is essential for understanding trends, cycles, and patterns in data that
evolve over time, making it a powerful tool in fields such as economics, finance, environmental studies, and
more.

Key Concepts in Time Series Analysis

1. Time Series Components:

o Trend: The long-term movement in a time series, representing a general direction in which data is moving over
a long period.
o Seasonality: Recurring patterns or cycles in a time series that occur at regular intervals, such as daily, monthly,
or yearly. For example, retail sales might increase during the holiday season.
o Cyclicality: Similar to seasonality but without a fixed period. Cyclic patterns are influenced by economic
conditions or business cycles.
o Irregular Component (Noise): The random variation in the data that cannot be explained by the trend,
seasonality, or cyclicality. It’s often considered as noise or residuals.
2. Stationarity:
o A time series is said to be stationary if its statistical properties, such as mean, variance, and autocorrelation, are
constant over time. Stationarity is an important assumption in many time series models because it simplifies the
analysis and forecasting.
3. Autocorrelation:
o Autocorrelation refers to the correlation of a time series with its own past values. It measures the degree of
similarity between the data points separated by a certain time lag.
4. Differencing:
o Differencing is a method used to make a time series stationary by subtracting the previous observation from the
current observation. This is often used when a time series has a trend.

Common Time Series Models

1. Autoregressive (AR) Model:

o The AR model assumes that the current value of the series is based on its previous values. For example, in an
AR(1) model, the current value depends on the immediately preceding value.
2. Moving Average (MA) Model:
o The MA model uses past forecast errors to predict future values. For example, an MA(1) model relies on the error
term from the previous period to make predictions.
3. Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) Model:
o ARIMA combines AR and MA models and adds differencing to make the series stationary. It's a versatile model
used for various types of time series data.
4. Seasonal ARIMA (SARIMA) Model:
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o SARIMA extends ARIMA to account for seasonality in the data. It includes seasonal differencing and seasonal
autoregressive and moving average terms.
5. Exponential Smoothing (ETS):
o ETS models apply weighted averages of past observations with exponentially decreasing weights. This method
is useful for smoothing data and making short-term forecasts.

Applications of Time Series Analysis

1. Economic Forecasting:
o Used to predict economic indicators such as GDP, inflation rates, and unemployment figures. Businesses use
these forecasts to make informed decisions.
2. Financial Markets:
o Time series analysis is used to model stock prices, interest rates, and exchange rates. Traders use these models to
identify trends and make investment decisions.
3. Environmental Studies:
o Environmental scientists use time series analysis to study climate patterns, weather data, and pollution levels over
time.
4. Supply Chain Management:
o Companies use time series analysis to forecast demand, manage inventory levels, and optimize production
schedules.
5. Healthcare:
o In healthcare, time series analysis is used to monitor patient vitals over time, predict outbreaks of diseases, and
analyze trends in public health data.

Importance of Time Series Analysis

• Trend Identification: Helps in understanding the underlying trend in the data, which is crucial for long-term
planning.
• Forecasting: Essential for making future predictions based on historical data, which is vital for decision-making
in business, finance, and other fields.
• Anomaly Detection: Time series analysis can be used to detect unusual patterns or anomalies in data, such as
detecting fraud in financial transactions or identifying equipment failures in manufacturing.

6. Explain Fundamentals of Statistical Analysis and Inference?

Statistical analysis is the process of collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. It forms the
foundation of decision-making and hypothesis testing in various fields, such as economics, medicine, engineering, and
social sciences. Statistical inference is a subset of statistical analysis, where conclusions about a population are drawn
based on sample data.

