HSB SECTION A (Pt.

1/3): LIFE PROCESSES AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Familiar Terms and Definitions – Living Organisms

Term Definition or Explanation

SPECIALIZATION The adaptation of a cell to suit its function.

ATP The chemical all living organisms use to provide energy.

DIFFUSION The net movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

OSMOSIS The net movement of water molecules from high to low concentration
through a partially permeable membrane.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT The net movement of molecules from low to high concentration with the
use of ATP.

ENZYME A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up body reactions and
turn substrates into products.

DENATURATION The deactivation of an enzyme due to heat or incompatible pH by altering

the shape of the active site.

STARCH Stored glucose in plant cells.

GLYCOGEN Stored glucose in animal cells.

PERISTALSIS The contraction and relaxation of oesophagus and intestinal muscles.

DIGESTION The breakdown of large insoluble nutrients to small soluble nutrients.

BMI A measurement of weight/height2 to estimate body fat.

EMULSIFICATION The breakdown of fat molecules into tiny droplets by bile to increase
surface area and make them easier to digest.

EXCRETION The removal of metabolic waste from the body.

EGESTION The removal of faeces from the body.

1
WHAT IS A LIVING ORGANISM?

All living things are made up of CELLS. Thus, there are two types of organisms:

- UNICELLULAR - These organisms

are only made of one cell. They usually
have simple structures and do not rely MULTICELLULAR - These organisms require
on a transport system for their nutrients. a more complex structure and specialized
They instead move dissolved gases and systems may be necessary to enable to organism
nutrients around by the process of to digest and transport food, escape predators,
DIFFUSION. They do not rely on seek shelter and find a sexual mate to continue
sexual reproduction to continue their the species.
species, instead reproducing by splitting
in two.

All living organisms have specific characteristics, listed in the table below:

Characteristic Description

GROWTH Permanent increase in size by increasing mass and number of cells.

RESPIRATION Release of energy through a molecule known as ATP for the metabolism1.

IRRITABILITY Detection and response to a change in the environment, such as temperature.

MOVEMENT An action by an organism, causing a change in position or place. 2

NUTRITION Taking in, utilization and storage nutrients from different sources.

EXCRETION Removal of metabolic waste, toxic products and excess in the body.

REPRODUCTION Production of new individuals to continue the species.

1 - Metabolism refers to THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES THAT OCCUR IN THE BODY.

2 - Plants move by orienting their leaves and stems towards sunlight, or through the downward growth of
their roots. While plants can move their body parts or grow in a particular direction, they cannot direct
their bodies from one location to another. When an organism is able to move from one location to
another, this is termed LOCOMOTION.

2
 CELL STRUCTURE (UNDIFFERENTIATED)
PLANT CELL
ANIMAL CELL

ORGANELLE ROLE ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

NUCLEUS Contains genetic material (DNA YES YES

and RNA). Also regulates activites
of other organelles.

MITOCHONDRION Site of respiration (energy release). YES YES

CYTOPLASM Holds all organelles together. Also YES YES

the site of some chemical reactions.

CELL MEMBRANE Allows entry and exit of some YES YES

substances. Partially permeable.

CHLOROPLAST Site of photosynthesis (food NO YES

production using light).

CELLULOSE CELL Support and maintains internal water NO YES

WALL pressure in cell, prevents bursting.

VACUOLE Storage of water and minerals. Small and Large and

temporary permanent

RIBOSOME Production of proteins. YES YES

ENDOPLASMIC Packaging of proteins. YES YES

RETICULUM (ER)

3
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS AND TISSUES

Examples of Systems in the Human Body

System Purpose Specialized Cells, Tissues, Organs

CIRCULATORY Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the body. Heart, blood, arteries, veins

DIGESTIVE Breaks down food and delivers products to the Stomach, pancreas, small and large
blood. intestines, teeth

NERVOUS Sends electrical messages in the body. Neurones, nerves, brain

RESPIRATORY The intake and exchange of gases in the air. Lungs, ribcage, diaphragm

