Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Dyslexia and Phonological

Processing
Richard Wagner, Florida State University and the Florida Center for
Reading Research

Dyslexia and Phonological Processing

Sponsored By:
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Dyslexia and Phonological Processing – Non Technical

Webinar

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CA Education Code 56334

Dr. Richard Wagner, Ph.D. Biographic Summary

• Robert O. Lawton Distinguished Research Professor of Psychology and the W.

Russell and Eugenia Morcom Chair at Florida State University.
• Co-founder and a current Associate Director of the Florida Center for Reading
Research.
• Ph.D. in cognitive psychology from Yale University in 1985.
• Principal Investigator of a Multidisciplinary Learning Disability Center funded by
the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
• Co-author of tests that are commonly used in evaluating children for dyslexia and
other learning disability including:
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP-2),
Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE-2),
Test of Preschool Early Literacy (TOPEL).
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Overview

• Brief review of dyslexia.

• Phonological processing and its relation to dyslexia.
• How to use the CTOPP-2 to assess phonological processing.
• Administration and scoring.
• Interpreting results.
• Some frequently asked questions.

Brief Review of Dyslexia

Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

What “Dyslexic” Reading Looks Like

• The hallmark characteristics of the word-level reading problem are:

• An inability to sound out new words.
• New words require sounding out or by analogy to other known words.
• A small pool of words read automatically.
• Typical readers recognize a large pool of words with little conscious effort.

Look at But Don’t Read the Following

Word
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Look at But Don’t Read the Following

Word

•horseradish

Look at But Don’t Read the Following

Word
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Look at But Don’t Read the Following

Word

•hovolupshim

Poor Spelling and Writing

• Spelling and writing may even be more affected than reading is.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Poor Comprehension
• Reading comprehension may be poor, but a by-product of not being
able to read the words on the page.
• Over time, however, the limited information coming through the
reading channel can also affect comprehension.

Dyslexia is Dimensional

• Continuum exists from having only a minor problem to a very severe

problem.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Origins of Dyslexia

• Major breakthrough was the discovery that dyslexia is due to a

problem in language not in vision.

Origins of Dyslexia

• Dyslexia runs in families.

• A family history of reading problems is associated with a 4 times greater risk
of dyslexia.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Origins of Dyslexia

• Dyslexia occurs in both males and females but males are about twice
as likely to have a severe problem than are females.

Dyslexia Rarely Occurs Alone

• Co-occurring conditions are the rule rather than the exception.

• Common ones included ADHD, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, poor spelling and
writing, and a history of early speech or language problems.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Phonological Processing and

its Relation to Dyslexia

Phonological Processing

• Phonological processing refers to using speech sounds for coding

information when reading, listening, and speaking.1
• Phonological comes from the Greek word phone with means sound or voice.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Three Kinds of Reading-Related Phonological

Processing2

Phonological Awareness

• Awareness of and access to the sound structure or phonology of

one’s language.
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Phonological Awareness

• How are the spoken words “cap,” “map,” and “tap,” the same and
different in the sounds they contain?

Phonological Awareness

• How are the spoken words “cap,” “map,” and “tap,” the same and
different in the sounds they contain?
• Identical middle and ending sounds.
• Different beginning sounds.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Phonological Awareness

• If you can hear how they are the same and different, their spellings
make sense.
• Different first letter, same middle and final letters.
• cap
• map
• tap

Development of Phonological Awareness

• Proceeds from larger units to smaller:

• 1. word-length units (e.g., cow-boy)
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Development of Phonological Awareness

• Proceeds from larger units to smaller:

• 1. word-length units (e.g., cow-boy)
• 2. syllables within words (e.g., sev-en)

Development of Phonological Awareness

• Proceeds from larger units to smaller:

• 1. word-length units (e.g., cow-boy)
• 2. syllables within words (e.g., sev-en)
• 3. onsets (sound prior to vowel) and rimes (vowel and remaining
consonants) within syllables (e.g., from pen to p-en)
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Development of Phonological Awareness

• Proceeds from larger units to smaller:

• 1. word-length units (e.g., cow-boy)
• 2. syllables within words (e.g., sev-en)
• 3. onsets (sound prior to vowel) and rimes (vowel and remaining
consonants) within syllables (e.g., from pen to p-en)
• 4. phonemes within rimes (e.g. from en to e-n)