Key Concepts in Statistical Analysis

1. Descriptive Statistics:
o Purpose: Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the main features of a dataset.
They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures.
o Key Measures:
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▪ Central Tendency: Measures include mean (average), median (middle value), and mode
(most frequent value).
▪ Dispersion: Measures include range (difference between maximum and minimum values),
variance (the average of squared deviations from the mean), and standard deviation (the
square root of variance).
▪ Shape of Distribution: Skewness (asymmetry of the data) and kurtosis (tailedness of the
distribution).
2. Probability Distributions:
o Definition: A probability distribution describes how the values of a random variable are distributed.
Common distributions include the Normal, Binomial, Poisson, and Exponential distributions.
o Importance: Understanding the underlying distribution of the data is crucial for applying appropriate
statistical tests and making inferences.
3. Sampling and Sampling Distributions:
o Sampling: The process of selecting a subset of individuals from a population to estimate
characteristics of the entire population.
o Sampling Distribution: The probability distribution of a given statistic based on a random sample.
For example, the sampling distribution of the mean describes how the sample means are distributed.
4. Estimation:
o Point Estimation: Provides a single value as an estimate of a population parameter (e.g., the sample
mean as an estimate of the population mean).
o Interval Estimation: Provides a range of values within which the population parameter is expected
to lie, often represented by confidence intervals.

Key Concepts in Statistical Inference

1. Hypothesis Testing:
o Definition: A method used to test an assumption (hypothesis) about a population parameter. It
involves comparing observed data with a hypothesis to determine if there is enough evidence to reject
the hypothesis.
o Steps in Hypothesis Testing:
▪ Formulate Hypotheses: Null hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis (H1).
▪ Choose a Significance Level (α\alphaα): Commonly set at 0.05, this represents the
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true (Type I error).
▪ Select a Test Statistic: Based on the type of data and the hypothesis (e.g., z-test, t-test, chi-
square test).
▪ Calculate the p-value: The p-value indicates the probability of obtaining the observed
results, or more extreme, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
▪ Make a Decision: If the p-value is less than the significance level, reject the null hypothesis;
otherwise, fail to reject it.
2. Confidence Intervals:
o Definition: A range of values used to estimate the true value of a population parameter. A 95%
confidence interval, for example, suggests that we are 95% confident that the interval contains the
true population parameter.
o Interpretation: Confidence intervals provide more information than point estimates by giving a range
of plausible values for the population parameter.
3. Types of Errors:
o Type I Error: Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true (false positive).
o Type II Error: Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false (false negative).
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o Power of a Test: The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false. Increasing
the sample size or significance level can increase the power of a test.
4. Regression Analysis:
o Simple Linear Regression: Used to examine the relationship between two variables (one
independent and one dependent). The goal is to model the dependent variable as a linear function of
the independent variable.
o Multiple Regression: Involves more than one independent variable. It helps in understanding how
multiple factors contribute to the dependent variable.
5. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA):
o Purpose: ANOVA is used to compare means across multiple groups. It tests the hypothesis that the
means of several groups are equal.
o F-Statistic: The test statistic for ANOVA, which compares the variance between groups to the
variance within groups.

Importance of Statistical Analysis and Inference

• Data-Driven Decisions: Statistical analysis and inference provide the tools needed to make informed
decisions based on data rather than assumptions.
• Risk Assessment: These methods help quantify uncertainty and assess the risks involved in various decisions.
• Predictive Modeling: By understanding relationships between variables, statistical analysis enables
prediction of future outcomes and trends.
• Validation of Results: In scientific research, statistical inference is crucial for validating experimental results
and generalizing findings to broader populations.

7. Explain Multivariate methods, Concepts of correlation and Regression?

Multivariate methods, correlation, and regression are fundamental techniques in statistical analysis,
particularly when dealing with multiple variables simultaneously. These methods are essential for exploring
relationships among variables, predicting outcomes, and making data-driven decisions across various fields such
as finance, healthcare, social sciences, and engineering.

Multivariate Methods

Multivariate methods are statistical techniques used to analyze data that involves more than two variables. These
methods allow researchers to understand complex relationships and patterns within the data.

1. Principal Component Analysis (PCA):

• Purpose: PCA is used to reduce the dimensionality of a dataset while retaining as much variance
(information) as possible. It transforms the original variables into a new set of uncorrelated variables
called principal components, ordered by the amount of variance they capture.
• Application: PCA is widely used in fields like image processing, genomics, and finance for data
compression, visualization, and noise reduction.

2. Factor Analysis:

• Purpose: Factor analysis is used to identify underlying factors or latent variables that explain the patterns
of correlations within a set of observed variables. It assumes that these factors influence the observed data.
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• Application: Commonly used in psychology, marketing research, and social sciences to identify the
structure of a dataset and reduce the number of variables.