EXCRETORY Removes wastes and regulates water balance. Kidneys, nephrons, bladder

IMMUNE Helps fight disease-causing organisms. Lymphocytes, phagocytes, spleen

REPRODUCTIVE Functions to create offspring. Ovaries, testes, uterus, prostate

SPECIALIZATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Specialized or differentiated cells have specific tasks in multicellular organisms and thus, they have
features and adaptations in order to assist in performing that task. Below are just a few examples:

4
DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Diffusion is defined as THE MOVEMENT OF The opposite of diffusion is Active Transport,

MOLECULES FROM A HIGH TO LOW which is defined as THE MOVEMENT OF

CONCENTRATION UNTIL EQUILIBRIUM. MOLECULES FROM LOW TO HIGH

The energy from diffusion comes from the CONCENTRATION, USING ATP.

natural energy in molecules. There are factors

Along concentration gradient – high to low
that speed up diffusion, such as:
Against concentration gradient – low to high
Temperature, Concentration Gradient

USES OF DIFFUSION

Location Description
Lungs The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the lungs and bloodstream.

Small intestine The movement of digested nutrients from the intestines to the blood.

Kidneys The movement of waste from the blood to the kidneys.

USES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Used in Description

Nerve cells Used to transport electrical impulses.

Small intestine Used to transport sodium into the blood from the intestines.

5
OSMOSIS

OSMOSIS is defined as THE MOVEMENT OF WATER MOLECULES FROM A HIGH

TO LOW CONCENTRATION ACROSS A PARTIALLY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE.

It can be considered a special type of diffusion, except only involving water and requiring a partially
permeable membrane. Like diffusion, osmosis is a passive process, meaning it does not use ATP.

Concentrated – low water conc.

Dilute – high water conc.

Partially permeable membranes

allow only small molecules to
pass. No sugar molecules can
pass because they are too large.

The apparatus shows Visking tubing (which is partially permeable) containing a sugar solution. It is
submerged in a beaker of distilled (pure) water. A capillary tube shows any change in water level in the
tubing. What will be observed as time passes in the diagram above?

The water will move into the tubing, causing it to swell. This is because there is a lower concentration of
water in the tubing. The water level drops in the beaker and the level rises in the capillary tube. Sugar
molecule cannot pass out because they are too large.

TABLE SHOWING USES IN HUMAN BODY (AND OTHER NOTES)

Transport Method Example 1 Example 2

Diffusion Is a passive process, so no energy is Transports oxygen from lungs to blood, and
used. Can occur with gases and liquids. digested food to bloodstream.

Active Transport Uses energy (ATP), unlike diffusion Moves from low to high concentration
and osmosis. (against a concentration gradient).

Osmosis Is a passive process, so no energy is MUST have a partially permable

used. ONLY water moves. membrane.

6
 BALANCED DIET

When nutrients are lacking or in excess,

A balanced diet can be defined as A DIET
this is termed MALNUTRITION. This
THAT CONTAINS ALL THE REQUIRED
could lead to nutritional deficiency diseases,
NUTRIENTS IN THE CORRECT or if in excess, could result in physiological

PROPORTIONS. diseases such as: CORONARY HEART

DISEASE, HYPERTENSION, DIABETES.

MACRONUTRIENTS

NUTRIENT FUNCTION SOURCES EXTRA NOTES

Carbohydrates Provides energy Simple: Syrups, Carbohydrates are made of

for respiration. candies, fruits carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. They are stored as
STARCH in plants and
Complex: Rice, GLYCOGEN in animals.
bread, potatoes Simplest form is GLUCOSE.

Proteins Used for growth Meat, eggs, red Proteins are made of
and cell repair. beans nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc.
They are broken down into
AMINO ACIDS.

Lipids (fats & oils) Helps store energy Olive oil, potato ‘Good’ fats are termed
for warmth and chips, butter, unsaturated (e.g. avocadoes)
insulation. avocadoes while ‘bad’ is saturated (e.g.
pizza, cake)

7
MAIN VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Vitamins and minerals are simple organic compounds that cannot be formed by the body and must be
provided in small amounts in order to maintain life processes and prevent certain diseases.

