Historical Evolution of
Computing: Early
Computing History
The word "compute" means to calculate, which is
why calculators are the origin of computing. The
abacus, invented in Mesopotamia around 3000BC,
was the first calculator. It consisted of wooden
frames holding beads that could be moved to
represent numbers.
While basic arithmetic operations could be
performed, it was limited and required manual
manipulation. The next frontier was mechanical
calculators, with Blaise Pascal and Wilhelm Leibniz
paving the way for the Pascaline and the Difference
Engine.
The slide rule, invented in the 17th Century, was a
revolutionary analog computer capable of
performing complex mathematical functions.
Historical Evolution of Computing:
Electronic Computing Era
The advent of electricity heralded a new era in computing, leading to the development of
transistors - switches that represent binary values. A flow of electricity meant the switch is
on, and an absence meant off, representing binary digits (1 and 0). Eight groups of these
values form a byte, with 256 possible combinations. Each byte can symbolize different
letters and numbers through encoding systems like UTF-8.
Data is essentially a composite of bits that aggregates into bytes, kilobytes, megabytes,
gigabytes, petabytes, exabytes, and beyond. They're predominantly stored in hard drives
and transferred through buses to caches and processors. More transistors are continuously
being cramped into smaller spaces following Moore's Law, though this approach is reaching
its limits.
Many advancements continue to be made with processors, including parallel processing,
hyperthreading, and virtualization capabilities. However, classical computers still process
data in sequence, with cores cycling one after another in a symphony. Much of how
classical computers function was inspired by John Von Neumann, leading to what's known
as the von Neumann architecture.
Historical Evolution of Computing: Key
Milestones in Quantum Computing
1 Richard Feynman's Proposal
Richard Feynman first proposed quantum computing, declaring "Nature isn't classical"
2 IBM's NMR System
IBM created the first NMR 2-qubit system
3 D-Wave's Commercial Quantum Computer
D-Wave developed quantum annealing and released the first commercially available quantum
computer
4 IBM's 2nm Chip
In 2021, IBM fitted 50 billion transistors onto a 2nm chip
5 Quantum Entanglement Proven
In 2022, quantum entanglement was proven, challenging Einstein's view of quantum mechanics
as an "incomplete theory"
6 IBM's 400+ Qubit System
IBM created a 400+ qubit system
7 Google's Quantum Supremacy Claim
Google's Sycamore demonstrated claimed quantum supremacy by running 1 million iterations of
a computation in 200 seconds (though this claim was disputed by IBM)
Fundamental
Concepts: Comparison
with Quantum
Computing
Quantum computing operates on an entirely
different set of rules from computers based on von
Neumann architecture. While a quantum chip can
fit in your palm, it's so powerful it needs gigantic
hardware to cool it down.
Quantum computers work based on entangled
states of quantum objects and harness this to
compute highly likely answers. Due to their
remarkable function, they can make calculations in
minutes that would take traditional machines
millions of years.
Fundamental Concepts: Quantum
Objects
Electrons Photons Atoms
Elementary particles that Discrete quantities of
orbit the nucleus of atoms electromagnetic radiation
The basic unit of matter
These particles are conditioned for computation as waves and are measured when they
revert to their particle nature.
In the quantum state as waves, calculations happen, but it's only after this that a probable
outcome surfaces when they become particles once more. Before computations occur, data
(bits) is encoded into qubits, which are then entangled to perform quantum operations.
Fundamental Concepts: Qubits
Unlike bits which are either on(1) or off(0), qubits in a state of superposition can represent
multiple probable states simultaneously.
Each of these states is interconnected through entanglement. A qubit N will have 2^N
probable states, and while qubits can be in any number of potential states during
computations, they assume either a probability of one of two states after calculations are
performed.
Fundamental Concepts: Superposition
Superposition is best understood through Erwin Schrödinger's cat thought experiment: a
cat placed in a sealed box with a harmful substance will be both dead and alive after a
period - it's only upon opening the box that one reality is revealed.