3. Cluster Analysis:

• Purpose: Cluster analysis groups a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group (cluster)
are more similar to each other than to those in other groups.
• Application: Used in market segmentation, pattern recognition, and image analysis to classify data into
meaningful groups.

4. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA):

• Purpose: MANOVA extends ANOVA by allowing for the analysis of multiple dependent variables
simultaneously. It tests whether the mean differences among groups are significant for a combination of
dependent variables.
• Application: Used in experimental research where multiple outcomes need to be analyzed together, such
as in education, psychology, and biomedical research.

Concepts of Correlation

Correlation measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. It quantifies
how changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.

1. Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r):

• Definition: Pearson's r is the most common measure of linear correlation between two variables. It ranges
from -1 to 1.
o r = 1: Perfect positive linear relationship.
o r = -1: Perfect negative linear relationship.
o r = 0: No linear relationship.
• Interpretation: A higher absolute value of r indicates a stronger relationship. For example, r = 0.8
suggests a strong positive relationship, while r = -0.8 indicates a strong negative relationship.

2. Spearman's Rank Correlation:

• Definition: Spearman's rank correlation is a non-parametric measure of correlation, which assesses how
well the relationship between two variables can be described by a monotonic function. It’s used when data
are not normally distributed or when dealing with ordinal data.
• Application: Used in cases where the assumptions of Pearson's correlation are violated, such as in ordinal
data or data with outliers.

3. Correlation Matrix:

• Definition: A correlation matrix is a table showing the correlation coefficients between several variables.
Each cell in the table shows the correlation between two variables.
• Application: Useful in exploratory data analysis to quickly assess the relationships among multiple
variables.

Concepts of Regression

Regression analysis is a statistical technique used to model and analyze the relationships between a dependent
variable and one or more independent variables. It is used for prediction, forecasting, and determining the strength
of predictors.
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1. Simple Linear Regression:

• Definition: Simple linear regression models the relationship between a single independent variable (X)
and a dependent variable (Y) by fitting a linear equation to the observed data.

•
Application: Used when the goal is to predict the value of Y based on X, such as predicting house prices
based on square footage.

2. Multiple Linear Regression:

• Definition: Multiple linear regression extends simple linear regression by modeling the relationship
between a dependent variable and two or more independent variables.

•
Application: Used in scenarios where multiple factors influence an outcome, such as predicting sales
based on advertising spend, price, and seasonality.

3. Logistic Regression:

• Definition: Logistic regression is used when the dependent variable is binary (e.g., success/failure,
yes/no). It models the probability that a given outcome occurs.

•
• Application: Commonly used in medical research (e.g., presence/absence of a disease) and marketing
(e.g., likelihood of a customer purchasing a product).

Importance and Applications

• Correlation and regression analysis are essential for understanding relationships between variables,
predicting outcomes, and identifying important factors that influence a particular phenomenon.
• Multivariate methods allow for the analysis of complex data structures, enabling researchers to uncover
deeper insights and make more informed decisions.
• Applications: These methods are used across various domains, including economics (e.g., demand
forecasting), healthcare (e.g., risk factors analysis), marketing (e.g., customer segmentation), and
engineering (e.g., quality control).

Conclusion

Understanding multivariate methods, correlation, and regression is crucial for analyzing complex datasets,
identifying relationships between variables, and making predictions. These statistical tools provide a foundation
for decision-making and are widely applied across different industries and research areas.
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8) Explain Error Analysis in Research Methodology? (8Marks)

Error analysis in research methodology refers to the systematic examination and assessment of the inaccuracies,
uncertainties, and deviations that occur during data collection, measurement, and analysis. The goal of error
analysis is to identify, quantify, and understand the sources of error in a study to improve the reliability and validity
of the research findings.