NUTRIENT FUNCTION SOURCES SOLUBLE IN

Vitamin A Promotes eyesight in dim light. Carrots, butter, fish FAT

Helps maintain skin and soft oils, green leafy
tissue. vegetables

Vitamin B1 Helps with respiration. Bran, cereals WATER

Vitamin C Helps with repairing linings and Oranges, tomatoes, WATER

tissues in the body. bell peppers, guavas

Vitamin D Helps absorb calcium for bone Dairy products, tuna, FAT
development. salmon, sunlight
exposure

Vitamin E Helps protect cells from Almonds, wheat germ FAT

damaging particles.

Vitamin K Helps with blood clotting. Kale, spinach, FAT

cauliflower

Iron Helps produce haemoglobin for Liver, spinach, ---------

red blood cell production. beetroot

Calcium Helps with bone and teeth Dairy products ---------

development.

8
FOOD TESTS

NUTRIENT REAGANT / PROCEDURE COLOUR CHANGE

Place food sample in a boiling tube with
Reducing Sugar
BENEDICT’S SOLUTION and place in a Blue → Green → Brick Red
(Glucose)
heated water bath until colour changes.

Place food sample in a boiling tube with

Non-reducing
HCl and boil for 1 minute. Neutralize HCl Blue → Green → Brick Red
sugar (Sucrose)
with sodium carbonate. Then heat wwith
BENEDICT’S SOLUTION.

Add a few drops of IODINE SOLUTION. Orange-yellow → Blue-black

Starch

SPOT TEST: Rub food sample against a A translucent stain appears.

thin piece of paper.
Lipid/Fats
EMULSION TEST: Mix sample with A cloudy white emulsion if fat
ethanol and water and shake vigorously. is present.

BIURET TEST: Add copper sulphate and

Protein
sodium hydroxide to food sample and mix. Blue → Purple/Violet

9
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN TOOTH

Tooth Suited for Part of Tooth Purpose

INCISORS Cutting food ENAMEL Protection of inner tooth

CANINES Tearing meat DENTINE Protects pulp cavity

PREMOLAR AND Grinding food into PULP CAVITY Contains blood vessels and
MOLARS smaller pieces nerves

CEMENT Holds tooth to gum

DENTAL HYGIENE

Teeth can rot when carbohydrates or sugars are left on the enamel. Bacteria feed on the sugars and
secrete ACIDS to digest it. These acids wear away the ENAMEL and cause toothaches. Keeping teeth
healthy involves using toothpastes high in FLUORIDE, FLOSSING regularly and avoiding sugary foods
at night before sleep.

DEFICIENCY DISEASES
Disease Deficient nutrient Signs/Symptoms

NIGHT BLINDNESS Vitamin A Inability to see in dim light

BERI-BERI Vitamin B Fatigue, fainting

SCURVY Vitamin C Sensitive, bleeding gums

RICKETS Vitamin D or Calcium Bones bend or break easily

ANAEMIA Iron Less red blood cells, fatigue, fainting

KWASHIORKOR Protein Muscular loss, bloated belly

MARASMUS Carbohydrates Extreme fatigue, fainting

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OTHER CONDITIONS:

• Purposeful starvation to lose weight: ANOREXIA

• Binge-eating and purging: BULIMIA

Both these disorders can produce ULCERS in the stomach due to the buildup of acids. They can also
result in extreme fatigue and eventual issues with damage to the oesophagus and indigestion.

The following conditions can occur as a result of overeating sugars and salts.
Disease Description

HYPERTENSION High blood pressure, usually due to high blood salt concentration.

DIABETES TYPE II Inability to regulate blood glucose level. Can lead to nerve damage over time.

ATHEROSCLEROSIS Buildup of plaque in arteries that can lead to a heart attack.

