Electrical Engineering Department

Laboratory Manual

For

Electric Circuit
 INDEX:

1-SERIES-PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS.

2-METHODS OF ANALYSIS.

3-SUPERSESSION PRINICIPLE.

4-THEVENIN THEOREM AND MAX POWER TRANSFER.

5-WHEATSTONE BRIDGE AND DELTA –STAR CONVERSIONS.

6-THE OSCILLOSCOPE.

7-FREQUENCY IMPEDANCE RLC COMPONENT.

8-FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF RL AND RC NETWORK.

9-THE OSCILLOSCOPE AND PHASE MEASUREMENT.

10-SERIES SINUSOIDAL CIRCUITS.

Experiment DC

1
Series-parallel Dc circuits

# Object:
To investigate the characteristics of series-parallel dc circuits.

# Equipment Required:
Resistors:
91 Ω,220 Ω, 330 Ω, 470Ω

Instruments:
1-- DMM or VOM

1-- DC power supply

#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
TABLE 1.1

Item Manufacturer and Model No. Laboratory Serial No.

DMM or VOM
Power supply

TABLE 1.2

Resistors
Nominal value Measured value
91Ω
220Ω
330Ω
470Ω

# RESUME OF THEORY
The analysis of series –parallel dc networks requires a firm understanding of the basics of
both series and parallel networks. In the series-parallel configuration, you will have to isolate
series and parallel configurations and make the necessary combinations for reduction as you
work toward the desired unknown quantity.

As a rule, it is best to make a mental sketch of the path you plan to take toward the complete
solution before introducing the numerical values this may result in a savings in both time and
energy, always work with the isolated series or parallel combinations in a branch before
trying the branches together, for complex networks carefully redrawn set of reduced
networks may be required to ensure that the unknown is conserved and that every element
has been properly included.

# Procedure:

PART 1
(a) Construct the series-parallel network of fig 1.1 insert the measured resistor value next to
each resistor.

FIG 1.1
(b) Calculate the total resistance RT using the measured resistance values.

RT(CALCULATED) = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Use the ohmmeter Section of the Multimeter to measure RT and compare to the result of
(b)

RT(MEASURED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) If 10V were applied to points 1-2, calculate the currents I1, I2 and I3 using the measured
resistor values

I1(CALCULATED) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I2(CALCULATED) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I3(CALCULATED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(e) Apply 10V to points 1-2 and measure the currents I1, I2 and I3 using the multimeter
section of your multimeter.

I1(MEASURED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I2(MEASURED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I3(MEASURED) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬,

(f) Using the results of 4, calculate the voltages V1, V2 and V3.
 V1=_____________________, V2=_____________________, V3=_____________________

PART 2

(a) Construct the series-parallel network OF Fig 1.2, insert the measured value of each
resistor next to the nominal color code.

FIG 1.2

(b) Calculate the total resistance RT using the measured value of each resistor.

RT(CALCULATED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Use the ohmmeter section of your multimeter to measure the total resistance RT compare to the
result of (b).

RT(MEASURED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) If 10V were applied to points 1-2 calculate the currents IT, I1, I2 and I3.
 ‫‪.‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ=‪, I3‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ=‪, I2‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ=‪, I1‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪IT‬‬

‫‪(e) Apply 10V to points 1-2 and measure the currents IT, I1, I2 and I3. compare to the results of (d).‬‬

‫‪,‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= )‪, I1(MEASURED‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= )‪IT(MEASURED‬‬

‫‪.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= )‪, I3(MEASURED‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= )‪I2(MEASURED‬‬

‫‪(f) Using the results of (d), calculate the voltages V1, V2 and V3.‬‬

‫‪.‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪, V3‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪, V2‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪V1‬‬

‫‪(g) Measure the voltages V1, V2 and V3, compare to the results of (f).‬‬

‫‪.‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪, V3‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪, V2‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪V1‬‬

‫‪Part 3‬‬
‫‪(a) Construct the series-parallel network of Fig 1.3 and insert the measured values of each resistor.‬‬

‫‪FIG 1.3‬‬
 (b) Using the measured values calculate the voltages Vad and Vbc.

Vad =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vbc =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Measure the voltages Vad and Vbc and compare to the results of (b).

Vad =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vbc =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) Using the results of (b), calculate the voltage Vab.

Vab(CALCULATED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.
(e) Measure the voltages Vab and compare to the results of (d).

Vab(MEASURED) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

PART 4
(a) Construct the network of Fig 1.4 insert the measured values of each resistor.
 FIG 1.4

(b) Calculate the voltage of V4 using the resistor values.

V4(CALCULATED) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) measure the voltage of V4 and compare to the result of (b).

V4(MEASURED) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.
Experiment DC

2
METHODS OF ANALYSIS

# OBJECT:
To become familiar with the branch mesh and nodal-analysis techniques.

# EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
RESISTORS:
1.2KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 3.3KΩ

INSTRUMENTS
1-DMM OR VOM
2-DC POWER SUPPLIES
#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
TABLE 2.1

Item Manufacturer and Model No. Laboratory Serial No.

DMM or VOM
Power supply
Power supply

TABLE 2.2

Resistors
Nominal value Measured value
1.2KΩ
2.2KΩ
2.2KΩ
3.3KΩ
3.3KΩ

# RESUME OF THEORY
The branch mesh and nodal analysis techniques are used to solve complex networks with
a single source or networks with more than one source that are not in series or parallel.
The brand and mesh analysis techniques will determine the currents of the network, while
nodal analysis approach will provide the potential levels of the nodes of the network with
respect to some reference.
The application of each techniques follows a sequence of steps each of which will resulting
a set of equations with the desired unknowns, an application of determinants or other
mathematical procedures will then provide the results required.
For all the difference calculations the equation is:

%Difference= [Measured-Calculated] / Calculated * 100%

# Procedure:
Part 1:
(a) Construct the network of fig 2.1. insert the measured values of the resistors:
 FIG 2.1

(b) Using branch-current analysis, calculate the current through each branch of the network of Fig 2.1
and insert in Table 2.3, use the measured resistor values and assume the current direction shown in
figure:

TABLE 2.3

Current Calculated Measured Difference%

I1

I2

I3

(c) Measure the voltages V1, V2 and V3 and enter below with minus signs if the polarity is
opposite to that of Fig 2.1:

V1=‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, V2=‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, V3=‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) Calculate the current I1, I2 and I3 and insert in Table 2.3, as the measured values, be sure
to include minus signs the polarity is opposite to that of Fig 2.1, calculate the difference
for each current:

(e) Using nodal analysis determine the nodal voltage for the network of Fig 2.1 use the
measured resistor values and be sure to convert each source to current source before
applying the method.