Types of Errors in Research

1. Systematic Errors (Bias):

o Definition: Systematic errors are consistent, repeatable errors associated with faulty equipment,
flawed experimental design, or biased procedures. These errors lead to results that are
systematically off from the true value.
o Examples:
▪ Measurement Bias: Using an improperly calibrated instrument that consistently gives
higher or lower readings.
▪ Selection Bias: Choosing a non-representative sample that skews the results.
o Impact: Systematic errors can lead to incorrect conclusions as they distort the true effect or
relationship being studied.
2. Random Errors (Noise):
o Definition: Random errors are unpredictable fluctuations that arise from the variability inherent
in the measurement process. They occur due to factors that cannot be controlled, such as
environmental changes or human reaction time.
o Examples:
▪ Instrumental Error: Variations in readings due to electronic noise in measurement
instruments.
▪ Observer Error: Inconsistent measurements taken by different individuals due to slight
variations in technique.
o Impact: Random errors generally average out over multiple measurements but can reduce the
precision of the results.
3. Human Errors:
o Definition: Human errors are mistakes made by the researcher during the data collection,
recording, or analysis process.
o Examples:
▪ Data Entry Error: Incorrectly inputting data into a database.
▪ Calculation Error: Miscalculating a statistical measure due to a manual or software
error.
o Impact: Human errors can lead to incorrect data and skewed results, necessitating careful cross-
checking and validation procedures.

Steps in Error Analysis

1. Identification of Errors:
o Purpose: Identify all possible sources of errors in the research process, including those related to
data collection, instrumentation, and experimental design.
o Approach: Perform a detailed review of the research methodology, including a critique of
sampling methods, measurement techniques, and data handling processes.
2. Quantification of Errors:
o Purpose: Quantify the magnitude of errors to understand their impact on the results.
o Approach: Use statistical methods to estimate error margins, such as standard deviation for
random errors or bias measurements for systematic errors. For example, in measurement, one
might calculate the uncertainty of a reading as a percentage of the measured value.
3. Analysis and Interpretation:
o Purpose: Analyze how errors affect the validity and reliability of the study’s conclusions.
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oApproach: Assess the extent to which errors influence the outcome, potentially by running
simulations or sensitivity analyses to see how results vary with changes in error parameters.
4. Error Minimization:
o Purpose: Implement strategies to reduce the occurrence of errors.
o Approach:
▪ Calibration: Regularly calibrate instruments to minimize systematic errors.
▪ Training: Ensure that all researchers are properly trained to avoid human errors.
▪ Replication: Repeat experiments to average out random errors.
5. Reporting of Errors:
o Purpose: Transparently report the presence and magnitude of errors in research findings.
o Approach: Include error bars in graphs, provide confidence intervals, and discuss the potential
impact of errors on the conclusions in the research report.

Importance of Error Analysis

1. Validity and Reliability: Proper error analysis is crucial for ensuring that the research findings are both
valid (accurately represent the phenomenon being studied) and reliable (consistent across repeated
measurements or studies).
2. Transparency: By openly discussing errors, researchers can provide a clearer picture of the limitations
of their study, allowing others to interpret the findings with appropriate caution.
3. Improvement of Methods: Identifying and analyzing errors helps in refining research methods and
procedures for future studies, leading to more accurate and reliable results.
4. Decision-Making: Understanding the errors involved in research is essential for making informed
decisions based on the data, particularly in fields like medicine, engineering, and policy-making where
errors can have significant consequences.

Applications of Error Analysis

• Experimental Research: In experimental research, error analysis helps in understanding the precision
and accuracy of measurements, which is critical for drawing valid conclusions.
• Survey Research: In surveys, error analysis can help identify biases in sample selection or question
phrasing that may affect the results.
• Quality Control: In manufacturing and engineering, error analysis is used to ensure that processes meet
the required specifications and to minimize defects.
• Environmental Studies: When measuring environmental factors, error analysis helps account for natural
variability and instrumentation limitations.

Conclusion

Error analysis is a critical component of research methodology that enhances the credibility of research findings.
By identifying, quantifying, and minimizing errors, researchers can improve the accuracy, reliability, and overall
quality of their studies, leading to more robust and trustworthy conclusions.

9) A Unbiased coin is tossed for 5 times. Find the probability of getting (i) 2 heads and 3 tails heads, and (ii)
only heads. (iii)at least 3 heads (6MARKS OCT2023)

find the probabilities for each scenario involving the tossing of an unbiased coin 5 times, we'll use concepts
from binomial probability.

Binomial Probability Formula

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The probability of getting exactly k successes (heads) in n independent Bernoulli trials (coin tosses) is given
by:

Given:

• Number of tosses (n) = 5

(i) Probability of getting exactly 2 heads and 3 tails

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(ii) Probability of getting only heads

(iii) Probability of getting at least 3 heads

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