Development of Phonological Awareness

• Proceeds from larger units to smaller:

• 1. word-length units (e.g., cow-boy)
• 2. syllables within words (e.g., sev-en)
• 3. onsets (sound prior to vowel) and rimes (vowel and remaining
consonants) within syllables (e.g., from pen to p-en)
• 4. phonemes within rimes (e.g. from en to e-n)
• 5. phonemes within consonant clusters (e.g, from str to s-t-r).
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Phonological Awareness Plays Causal Role in

Learning to Read
• To a child who can hear similarities and differences among “cap,”
“map,” and “tap,” their spellings (cap, map, tap) are sensible.
• Impaired phonological awareness is a common characteristic of
individuals with dyslexia.

Phonological Awareness can be Taught and

Trained
• Training phonological awareness early can prevent or at least
mitigate the severity of later word-level reading problems.
• Early identification is critical to prevention.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Phonological Memory

• Phonological memory refers to coding information phonologically for

temporary storage in short-term memory.
• If you try to remember a number or someone’s name you just heard you
most likely will be using phonological memory.
• You do the same for sounds that make up the pronunciation of the words
you read.

Phonological Memory

• Most important part of phonological memory is the phonological

loop, which in turn comprises two parts:
• 1. phonological store—like a tape-recording loop that retains the most
recent 2 seconds of auditory information that has been recorded.
• 2. articulatory control process—provides input to and can refresh contents
of phonological store, extending time information can be held.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Assessing Phonological Memory for Early

Identification
• Preschool age children can’t do phonological awareness tasks that
require access to phonemes (e.g., say “bat” without /b/), but can do
a version with larger units.
• Say “starfish.”
• Now say “starfish” without “star.”
• “fish”

Cognitive Complexity Still Too Much for Some

Young Children
• Examiner: “Say doorbell”
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Cognitive Complexity Still Too Much for Some

Young Children
• Examiner: “Say doorbell”
• Child: “doorbell”

Cognitive Complexity Still Too Much for Some

Young Children
• Examiner: “Say doorbell”
• Child: “doorbell”
• Examiner: “Now say doorbell without bell”
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Cognitive Complexity Still Too Much for Some

Young Children
• Examiner: “Say doorbell”
• Child: “doorbell”
• Examiner: “Now say doorbell without bell”
• Child: “Doorbell without bell”

Phonological Memory Tasks are Cognitively

Simple
• Just involves repeating what you hear.
• Nonword repetition, a phonological memory task, has been used in
children as young as 2.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Overlap Between Phonological Awareness

and Phonological Memory for Prereaders

• Before children learn to read, phonological awareness tasks and

phonological memory tasks are actually tapping the identical
underlying phonological ability.
• Most likely quality of phonological representations.

Rapid Naming

• Rapid naming of digits, letters, objects, or colors requires retrieving

phonological information (the pronunciations of their names) from
permanent memory.
• This retrieval process is also used when retrieving pronunciations of words or
parts of words when you read them.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Rapid Naming

• It matters what you are asked to name rapidly. One primary

distinction:
• Symbols that are used in one’s writing system such as letters and digits.
• Non-symbolic items that are not used in one’s writing system such as objects
or colors.

Summary

• Dyslexia results from a subtle problem in language, not in vision.

• The language system involved in the phonological system.
• Three kinds of phonological processing important for reading:
phonological awareness, phonological memory, and rapid naming.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Assessing Phonological Processing with the

CTOPP-22
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Differences between the CTOPP and CTOPP-2

• 1. New norms.
• 2. Floor lowered with addition of more basic items. Now goes down
to age 4.
• 3. Phoneme isolation added as new phonological awareness subtest.
• 4. Added rapid naming of digits and objects to 4-6 year-old version,
giving measures of symbolic and non-symbolic naming.

The Three Kinds of Reading-Related Phonological

Processing are Assessed by the CTOPP-2
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Four Primary Uses of CTOPP-2

• 1. Identify individuals who are deficient in phonological processing.

• 2. Identify individual strengths and weaknesses.
• 3. Evaluate progress in response to remediation of phonological
awareness deficits
• 4. As a measure for use in research.