Vn =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.
(f) Since Vn =v3 insert the measured value of v3 below :

Vn =V3 =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(g) Calculate the difference between 2 values:

 Difference% =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.
Part 2:
(a) Construct the network, insert the measured value of each resistor in the diagram:

FIG 2.2

(b) Using mesh analysis, determine the current through each resistor, use the measured resistor values
and the indicated direction for the mesh currents, insert the calculated resistor currents in table:

Mesh currents

I1 =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I2 =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

TABLE 2.4

Current Calculated Measured Difference%

I1

I2

I3

(c) Measure the voltages V1, V2 and V3 and enter below with minus signs if the polarity is opposite to
the fig 2.2:

V1 =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, V2 =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, V3 =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) Calculate the currents IR1, IR2 and IR3 and insert in table 2.4 as measured values be sure to include
minus signs in the table if the current direction is opposite, calculate the percent difference for
each current.
(e) Using nodal analysis determine the nodal voltage for the network of fig 2.2 use the measured
resistor values

VN =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(f) Since VN=V2 insert the measured value of V2 below:

VN=V2 =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(g) Calculate the difference between 2 values:

%Difference =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

PART 3
(a) Construct the network of FIG 2.3 insert the measured resistor values

FIG 2.3

Caution: Be sure DC power supplies are hooked up as shown

(common ground) before turning the power on
(b) Using nodal analysis calculate the voltage using measured resistor values

VA(CALCULATED) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Measure the voltage VA and record below

VA(MEASURED) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) Calculate the percent difference between 2 values

%Difference =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Part 4

(a) Construct the network of Fig 2.4 insert the measured resistor values.
 FIG 2.4

(b) Using any one of the three techniques examined in this experiment, calculate the voltage V5 and
the current I5, use the measured resistor values.

V5(calculated) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I5(calculated) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Measure the voltage V5 and insert below with a minus sign if the polarity is different from that
appearing in Fig 2.4.

V5(measured) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) Calculate the percent difference between the two values.

%Difference =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.
Experiment DC

3
Superposition Principle (DC)

# OBJECT
To verify experimentally the superposition principle as applied to dc circuits.

# EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Resistors
1-1.2KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 3.3KΩ

Instruments
1- DMM or VOM
2-DC power supplies
#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
TABLE 3.1

Item Manufacturer and Model No. Laboratory Serial No.

DMM or VOM
Power supply
Power supply

TABLE 3.2

Resistors
Nominal value Measured value
1.2KΩ
2.2KΩ
3.3KΩ

# RESUME OF THEORY
The superposition principle states that the current through, or voltage across, any resistive branch of
a multisource network is the algebraic sum of the contributions due 10 each source action
independently, when the effect of one source are considered, the others are replaced by their
internal resistance, super position is effective only for linear circuit relationships.

The principle permits one to analyze circuits without resorting to simultaneous equation, nonlinear
effects such as power which varies as the square of the current or voltage cannot be analyzed using
this principle.

# PROCEDURE
PART 1
(a) Construct the network of Fig 3.1 and
insert the measured resistor values.

FIG 3.1

Caution: Be sure DC power supplies are hooked up as shown

(common ground) before turning the power on
(b) Using superposition and the measured resistor values, calculate the currents indicated in table
3.3 for the network of Fig 3.1 next to each magnitude include a small arrow to indicate the
current direction for the complete network.

TABLE 3.3 calculated values for the network of fig 3.1

Due to E1 Due to E2 Algebraic Sum

I1\ = I1\\ = I1 =

I2\ = I2\\ = I2 =

I3\ = I3\\ = I3 =
(c) Energize the network for Fig 3.1 and measure the voltages indicated in Table 3.4 calculated the
currents in Table 3.4 using ohm's law indicate the polarity of the voltages and the direction of the
currents on Fig 3.1

TABLE 3.4 Measured values for the network of Fig 3.1

V1 =
V2 =
V3 =
I1 =
I2 =
I3 =

(d) Compare the results of (b) and (c)

(e) Construct the network of Fig 3.2 note:

The source (E2) has been removed.

FIG 3.2
 (f) energize the network of fig 3.2 and measure the voltages indicated in table 3.5 calculate the
currents using ohm's law use measured resistor values.

TABLE 3.5 Measured values for the network of Fig 3.2

V1 =
V2 =
V3 =
I1 =
I2 =
I3 =

(g) Calculated the percent difference between calculated and measured (as determined from the
voltage reading) values for Fig 3.2 using the calculated results of Table 3.3 and the equation:

|𝐼(𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑)−𝐼(𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)|
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼(𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)
* 100% (𝐸𝑞 3. 1)

%Difference (I1) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, %Difference (I2) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, %Difference (I3) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(h) Construct the network of Fig 3.3 note the source (E1) has been removed.

FIG 3.3

(i) Energize the network of Fig 3.3 and measure the voltage indicated in table 3.6 calculated the
currents using Ohm's law

TABLE 3.6 Measured values for the network of Fig 3.3

V1 =
V2 =
V3 =
I1 =
I2 =
I3 =

(j) Calculate the percent difference calculated and measured value for Fig 3.3 use the calculated
results of 3.3 and Eq (3.1)
%Difference (I3) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, %Difference (I2) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, %Difference (I1) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(k) Insert the algebraic sum of the calculate and measured current in table 3.7 insert a small arrow to
indicate the resultant direction.