The wave-like attributes of photons and electrons enable their superposition, and while
they can exist in multiple possible states simultaneously, measurement reveals only one
probable state.
Light filters demonstrate superposition by blocking varying amounts of light based on their
orientation. If light weren't an electromagnetic radiation in a superposition of different
polarized states, polarized sunglasses wouldn't work.
Fundamental
Concepts:
Entanglement and
Interference
Entanglement occurs when quantum states are
interconnected, where the state of one qubit affects
others.
This property enables quantum computers to
perform multiple calculations simultaneously,
unlike classical computers which process data
sequentially.
Interference is used for error correction and affects
the overall probability distribution of quantum
calculations.
It represents the relationship between quantum
bits and how they affect each other, reflected in
their overall wavefunction and probability
distribution.
Quantum Computing Models
Gate Model/Circuit Model Adiabatic Computing
This model involves performing This model harnesses the natural
calculations on small areas of a circuit physical law that quantum objects seek
composed of entangled qubits. Single the lowest energy state. It creates an
and double qubits are computed in a energy landscape where the lowest
specific order with gates, and a point represents the correct answer. It's
measurement of the probable answer equivalent to the gate model in terms of
happens at the end. It's similar to computational capability.
classical computing's logic gates (AND,
OR, XOR) but operates on quantum
principles.
Quantum Annealing Topological Quantum Computing
Developed by D-Wave, quantum Built upon Majorana Quasi Particles, this
annealing uses quantum object energy approach offers the advantage of noise
levels to ascertain potential values. immunization - the main problem
While not a universal quantum preventing very advanced quantum
computing scheme, it's effective for computers. Unlike atoms or molecules,
solving optimization problems. It tries to these are spaces which can be treated as
derive specific binary values from particles.
waveforms.
Implementation Methods: Physical
Implementations
1 Superconducting Quantum 2 Quantum Dot Systems
Computers
Use electrons in semiconductors like
Use wires broken by a Josephson silicon. Employ charge or spin for two-
junction. Utilize oscillations of charges level systems. Control through
between states. Can use magnetic flux microwaves, voltages, or magnetic
with different poles as states. fields. Also known as silicon spin
Implement Transmon architecture. quantum computing.
3 Linear Optical Quantum 4 Trapped Ion Systems
Computing
Use ionized atoms trapped in
Uses photons of light as qubits. magnetic fields. Control through
Implements waveplates, microwaves and laser beams. Energy
interferometers, and mirrors. Printed levels represent the two-level system.
as integrated photonic chips. Two- Can be manipulated through charge
level system based on photon paths or states.
numbers.
Other Approaches: Color Centre Quantum Computers (Atoms embedded in element gaps),
Neutral Atoms in Optical Lattices (Cold atoms in crisscrossed patterns), Additional
methods: electron on helium, cavity quantum electrodynamics, magnetic molecules,
nuclear magnetic resonance.
Technical Challenges: Current
Limitations
We are in the Noisy-Intermediate-Scale-Quantum (NISQ) computing era. While IBM has built
a 1000-qubit computer, the challenge lies with noise - the decoherence that causes
quantum objects to leave the state of entanglement where calculations occur. It takes very
high or super-cold temperatures to reach the quantum state where devices are suitable to
perform computations, and it takes twice as much effort to maintain that state.
Decoherence Error Correction Scalability
Quantum Error Correction
requires grouping multiple
Quantum systems must be qubits to make noise-free
Wiring becomes
shielded from cosmic rays, bits.
exponentially more
heat energy, particles, and
Current systems are not complex with more qubits.
radiation. Requires
fault-tolerant. Accuracy of
extremely low Engineering challenges in
calculations is still a major
temperatures. connecting components.
concern.
Environmental Physical space and cooling
Solutions are being
interference disrupts requirements. Control
developed for more
quantum states. system complexity.
reliable results.
Maintaining entanglement
is crucial but difficult.
Applications and Future Potential
The goal of most research today is to reach the Universal Quantum epoch, which requires:
Error correction that makes quantum computing answers reliable, stable matrix minimizing
decoherence, enough qubits to solve complex problems intractable for classical computers,
and achievement of true quantum supremacy/advantage.