Who Can Administer the CTOPP-2?

• Requires formal training in assessment.

• Supervised practice in test administration is highly desirable.
• College courses and workshops are ways to acquire these skills.
• Most examiners have backgrounds in school psychology, speech
pathology, special education, or are reading specialists.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Administration Guidelines

• Appropriate for individuals 4-0 to 24-11 in age who can understand

directions.
• The entire core battery takes about 30 minutes to administer.

Administration Guidelines

• Subtests should be administered in the order they appear in the

record form.
• If you administer selected subtests, do them in the order they appear.
• Two versions are provided, one for 4 – 6 year-olds and one for 7—24.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Administration Guidelines

• Ceilings are provided.

• If items are accidentally administered beyond the ceiling, no credit is
given for the above ceiling items even if one or more is answered
correctly.
• Follow good testing practices. See manual for suggestions specific to
the CTOPP-2.

Materials Needed

• Examiner Record Booklet, Picture Book, CD, device for playing CD,
stopwatch, sharpened pencil with eraser.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

CTOPP-2 Subtests and Composites: 4- to 6-

Year-Old

Phonological Awareness Composite Subtests

(4 to 6-year-old version)
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Elision

• You are asked to say a word after dropping out part of it. For
example:
• Say “cowboy” without saying “cow” (Correct answer is “boy.”)
• Say “grain” without saying “n.” (Correct answer is “gray.”)

Elision

• Nothing needed beyond record form.

• Pay attention to when directions and feedback are given.
• Note that the progression of items types follows the developmental
progression noted earlier.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Blending Words

• Spoken words are presented in parts that must be blended together

to form a word. For example:
• You will hear a word one part at a time. Listen carefully and put the sounds
together to make a whole word: /m/ /oo/ /s/ (“moose”).

Blending Words

• Need Core CD, and device to play tracks 1-33.

• If child asks for item to be repeated, one repetition is permitted per
item.
• For items 1-12, if child says sounds separately (e.g., “m-e” rather than
“me,” say “Try to say the sounds all together as a real word.”
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Sound Matching

• The task is to identify a word that begins with the same sound as a
target word. Later it changes to identify the word that ends with the
same sound as the target word. For example:
• Which word starts with the same sound as “soap?” “ripe” “toast” or “sand.”
(“sand”)

Sound Matching

• Need picture book.

• Two parts: first sound and last sound.
• For all items, pause 1 second after saying the target before saying the
3 alternatives.
• Point to pictures as names are pronounced.
• Child may point to or say answer.
• Items can be repeated once if child appears to forget names given to
pictures.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

CTOPP-2 Subtests and Composites: 7- to 24-

Year-Old

Phoneme Isolation

• The task is to say a part of a word that represents the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or
4th sound in a word. For example:
• What is the second sound in the word “witch?” (correct answer is /i/).
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Phoneme Isolation

• Nothing needed beyond record form.

• Pay attention to when directions and feedback are given.

Alternate Phonological Awareness Composite

Score

• For children and adults age 7 through 24 only.

• It consists of Blending Nonwords and Segmenting Nonwords and can
be used to verify a problem in phonological awareness.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Blending Nonwords

• Need Supplemental Subtest CD tracks 1-31.

• You may replay an item one time if examinee asks you to or gives no
response.
• For items 1-12, give prompt “Try to say the sounds all together” if
examinee repeats sounds separately.

Segmenting Nonwords

• Need Supplemental Subtest CD tracks 32-64.

• Repeat an item if the examinee mispronounces a word or asks to
hear it again.
• Prompt with “Now say ____ one sound at a time” if the examinee
forgets to.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Phonological Memory Composite Score

• For all children and adults, the phonological memory composite

score consists of Memory for Digits and Nonword Repetition.

Memory for Digits

• The task is to listen to a string of digits then repeat them back in the
correct order. For example:
• “3 8 5 9 4 7 2”
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Memory for Digits

• Need Core CD, and device to play tracks 34-63.

• If child asks for item to be repeated, no repetition is permitted.
• For items 1-4, if child makes an error, count item as incorrect but give
correct answer.