TABLE 3.7 Algebraic results of the networks of Fig 3.1

Calculated (from Table 3.3) Measured (from (f) and (i))

I1 = I1 =

I2 = I2 =

I3 = I3 =

(l) calculate the percent difference between the measured values of table 3.7 and 3.4 using the
following equation
|𝐼𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.7−𝐼𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.4|
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.4
* 100% (𝐸𝑞 3. 2)

%Difference (I3) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, %Difference (I2) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, %Difference (I1) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(m) Using the result of (f), determine the power delivered to each resistor and insert in Table 3.8
repeat for the results of (i), finally include the results obtained using the measurements of (c) and
complete the Table.

TABLE 3.8

(f) (i) Sum of (f) and (i) (c)

P1\ = P1\\ = P1 = P1 =
P2\ = P2\\ = P2 = P2 =
P3\ = P3\\ = P3 = P3 =
(n) referring to the results of (1), Comment on the applicability of the superposition theorem to
power effects.

Part 2
(a) construct the network of fig 3.4 insert
the measured resistor values.

FIG 3.4

(b) using the measured resistor, calculate the voltage V1, V2 and I using superposition show your work in
the space provided
 V1=_____________________, V2=_____________________, V3=_____________________

(c) Energize the network of Fig 3.4 and measure the voltage V1, V2, V3 is the superposition principle
verified?

V1=_____________________, V2=_____________________, V3=_____________________

(d) using measured resistor value, calculate the voltage v2 due only to source (E1). modify the
network and measured the voltage V2 and only to source (E1), be sure to indicate the polarity of
V2.

V1(Calculated)=_____________________, V2(Measured)=_____________________.

(e) repeat (d)for source (E2).

V1(Calculated)=_____________________, V2(Measured)=_____________________.

(f) using the measured results of d and r, determine the voltage V2 and compare to the result of (c).
calculate the present difference using the following

|𝑉2(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑓))−𝑉2(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑐))|

% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉2(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑐))
* 100% (𝐸𝑞 3. 3)
‫‪.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪, %Difference‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ))‪, V2(from (c‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ))‪V2(from (d) and (e‬‬
Experiment DC

4
Theremin’s Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer

#OBJECT

To verify Theremin’s theorem and the Maximum power transfer principle.

# EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Resistors
91Ω, 220Ω, 330Ω, 470Ω.
(0-1) KΩ Potentiometer

Instruments
DMM or VOM
DC Power supply

#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
 TABLE 1.1

Item Manufacturer and Model No. Laboratory Serial No.

DMM or VOM
Power supply

TABLE 1.2

Resistors
Nominal value Measured value
91Ω
220Ω
330Ω
470Ω

# RESUME OF THEORY
Through the use of Thevenin’s theorem, a complex two terminal, linear, multisource DC network can
be replaced by one having a single source and resistors.

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of a single dc source referred to as Thevenin’s voltage is the
open circuit voltage across the terminals.

In question, the Thevenin’s resistance is the resistance between these terminals with all of the
voltage and current sources replaced by their internal resistance.

If maximum power is delivered by the dc source to the resistor, the resistance must have a same
value of Thevenin’s equivalent resistance.
2
𝐸𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝑅𝑇𝐻

# PROCEDURE
Part 1: Thevenin’s theorem Calculations
(a) Insert the measured resistor values
into Fig (4.1) and calculate the
Thevenin’s voltage.

FIG 4.1
 ‫‪.‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪, RTH‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪ETH‬‬

‫)‪(b‬‬ ‫‪Insert the values‬‬ ‫‪obtained in (a) in the‬‬

‫‪schematic of fig 4.2‬‬ ‫‪and calculate the load‬‬
‫‪current.‬‬

‫‪FIG 4.2‬‬

‫‪.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ= ‪IL‬‬

‫‪(c) calculate the load current in the original network of fig 4.1 using series parallel methods‬‬
 IL =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Measurements:

(d) Construct the network of Fig 4.1 and measure the voltage for the load and the current
for the load and compare to (b).

VL (measured) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, IL (Calculated from VL) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(e) Determine RTh by constructing the network of Fig 4.3 and measuring the resistance between
the DMM terminals.

FIG 4.3

RTh =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

How does it compare to the value determine in (a)? Calculate the percent difference from

|𝑅𝑇ℎ(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑒))−𝑅𝑇ℎ(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑎))|

% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑎))
* 100% (𝐸𝑞 4. 2)

%Difference =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(f) Determine Eth by constructing the network of Fig 4.4 and measuring the open circuit voltage
between the load’s terminals.
 FIG 4.4

ETh =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

How does this value compare to the result of (a)? Determine the present difference using an
equation similar to that appearing in (e).

%Difference =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Thevenin’s Network:

(g) Construct the network of Fig 4.5 and set the values obtained for ETh and RTh in (e) and (f),
respectively, use the ohmmeter section of your meters to set the potentiometer properly, then
measure the voltage VL and calculate the current IL.

FIG 4.5

VL (measured) =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, IL (Calculated from VL) =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Compute the percent difference between levels of IL from (b) and the above using:
 |𝐼𝐿(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑔))−𝐼𝐿(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑏))|
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑏))
* 100% (𝐸𝑞 4. 3)

%Difference =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Part 2 Maximum Power Transfer:

(a) Construct the network of fig 4.6 and set the potentiometer to 50 measure the voltage across R as
you vary R through the following value 50, 100, 200, 300, 330, 400, 600, 800 and 1000Ω, be sure
to set the resistance with the ohmmeter section of your meter before each reading (remember to
disconnect the dc supply when setting the resistance level), complete Table 4.3 and plot power
versus R.

TABLE 4.3

R VR 𝑃𝑅 =
𝑉𝑅
𝑅

50Ω
100Ω
200Ω
300Ω
RL (Measured)
400Ω
600Ω
800Ω
1KΩ

FIG 4.6
(b) Theoretically, for what value of R will the power delivered to R be maximum? check this value
against that obtained from the graph.

R =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

In addition what should the voltage across R be when R is set for maximum power? do your
experiment data substantiate this?

VR =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Construct the network of Fig 4.7 and set the potentiometer to 10Ω complete Table 4
4 for each value of R.

FIG 4.7
 TABLE 4.4

R VR PR
10
50Ω
100Ω
150Ω
200Ω
250Ω
300Ω
350Ω
400Ω

(d) What is the value of R would appear to result in a maximum power transfer to the load? How
does it compare to the value of RTh determined in Part 1 (a)?