Quantum Complexity Theory deals with computers finding it harder to solve certain
problems as numbers get larger: Factorization becomes exponentially more difficult with
larger numbers. Problems like the Travelling Salesman and isometric graphs present
significant challenges. Shor's algorithm offers potential quantum solutions but requires at
least 1 million qubits. Even quantum computers may not solve all hard mathematical
calculations.
Current Applications: Quantum computers are being used to speed up drug discovery,
chemical reaction simulation, material science research, optimization problems, and
complex system modeling.
Quantum Internet Artificial Intelligence Cryptography
Successfully demonstrated Potential for quantum- Post-quantum cryptography
transmission of quantum enhanced machine learning. needs. Upgrading
and conventional data Pattern recognition parameters for symmetric
through single optical fiber. improvements. Complex encryption (AES-256).
Potential for new forms of data analysis capabilities. Forward secrecy concerns.
data transmission. Hybrid Integration with classical AI Need for quantum-safe
systems showing promise. systems. systems.
Could revolutionize secure
communication.
Commercial Providers and Future
Implications
The quantum computing landscape includes numerous providers: IBM Quantum
Computing (leader in quantum volume improvements), Google Quantum AI, Amazon
Braket, Azure Quantum, D-Wave Systems, IonQ, Rigetti Computing, Xanadu, Quantinuum,
and many others offering Quantum as a Service (QaaS).
Cryptographic Implications: Essential question today: "Is it quantum safe?" Almost all
data transmitted online will eventually be vulnerable to quantum computers. Particularly
grave implications for financial services. Need for cryptographic agility. Possibility to
upgrade symmetric encryption parameters (AES-256). Forward secrecy concerns where
currently encoded data remains vulnerable.
Quantum Communication: Quantum states are not limited by distance but may be limited
by time. Can communicate vast distances simultaneously. Recent breakthrough in hybrid
quantum-classical data transmission. Potential for revolutionary new forms of secure
communication.
Impact on Computing: Classical computers may become obsolete for certain applications.
Quantum computing represents "real computing" versus classical computing's "façade".
Integration of quantum and classical systems. Revolutionary changes in computational
capabilities.
Societal Impact: Need for "quantum-safe" considerations in new technologies.
Transformation of cryptographic security. Educational system adaptation. Workforce
transformation requirements.
Research Priorities
and Education
Research Priorities: Achieving fault-tolerant
quantum computers. Developing better error
correction methods. Scaling up qubit numbers
while maintaining coherence. Creating new
quantum algorithms. Building practical quantum
networks.
Education and Training: Approximately 50,000
currently enrolled in studying quantum computing.
Around 150 universities globally offering related
courses. Growing need for quantum computing
expertise. Potential future where classical
computing education becomes less relevant.
We are currently in what could be called the
"vacuum tube era" of quantum computing. As we
progress toward the "transistor era" with error
correction, the potential applications and
capabilities will expand dramatically. The field
continues to evolve rapidly, with new developments
and breakthroughs occurring regularly.
Additional Considerations: Quantum computing
represents "real computing" versus classical
computing's "façade". Choice of basic elements
(atoms, photons, electrons, quasi-particles) offers
unprecedented flexibility. Integration with existing
technologies and systems. Need for quantum-safe
considerations in all new technological
developments. Potential for computing with
biological systems ("compute with our very own
blood").
Research and Development Focus: Achieving fault
tolerance. Improving coherence times. Scaling up
qubit numbers. Developing practical applications.
Creating quantum networks. Advancing error
correction methods. Building hybrid quantum-
classical systems.
This guide represents the current state of quantum
computing, a field that continues to evolve rapidly.
Just as we transitioned from vacuum tubes to
transistors in classical computing, we are at the
beginning of a similar revolutionary journey in
quantum computing. The potential applications
and capabilities will expand dramatically as we
overcome current technical challenges and develop
more sophisticated systems.