Nonword Repetition

• The task is to listen to nonwords and say them exactly as they are
heard. For example:
• Listen to this made-up word then say it exactly as you hear it: “vootusoaf.”
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Nonword Repetition

• Need Core CD, and device to play tracks 64-96.

• If child asks for item to be repeated, no repetition is permitted.
• Pay attention to feedback given on items 1 – 9.

Rapid Naming Composite Scores

• For children age 4 to 6, there are two rapid naming composite scores:
• Rapid Symbolic Naming
• Rapid Non-Symbolic Naming
• For children and adults age 7 to 24, the only rapid naming composite
score is Rapid Symbolic Naming.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Rapid Symbolic Naming

• Rapid Letter Naming requires letters presented in rows as quickly and

accurately as one can. Rapid Digit Naming is similar except that digits
rather than letters are named.

Rapid Digit and Rapid Letter Naming

• Need stopwatch and Picture Booklet.

• Record number of seconds to name all numbers on form.
• If examinee hesitates for 2 seconds, mark it as incorrect and point to
next item and say go on.
• If line is skipped, redirect examinee to skipped line.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Rapid Non-Symbolic Naming

• Rapid Color Naming requires naming colors as quickly and accurately

as one can. Rapid Object Naming is the same but common objects
are named instead of colors.

Rapid Color Naming and Rapid Object

Naming
• Need stopwatch and Picture Book
• Prompt examinee with the next item if he or she hesitates for more
than 2 seconds.
• If line is skipped, redirect to skipped line.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Comprehensive Test of
Phonological Processing-2
Scoring and Interpretation

Types of Scores

• Raw scores—scores earned on the subtests.

• Age equivalents—identifies age at which performance would be
average.
• Grade equivalents—identifies grade at which performance would be
average.
• Age and grade equivalents are not recommended for use because of
common misinterpretations.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Types of Scores
• Percentile ranks—indicates the percentage of the
normative distribution that scored at or below the
examinee’s score.
• Subtest scaled scores—standard score with a mean
of 10 and a standard deviation of 3.
• Composite scores—standard scores with a mean of
100 and a standard deviation of 15.

Types of Scores
• Developmental score—an equal interval developmental
scale useful for examining absolute changes in performance
over time.
• What this means is that the difference between 50 and
100 is exactly the same as the difference between 100
and 150.
• This makes the developmental score useful for monitoring
progress in response to intervention (RTI).
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Some General Recommendations

• Composite scores are preferred over subtest scores
because they are more reliable. They are the most
useful scores on the CTOPP-2.
• For subtests, standard scores are used to compare a
score to the normative sample; developmental
scores are used to measure change in absolute
performance.

Composites Scores
• Composite scores are available for each of the three
kinds of reading-related phonological processes.
• Phonological Awareness (and Alternate Phonological Awareness for the 7-to-
24 age form), Phonological Memory & Rapid Naming
• They are combinations of individual subtests.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Interpreting Composites Scores

• 130+ Very Superior

• 121-130 Superior
• 111-120 Above Average
• 90-110 Average
• 80-89 Below Average
• 70-79 Poor
• 70- Very Poor

Subtest Scaled Scores

• A standard score that is identical for each subtest making it possible

to compare performance across different subtests.
• The average subtest scaled score is 10.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Interpreting Subtest Scaled Scores

• 17-20 Very Superior

• 15-16 Superior
• 13-14 Above Average
• 8-12 Average
• 6-7 Below Average
• 4-5 Poor
• 1-3 Very Poor
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Identifying Information Section

Score Reporting Section

Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Score Interpretation: Raw Scores

• How many items were correct for

each subtest.
• Not very meaningful for comparing
subtests because they have
different numbers of items.

Age and Grade Equivalents

• These are the age and grade that

the score would be average for.
• As mentioned previously, they are
easily misinterpreted. Best not to
use them.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Scaled Scores

• These are the best scores to

compare performance on
different subtests.

Percentile Ranks

• %ile Ranks show that Joshua’s

scores are only better than or
equal to the bottom 8 to 21
percent of his peers.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Composite Scores

• The composite scores and their

descriptive terms follow.
• Joshua is below average or poor
in every area of phonological
processing.

Composite Score Discrepancy Analyses

• Are two composite scores different statistically?

• Are two composite scores different clinically?

Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Statistically Significant Discrepancies2

Clinically Significant Discrepancies (4-6-year-

old)2
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Clinically Significant Discrepancies (7-24-year-

old)2

Frequently Asked Questions

Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Frequently Asked Questions

• When should I give the supplemental subtests?

• To confirm the presence of a phonological processing deficit.
• Especially useful for examinees with well-developed vocabularies whose
performance on word-based phonological awareness tasks may be inflated
by their vocabulary.

Frequently Asked Questions

• Can I diagnose dyslexia from the CTOPP-2 alone?

• No single assessment can do this.
• The CTOPP-2 is used to assess phonological processing.
• A deficit in phonological processing is a hallmark of dyslexia, but is not sufficient by
itself.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Frequently Asked Questions

• Can I diagnose dyslexia from the CTOPP-2 alone? (cont.)

• Other things are important to assess:
• Unexpectedly poor reading, family history, poor response to effective intervention, and
exclusionary criteria (e.g., missed visual acuity problem, limited opportunity to learn
because of extensive absences).

Frequently Asked Questions

• Is a deficit in any of the 3 composites (Phonological Awareness,

Phonological Memory, and Rapid Naming) a potential cause of
dyslexia?
• Yes. Each of the three kinds of phonological processing is related to and
important for reading.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Frequently Asked Questions

• Can an individual have dyslexia and not score poorly on the CTOPP-2?
• Yes, especially if a lot of intervention on phonological processing has been
given.
• This is more common for phonological awareness than for phonological
memory or rapid naming, and more common for individual subtests than for
composite scores.

Frequently Asked Questions

• What is “double-deficit” dyslexia?

• It refers to being below average in both the phonological awareness and
rapid naming composite scores. (Whether it is a separate condition or just
an indication of very low phonological processing is a matter of controversy.)
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Frequently Asked Questions

• If an individual scores in the average range on the CTOPP-2 but well

above average in IQ or language measures, would this be an
indication of a phonological processing problem.
• Yes because phonological processing is impaired relative to performance in
other areas.

Frequently Asked Questions

• Can poor performance on the CTOPP-2 be due to inattention and not

poor phonological processing?
• Probably not. Problems in attention and in phonological processing
commonly co-occur, and both are predictors of dyslexia. Inattention does
not explain poor performance on the CTOPP-2 for most individuals.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Frequently Asked Questions

• What if there is large range between the subtest scores within a

given composite score? Would that indicate the need for further
assessment?
• It would suggest the need for further assessment. Perhaps the student did
not understand one of the tasks.

Frequently Asked Questions

• Can a child have a language disorder such as specific language

impairment and dyslexia? If so, what would that look like?
• Yes. What you would expect to see is an impairment in phonological
processing and in reading that is greater than the magnitude of the specific
language impairment.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Frequently Asked Questions

• Can the CTOPP-2 be used to measure response to intervention?

• The developmental scores provide an equal interval scale that is useful for
measuring longer-term response to intervention.
• Longer-term because the CTOPP-2 should not be given more frequently than annually to
avoid practice effects.

Frequently Asked Questions

• Does not using the audio CD validate the administration of the

CTOPP-2?
• The audio CD should be used for several reasons.
• It provides a standardized assessment.
• It was used for the normative sample.
• Verbally presenting the items gives examinees who watch an examiner’s mouth clues
that were not available to the normative sample.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Frequently Asked Questions

• Which composites should improve with intervention?

• Intervention is more successful for deficits in phonological awareness than
for phonological memory or rapid naming.

Have a Question you Need Answered?

• [email protected]

References
• 1 Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing
and its causal relations with reading. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192-212.
• 2Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., & Pearson, N. A. (2013).
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Dyslexia and Phonological Processing July 2017

Thank you to our Presenter and Sponsors

Florida Center for Reading Research - www.fcrr.org

Florida State University - www.fsu.edu

Decoding Dyslexia CA www.decodingdyslexiaca.org

CA Association of School Psychologists www.casponline.org
CARS+ www.carsplus.org

© Copyright 2017, Dr. Richard Wagner. Dr. Wagner encourages the

reproduction and distribution of this webinar. If portions of the webinar
are cited, appropriate reference must be made. This webinar may not
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