R =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Part 3 Concluding Exercise

(a) Construct the network of gig 4.8, insert the measured resistor values.

FIG 4.8

(b) Using experimental techniques, determine the maximum power to the resistor RL, that is,
determine ETh and RTh experimentally and then use Eq (4.1)
 ETh =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, RTh =‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Pmax =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Calculate the value of ETh, RTh and Pmax using measured resistor value and compare to the results
of (b) , using Table 4.5

TABLE 4.5

|(𝑐)−(𝑏)|
Parameter (b) (c) %𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ( (𝑏))
* 100%

ETh

RTh

Pmax

(d) Comment on whether RL =91Ω is a poor or excellent choices for maximum power transfer to the load, with RL =91Ω,
what percent of maximum power is delivered to the load using the equation (P91Ω/Pmax) *100%?

%of maximum power =‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Experiment DC

5
Wheatstone bridge and ∆-Y
Conversions

#OBJECT
To become familiar with the Wheatstone bridge and ∆-Y conversions.

# EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Resistors
1--91Ω

2--200Ω

3--330Ω,1KΩ

1--(0-1) KΩ potentiometer

1--Unmark fixed resistor in the range 47Ω to 220Ω

Instruments
1—DMM or VOM

1—DC Power supply

1—Commercial Wheatstone bridge (if available)

#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
TABLE 5.1

Manufacturer and Model Laboratory

Item
No. Serial No.
DMM or VOM
Power supply
Wheatstone bridge

Since more than one resistor of a particular value will appear in some configurations of this
experiment, the measured value of each should be determined just prior to inserting them into the
network.

#RESUME OF THEORY
The Wheatstone bridge is an instrument used to make precision measurements of unknown resistance
levels.

The basic configuration appears in Fig 5.1.

The unknown resistance is RX and R1, R2 and R3 are precision resistors of known value.

FIG 5.1

The network is balanced when the galvanometer (G) has a zero-level indication.

We are aware form circuit theory that if IG = 0 A, the voltage Vbd is zero and

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑑 and 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐

By substitution

I1R1 = IXRX Eq (5.1) and I2R2 = I3R3 Eq (5.2)

Solving Eq (5.1) for I1 yields.

𝐼𝑋𝑅𝑋
𝐼1 = 𝑅1
 Substituting I1 for I2 and IX for I3 in Eq (5.2), we have
𝐼𝑋𝑅𝑋
𝐼1𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑋𝑅3 𝑂𝑅 𝑅1
𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑋𝑅3

Canceling IX from both sides and solving for RX we obtain

𝑅1
𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅2
𝑅3 (5. 3)

Or in the ratio form

𝑅1 𝑅𝑋
𝑅2
= 𝑅3
(5. 4)

In the commercial Wheatstone bridge, R1 and R2 are variable in decade steps so that the ratio
R1/R2 is a decimal or integral multiplier, R3 is a continuous variable resistor such as a slider-wire
rheostat.

Before the unknown resistor is connected to the terminals of the commercial bridge, the R1/R2
ratio (called the factor of the ratio arms) is adjusted for that particular unknown resistor.

After the resistor is connected, R3 is adjusted until there is no delectable current indicated by the
galvanometer (Galvanometer sensitivities are usually 10-10 A or better).

The unknown resistance value is the ratio factor times the R3 settings.

There are certain configurations is which the resistors do not appear to be in series or parallel,
under these conditions, it is necessary to convert the circuit in question from one to another.

The two circuits to be investigated in this experiment are the delta (∆) and the wye (Y), both of
which appear in Fig 5.2 to convert a ∆ to Y (or vice versa), we use the following conversion
equations:

FIG 5.2

𝑅𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑏𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑅𝑐

𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑏+𝑅𝑐
, 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑏+𝑅𝑐
, 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑏+𝑅𝑐
(5. 5)

𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅1𝑅3+𝑅2𝑅3 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅1𝑅3+𝑅2𝑅3 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅2
, 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅3
, 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅1
(5. 6)

𝑅∆
𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑌 = 3
(5. 7)

𝐼𝐹 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 𝑅∆ = 𝑅𝑌 * 3 (5. 8)

# PROCEDURE
⮚ Part 1: Wheatstone bridge circuit
(a) Construct the network of
Fig 5.3, insert the
measured values
of each resistor and set
the potentiometer
to the maximum
resistance
setting.

FIG 5.3

(b) Starting with the meter on a higher voltage scale, vary the potentiometer until the
voltage Vab is as close to zero as possible, then drop the voltage scales to the lowest range
possible to set the voltage Vab as close to zero volts as possible, the bridge is now
balanced.
(c) Measure the voltage Vda , Vdb , Vac , Vbc.

Vda = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vdb = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vac = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vbc =

‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) Calculate the currents I1, I3 and I2, I4 using ohm’s law, are they equal as defined in the
Resume of Theory?

I1 = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I3 = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I2 = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, I4 =

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(e) Disconnect one lead of the potentiometer (used as a rheostat) and measure its
resistance.

Rpot = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(f) Verify that the following ratio is satisfied:

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅3
= 𝑅4

(g) Replace the 91Ω resistor by the unknown resistor, proceed as before to adjust the
potentiometer until Vab ≈ 0V , remove the variable resistor and measure its resistance
with the ohmmeter section of your multimeter.
 Rpot = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(h) Calculate the unknown resistance using Eq (5.3).

Rx = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(i) What is the maximum value of resistance that this network could measure? why?

Rmax = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

⮚ Part 2: Commercial Wheatstone Bridge

(a) Use the commercial Wheatstone bridge to measure the resistance of the unknown
resistor.

Rx = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(b) Measure Rx using the ohmmeter section of your multimeter, compare to the results of (a)
and part 1(h).
 Rx = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

⮚ Part 3 ∆-Y Conversions

(a) Construct the network of Fig 5.4, insert the measured values of the 220Ω resistors,
assume for the moment that each 1KΩ resistor is exactly 1KΩ.

FIG 5.4

(b) Calculate the current I and the voltage Vab using any method other than a ∆-Y conversion
(that is, mesh analysis, nodal analysis, and so on).

I = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vab = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(c) Measure the current I and the voltage Vab and compare to the result of (b).
 I = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vab = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(d) Calculate the equivalent Y for the ∆ formed by the three 1KΩ resistors, draw the
equivalent circuit with the replaced by Y, insert the values of the resistors in the Y in Fig
5.5 and also indicate on diagram those available fixed resistors that have a resistance
level closest to the calculated value.

FIG 5.5

(e) Construct the network drawn on (d) and measure the current I and the voltage Vab are
they approximately the same as those obtained in (c)? if so, why?
 I = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, Vab = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(f) Calculate the input resistance to the network of (d) using the measured resistor value.

RT (calculated) = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(g) Disconnect the supply and measure the input resistance to the network of (d), compare
the results of (f).

RT (measured) = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(h) Determine the input resistance to the network of (a) using RT = E/I and compare to the
result of (g), should they compare? Why?
 ‫‪.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪RT‬‬

‫‪(i) Calculate I using the result of (f) and compare to the value measured in (e).‬‬

‫‪.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪I‬‬
Experiment AC

6
The Oscilloscope

#OBJECT
To introduce the basic components and use of an oscilloscope and audio oscilloscope
(or function generator).

# EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Instruments
1—DMM or VOM

1—Oscilloscope

1—Audio oscillator or function generator

Miscellaneous

2—D batteries with holders

#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
TABLE 5.1

Manufacturer and Model Laboratory

Item
No. Serial No.
DMM or VOM
Oscilloscope
Audio oscillator or
function generator

#RESUME OF THEORY

oscilloscope
The cathode-ray oscilloscope is an instrument that displays the variations of a voltage with time on
a cathode-ray tube (CRT) such as that appearing in Fig 6.1, the CRT is an evacuated glass envelope,
shaped as shown in Fig 6.1, with the following essential components.

FIG 6.1

1. An electron gun generates rapidly moving electrons, shapes them into a pencil-like beam
and then directs them along the axis of the tube, and it is made up from these components.
a) A heater and cathode that serve as the source of electrons.
b) A control electrode that serves to very the strength of the beam current.
c) A focusing electrode that focuses the beam to sharp point on screen.
d) Accelerating and preaccelerating electrodes that give the electrons the high velocity required to
reach the screen and cause secondary emission.
2. Deflection plates for producing a vertical or horizontal deflection of the beam from its
original path.
3. A fluorescent screen that emits light at the point where the beam strikes.
The deflection of the beam may be accomplished either electrostatically or electromagnetically, most
oscilloscopes use electrostatic deflection (Fig 5.1), to deflect the beam, a potential is applied across
plates D1 and D2 or D3 and D4, the horizontal plates D1 and D2 deflect the beam vertically, whereas the
vertical plates D3 and D4 deflect the beam horizontally, the deflection of the beam is directly
proportional to the impressed voltage.

The CRT is, in itself , not a very sensitive device, a 5-in CRT under ordinary condition will give about 1-in
off deflection for a difference of potential of 100V, the signals encountered most frequently are usually
well under 100V, so it becomes necessary to amplify the signals before a usable deflection will be
obtained, two deflection amplifiers are required, one for each set of plates.

For the oscilloscope to indicate the variation of an electrical quantity in the vertical direction as
function of time, there must be a voltage impressed on the horizontal deflection plates that varies
linearly with the time, this voltage is shown graphically in Fig 6.2, an oscillator that can generate such a
voltage is called, for obvious reasons, a sawtooth oscillator, frequently the term sweep oscillator is
used, Fig 6.3 provides a block diagram of a general-purpose oscilloscope.

FIG 6.2

FIG 6.3

All of the controls for the proper operation of an oscilloscope are mounted on the front panel of
the instrument Fig 6.4 indicates the approximate location of the controls found on most
general-purpose oscilloscope.
The location of the control shown varies according to manufacturer, table 6.2 describes the
function of each.

FIG 6.4

Control Function
Power Turns on the main power
Intensity Controls the intensity of the pattern on the screen
Focus Focuses the electron beam so that the pattern will be clearly defined
Triggering mode Determines the type of triggering for the horizontal sweeping pattern
Triggering level Determine the level at which triggering should occur
Determine whether one or two signals will be displayed at the same time and
Vertical display mode
which technique will be used to display the signals
Y-position Controls the vertical location of the pattern
X-position Controls the horizontal location of the pattern
Vertical sensitivity Determines the volts/cm for vertical axis of display
Sweep time horizontal
Determines the time/cm for the horizontal axis of display
sensitivity
Determines whether DC levels will be displayed on the screen and permits
DC/AC/Gnd switch
determining the Gnd (zero-volt input level) of the display
TABLE 6.2
 (a) Voltage Measurements

DC Levels:

To use the scope to measure de levels, first place the DC/AC/Gnd switch in the Gnd position to
establish the ground (zero-volt) level on the screen.

Then switch the DC/AC/Gnd switch to the DC position to measure the DC level, in the AC mode, a
capacitor blocks the DC from the screen.

Then place the scope leads across the unknown DC level and use the following equation to
determine the DC level:
𝑉
𝐷𝐶 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (𝑉) = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑚) * 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝑐𝑚) (6.1)

AC Levels:

After reestablishing the ground level, place the DC/AC/Gnd switch in the AC mode and connect the
scope leads across the unknown voltage. The peak-to-peak voltage can then be determined from

𝑉𝑝−𝑝(𝑉) = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑘 (𝑐𝑚) * 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )𝑉

𝑐𝑚
(6. 2)

(b) Frequency Measurements

The oscilloscope can be used to set the frequency of an audio oscillator or function generator using
the horizontal sensitivity in the following manner.

Determine the period of the desired waveform and then calculate the number of divisions required
to display the waveform on the horizontal axis using the provided µs/cm, ms/cm, or s/cm on the
horizontal sensitivity control. Then adjust the audio oscillator or function generator to provide the
proper horizontal deflection for the desired frequency.

Of course, the reverse of the above procedure will determine the frequency of an unknown signal.

Audio Oscillator and Function Generator

The audio oscillator is designed to provide a sinusoidal waveform in the frequency range audible by
the human ear, a function generator typically expands on the capabilities of the audio oscillator by
providing a square wave and triangular waveform with an increased frequency range, Either
instrument is suitable for this experiment since we will be dealing only with sinusoidal waveforms in
the audio range.

Most oscillators and generators require that the magnitude of the output signal be set by an
oscilloscope or DMM (or VOM), That is, the amplitude dial of the oscillator is not graduated and the
peak or peak-to-peak value is set by connecting the output of the oscillator to a scope or meter and
adjusting the amplitude dial until the desired voltage is obtained.
# PROCEDURE

Part 1: Introduction.
(a) Your instructor will introduce the basic operation of the oscilloscope and audio oscillator or
function generator.
(b) Turn on the oscilloscope and establish a horizontal line centered on the Face of the screen,
there are no connections to the vertical input sections of the scope for this part.
(c) Adjust the controls listed in Table 6.3 and comment on the effect.

Control Observed Effect

Focus
Intensity
Y-position
X-position
TABLE 6.3

Part 2: DC Voltage Measurements

(a) Set the DC/AC/Gnd switch to the Gnd position and adjust the Y-position control until the
zero-volt reference is a line centered vertically on the screen.
(b) Once the zero-volt level is established, move the DC/AC/Gnd switch to the de position and
set the vertical sensitivity to 1V/cm and connect one channel of the scope across the 1.5-V
battery as shown in Fig 6.5.

FIG 6.5

Record the vertical shift below.

Vertical shift =‫ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬cm

Determine the voltage by multiplying by the vertical sensitivity, that is:

DC Voltage = (vertical shift)(vertical sensitivity)

= (‫)ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ)(ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

= ‫ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬V.
Change the sensitivity to 0.5 V/cm and note the effect on the vertical shift, recalculate the DC
voltage with this new shift.

DC voltage = (vertical shift)(vertical sensitivity)

= (‫)ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــ)(ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

= ‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬V

How do the two measurements compare?

Which is more accurate? Why?

(c) Disconnect the 1.5-V battery and reestablish the zero-volts reference line, then connect the
vertical input section of the scope as Fig 6.6 with the vertical sensitivity set at 1 V/cm.

FIG 6.6

What was the effect on the magnitude and direction of the shift?

Can a scope determine whether a particular voltage is positive or negative? How?

Calculate the measured voltage as follows:

DC voltage = (vertical shift)(vertical sensitivity)

 = (‫)ــــــــــــــــــــــــ)(ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

= ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

Measure the voltage with the DMM (or VOM) and compare results.

DC voltage [DMM or VOM] = ‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬V.

Part 3: Sinusoidal Waveforms-Magnitude.

In this part of the experiment we will learn how to set the magnitude of a sinusoid signal using an
oscilloscope or DMM (or VOM), the frequency will remain fixed 500 Hz.

Oscilloscope:

(a) Connect the output of the oscillator or generator directly to one channel of the scope as
shown in Fig. 6.7.

FIG 6.7

(b) Set the output frequency of the oscillator or generator to 500HZ using, the dial and
appropriate multiplier, turn the amplitude knob all the way to the left for minimum output.
(c) Set the vertical sensitivity of the scope to 1 V/cm and the horizontal sensitivity to 0.5ms/cm
and turn on both the scope and oscillator or generator.
(d) Set the DC/AC/Gnd switch to the Gnd position to establish the zero-volt reference level (also
the vertical center of a sinusoidal waveform) and then return the: switch to the AC position.
(e) Now adjust the amplitude control of the oscillator or generator until the signal has a 4V
peak-to-peak swing. The resulting waveform has the following mathematical formulation:

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2Π𝑓𝑡 = 2 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2Π500𝑡

(f) Switch to the de position and comment below on any change in the waveform.
(g) Make the necessary adjustments to display the following waveforms on the screen. Sketch both
patterns in the space provided, showing the number of divisions (in centimeters) for
the vertical and horizontal distances, and the vertical and horizontal sensitivities.
1. 𝑣 = 0. 2 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2π500𝑡

2. 𝑣 = 8 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2π500𝑡

DMM or VOM:

(h) The sinusoidal signal 2 sin(2π500t) has an effective value determined by:

𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0. 707𝑉𝑚 = 0. 707(2) = 1. 414𝑉

 Connect the DMM or VOM directly across the oscillator in the AC rms mode and adjust the
oscillator output until Veff = 1.414V, Then connect the output of the oscillator directly to the scope
and note the total peak-to-peak swing.

Is the waveform the same as that obtained in (e)?

(i) Use the DMM (or VOM) to set the following sinusoidal output from the oscillator:

𝑣 = 5 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2π500𝑡

𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 =‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬V

Set Veff with the DMM or VOM by adjusting the output of the oscillator and place the signal on
the screen.

Calculate the peak-to-peak voltage as follows:

𝑉𝑝−𝑝 =(vertical distance peak to peak)(vertical sensitivity)

=(‫)ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ)(ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

= ‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬V

How does the above compare to the desired 10-V peak-to-peak voltage?

Part 4: Sinusoidal Waveforms-Frequency.

This section will demonstrate how the oscilloscope can be used to set the frequency output of an
oscillator or generator. In other words, the scope can be used to make fir adjustments on the
frequency set by the dials of the oscillator or generator.

. For a signal such as 2 sin 2=5001, the frequency is 500 Hz and the period 1/500 = 2ms. With a
horizontal sensitivity of 0.5 ms/cm, the waveform should appear in exactly four horizontal
divisions. If it does not, the fine-adjust control on the frequency of the oscillator or generator can
be adjusted until it is exactly 4 cm. The scope has then set the output frequency of the oscillator.

Make the necessary adjustments to place the following waveforms on the scope. Sketch the
waveforms in the space provided, indicating the number of vertical and horizontal deflections and
the sensitivity of each.

1. 𝑣 = 0. 4 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60. 280𝑡

‫‪ sec.‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪ Hz, t‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪f‬‬

‫‪ cm.‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪Vertical deflection‬‬

‫‪.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪Vertical sensitivity‬‬

‫‪ cm.‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪Horizontal deflection‬‬

‫‪.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪Horizontal sensitivity‬‬

‫𝑡‪2. 𝑣 = 5 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 377‬‬

‫‪ s.‬ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪ Hz, t‬ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ = ‪f‬‬

Experiment AC

7
Frequency dependence of R-L-C Components

#OBJECT

To note the effect of frequency on the basic R-L-C components.

#EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Resistors
1—47Ω,1-kΩ

Inductors
1—10mH

Capacitors
1—0.1-µF.

Instruments
1-DMM
1--Oscilloscope
1-Audio oscillator (or function generator)
#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
TABLE 7.1

Item Manufacturer and Model No. Laboratory Serial No.

DMM or VOM
Oscilloscope
Audio oscillator or function
generator

TABLE 7.2

Resistors

Nominal Value Measured Value

100Ω
1kΩ

# RESUME OF THEORY
The resistance of a carbon resistor is unaffected by frequency, except for extremely high frequencies.
This rule is also true for the total resistance of resistors in series or parallel.

The reactance of an inductor is linearly dependent on the frequency applied. That is, if we double the
frequency, we double the reactance, as determined by XL = 2πfL, for very low frequencies, the
reactance is correspondingly very small, while for increasing frequencies, the reactance will increase to
a very large value. For dc conditions, we find that XL = 2π(0)L is zero ohms, corresponding with the
short-circuit representation we used in our analysis of dc circuits. For very high frequencies, XL is so
high that we can often use an open-circuit approximation.

The capacitor behaves (as far as reactance is concerned) in a manner opposite to that of the inductor.
For low frequencies, the capacitive reactance, as determined by Xc = 1/2πfC is very high and
approaches the open-circuit approximation used for dc circuits. For very high frequencies, the
reactance becomes progressively smaller until the short-circuit approximation could be employed, the
capacitive reactance is nonlinearly dependent on the frequency.
# PRUCESUR

Part 1: Resistors
Construct the circuit of Fig 7.1, insert the measured value of R and Rs.

FIG 7.1

In this part of the experiment, the voltage across the resistor R will be held constant while only the
frequency is varied. If the resistance is frequency independent, the current through the circuit should
not change as a function of frequency. Therefore, by keeping the voltage Vab constant and changing
the frequency while monitoring the current I, we can verify if, indeed, resistance is frequency
independent. The current Irms will be determined by

Irms= VRS(rms)/RS(measured)

Set the voltage Vab to 4 V(p-p) (with the oscilloscope). Then set the frequencies to those shown in
Table 3.3, each time monitoring Vab [always 4 V (p-p)] and VRS, calculate Irms and substitute into Table
7.3.

TABLE 7.3

0.707
Frequency Vab (p-p) 𝑉𝑎𝑏(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 2
𝑉𝑎𝑏(𝑝 − 𝑝) Irms 𝑅=
𝑉𝑎𝑏(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

100Hz 4V 1.1414 V
200Hz 4V 1.1414 V
500Hz 4V 1.1414 V
1000Hz 4V 1.1414 V
2000Hz 4V 1.1414 V
 Does the resistance R change with frequency?

Part 2: Inductors

(a) construct the circuit of Fig. 3.2 (Measure the dc resistance of the coil with the DMM and record

that value as R1, on the diagram).

FIG.3.2

In this part, the resistor of Part 1 is replaced by the inductor, here again the voltage across the
inductor will be kept constant while we vary the frequency on that voltage and monitor the current in
the circuit, set the voltage Vab to 4 V(p-p) (with the oscilloscope) and the oscillator or generator to the
various frequencies shown in Table 3.4, each time making sure that Vab = 4V(p-p) and that you
measure the voltage VRS, Calculate Irms for each frequency and substitute into Table 3.4.

TABLE 3.4
𝑉𝑎𝑏(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 𝑋𝐿(𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 2π𝑓𝐿
Frequency Vab(p-p) Vab(rms) Irms 𝑋𝐿(𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
 200Hz 4V 1.1414 V

500Hz 4V 1.1414 V

800Hz 4V 1.1414 V

1000Hz 4V 1.1414 V

2000Hz 4V 1.1414 V

(b) Calculate the reactance XL (magnitude only) at each frequency and insert the values in Table 3.4
under the heading “XL(measured)". We are assuming that XL » R1 for the frequencies of interest,
so that

𝑉𝑎𝑏(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 2 2 2
Z= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
= 𝑅1 + 𝑋𝐿 ≅ 𝑋𝐿 = XL

(c) Calculate the reactance at each frequency of Table 3.4 using the nameplate value of inductance
(10 mH), and complete the table.
(d) Plot the measured and calculated values of XL versus frequency on Graph 3.1, label each curve
and plot the points accurately.
(e) Are both plots straight lines? Do they both pass through XL = 0 at f = 0Hz as they should?
GRAPH 7.1
 (f) Determine the inductance at 1500 Hz using the results of (d). That is determine XL from the
graph and calculate L from L = 𝑋𝐿/2πf. Compare to the name plate value.

L calculated = _______________, L nameplate = ________________

Part 3 Capacitors
(a) Construct the circuit of Fig. 3.3, this part is exactly the same as Part 2 except that we now insert a capacitor
in place of the inductor.

FIG 7.3

Set the voltage Vab to 4 V(p-p) (with the oscilloscope) and the oscillator to the various frequencies
shown in Table 7.5, make sure that Vab = 4V(p-p) and that you measure voltage VRS for each setting,
calculate Irms at each frequency and substitute into Table 7.5.

TABLE 7.5

𝑉𝑎𝑏(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 1
Frequency Vab(p-p) Vab(rms) Irms 𝑋𝑐(𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑋𝐶(𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 2π𝑓𝐶

200Hz 4V 1.1414 V
500Hz 4V 1.1414 V
800Hz 4V 1.1414 V
1000Hz 4V 1.1414 V
2000Hz 4V 1.1414 V

(b) Calculate the reactance Xc (magnitude only) at each frequency and insert in Table 7.5 under the
heading “Xc(measured)".
(c) Calculate the reactance at each frequency of Table 7.5 using the nameplate value of capacitance
(0.1µF), and complete the table.
(d) Plot the measured and calculated values of Xc versus frequency on Graph 7.2. Label each curve
and plot the points accurately.
(e) How do the two curves compare? Are they linear (straight-line) or non-linear? Comment on their
shape.

(f) Determine the reactance of the capacitor at 1500 Hz from the plot and calculate the capacitance
of the capacitor using the equation C = 1/2πfXc, compare to the nameplate value.

L calculated = _______________, L nameplate = ________________.

GRAPH 7.2
Experiment AC

8
Frequency Response of R-L and R-C
Networks

# OBJECT:

To plot the frequency response of the R-L and R-C networks.

#EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Resistors:
1—100 Ω, 1-kΩ

Inductors:
1—10 mH

Capacitors:
2—0.1 µF

Instruments:
1—DMM

1—Oscilloscope

1—Audio oscillator (or function generator).

#EQUIPMENT ISSUED
TABLE 7.1

Item Manufacturer and Model No. Laboratory Serial No.

DMM or VOM
Oscilloscope
Audio oscillator or function
generator

TABLE 7.2

Resistors

Nominal Value Measured Value

100Ω
1kΩ

#RESUME OF THEORY:
For the series DC or AC circuit, the voltage drop across a particular element is directly related to its
impedance as compared to the other series elements. Since the impedance of the inductor and
capacitor will change with frequency, the voltage across both elements will be determined by the
applied frequency.

For the series R-L network, the voltage across the coil will increase with frequency since the inductive
reactance increases directly with frequency and the impedance of the resistor is essentially independent
of the applied frequency.

Since the voltage and current of the resistor are related by the fixed resistance value, the shape of their
curves versus frequency will be the same.

Keep in mind the voltages across the elements in an ac circuit are vectorially related.

Otherwise, the voltage readings may appear to be totally incorrect and not satisfy Kirchhoff’s voltage
law.
Caution: Make sure that all measurements are made with the oscilloscope and oscillator sharing a common
ground. The elements of the network may have to be reversed to insure a common ground.
#PROCEDURE:
Part 1: R-L Network
(a) Construct the network of Fig. 4.1 Insert the measured values of the resistors R and R1 on the
diagram. For the frequency range of interest, we will assume that XL >>R1 and 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
≅ 𝑗𝑋𝐿

FIG 8.1

(b) Maintaining 4V(p-p) at the input to the circuit, record the voltage VL(p-p) for the frequencies indicated
in Table 8.3, make sure to check continually that Es = 4V(p-p) with each frequency change.

TABLE 8.3

Frequency VL(p-p) VR(p-p) I(p-p)

1KHz
2KHz
3KHz
4KHz
5KHz
6KHz
7KHz
8KHz
9KHz
10kHZ

(c) Interchange the positions of R and L in Fig 8.1 and measure VR(P-P) for the same range of frequencies
with Es maintained at 4V(p-p), insert the measurements in Table 8.3.
(d) Calculate I(p-p) from I(p-p) = VR(P-P)/R measured and complete Table 8.3.

(e) Sketch the magnitude of VL(p-p) and VR(p-p) versus frequency on Graph 8.1

GRAPH 8.1

(f) At 5KHz, does the magnitude of VL(p-p) + VR(P-P) = Es(p-p)? Comment accordingly, how are they related?
 (g) Sketch the magnitude of I(p-p) versus frequency on Graph 8.2, how does it compare to the graph of
VR(p-p) versus frequency?

GRAPH 8.2

(h) At a frequency of 8kHz, calculate the reactance of the inductor using XL= 2πfL, compare to the
value obtained from the data of Table 8.3 using

𝑋𝐿 ≌ 𝑉𝐿(𝑝−𝑝)/𝐼(𝑝−𝑝)

XL(calculated) =_______________, XL(from data) = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(i) Determine, using vector algebra, the voltage VL(p-p) at a frequency of 5kHz and compare to the
results appearing in Table 8.3.

VL(Calculated) = ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬, VL(measured) = ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬.

(j) At low frequencies the inductor approaches a low impedance short circuit equivalent and at high
frequencies a high impedance open circuit equivalent, Do the data of Table 8.3 and Graphs 8.1
and 8.2 verify the above statement? Comment accordingly.

Part 2: R –C Network

(a) Construct the network of Fig 8.2 insert the measured value of the resistor R.

FIG 8.2

(b) Maintaining 4V(p-p) at the input to the circuit, record the voltage VC(p-p) for the frequencies indicated
in Table 8.4. Make sure to check continually that Es = 4V(p-p) with each frequency change.
 (c) Interchange the positions of R and C in Fig 8.2 and measure VR(p-p) for the same range of frequencies
with Es maintained at 4V(p-p), insert the measurements in table 8.4.

(d) Calculate I(p-p) from I(p-p) = VR(p-p)/R measured and complete Table 8.4.

TABLE 8.4

Frequency VL(p-p) VR(p-p) I(p-p)

1KHz
2KHz
3KHz
4KHz
5KHz
6KHz
7KHz
8KHz
9KHz
10kHZ

(e) Sketch
the magnitude of
VC(p-p) and VR(p-p)
versus
frequency on
Graph 8.3.
 GRAPH 8.3

(f) At 10 KHz, does the magnitude of VL(p-p) + VR(p-p) = ES(p-p)? Comment accordingly, how are they
related?
(g) Sketch the magnitude of I(p-p) versus frequency on Graph 8.4, how does it compare to the Graph of
VR(p-p) versus frequency?

GRAPH 8.4

(h) At a frequency of 4kHz, calculate the reactance of the capacitor using XC= 1/2πfC, compare to the
value obtained from the data of Table 8.4 using: XC= VC(p-p)/I(p-p)

XC(calculated) = _______________, Xc (from data) = ________________.

(i) Determine, using vector algebra, the voltage VC(p-p) at a frequency of 6kHz and compare to the
result appearing in Table 8.4.
 VC(p-p) (calculated) = __________________, VC(p-p) (measured) = ___________________.

(j) At low frequencies the capacitor approaches a high-impedance open-circuit equivalent and at
high frequencies a low impedance short circuit equivalent. Does the data of Table 8.4 and Graphs
8.3 and 8.4 verify the above statement? Comment accordingly.

(k) Connect two 0.1 µF capacitors in parallel and plot the graph of VC(p-p) versus frequency on Graph
8.3. Are the results what you expected? Why? Use the same values for ES and R.
Experiment AC