BMI (BODY MASS INDEX) BMI Range Classification

Under 20 UNDERWEIGHT
BMI is a measurement of height and weight 20 - 25 NORMAL
used to estimate a person’s body fat.
26 - 30 OVERWEIGHT
It is found by using the following formula:
Over 30 OBESE
BMI = Weight / Height2

NOTE: BMI is not an accurate indicator of body fat, as it does not take into the individual’s MUSCLE mass.
A bodybuilder, for example, may be classed as obese by BMI’s standards.

FIBRE

Fibre (or roughage) is found in foods such as VEGETABLES, FRUITS, CEREALS, WHOLEWHEAT.
Most fibres are insoluble and cannot be fully broken down by the human digestive system. These are used
to move digested food through the gut (by the process of PERISTALSIS) Soluble fibre can also make
stools softer and easier to egest.

• A lack of fibre and water in the diet may lead to a back-up of food in the intestines, leading to
the hardening of the faeces, a condition called CONSTIPATION.
• DIARRHOEA on the other hand is mostly caused by improper handling of food. Insects such as
FLIES can deposit disease-causing organisms called pathogens on the food. When a person
ingests the food, their body tries to get rid of it by producing excess water.

11
ENZYMES

Enzymes are used in ALL chemical reactions in living things; this includes respiration, photosynthesis,
movement growth, excretion of toxins in the liver and more. They lower the ACTIVATION energy
required to initiate reactions and speed up reactions in the body. They are called biological catalysts.

• The molecules that enzymes act upon are • Enzymes are made of PROTEINS.
called SUBSTRATES. In the end, they turn
these substrates into PRODUCTS. So, for • Enzymes are SPECIFIC for each chemical
example, when we eat, the enzyme reaction. In terms of the digestive system,
AMYLASE found in saliva is used to turn the this means that an enzyme can only react
substrate STARCH into a sugar called with ONE NUTRIENT, e.g. the enzyme
MALTOSE. pepsin in the stomach digests proteins,
but not fats or starch.

• Certain enzymes also have to be within a pH to work (e.g. enzymes working in an acidic pH, as in the
stomach, may not work in the intestines).

EXAMPLES OF ENZYMES
Enzyme Produced by Substrate → Product

Amylase Salivary glands, pancreas Starch → Maltose

Pepsin Stomach Proteins → Polypeptides → Amino acids

Trypsin Pancreas Proteins → Polypeptides → Amino acids

Lipase Pancreas, small intestine Fats → Fatty acids and Glycerol

Catalase Liver Hydrogen peroxide* → Hydrogen and Water

* When hydrogen peroxide builds up in your body, it turns hair grey. Catalase breaks
down hydrogen peroxide.You produce less catalase as you get older, so more
hydrogen peroxide builds up and your hair turns grey faster.
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FACTORS THAT AFFECT ENZYME ACTIVITY

There are TWO main factors that affect enzyme activity and can denature an enzyme:
1. TEMPERATURE 2. pH (acidity)

Enzymes are easily DENATURED (or

destroyed) by HEAT. Our enzymes work best at
NORMAL BODY TEMP. (37oC).

Too much heat can break down the structure of

the enzyme. When this happens, the substrate no
longer fits because THE ACTIVE SITE
CHANGES. When this happens, the enzyme is
said to be DENATURED.

pH refers to how acidic or alkaline something is.

Certain parts of the body are acidic, such as the
STOMACH, while others are alkaline, such as
SMALL INTESTINE.

pH level goes from 1 – 14.

• Acidic is under 7.
• Alkaline is over 7.
• And neutral is 7.
Optimum pH of pepsin: 3
Optimum pH of trypsin: 7.5

DENATURATION EXPERIMENT

Observe the four test tubes. State the one where

digestion of bread will be successful and explain
why the others will experience no digestion.

II will digest the bread.

I cannot because the HCl denatures the enzyme.

III cannot because there is no enzyme.

IV cannot because the heat from the boiled water

denatures the enzyme.

13
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

14
SECTION WHAT OCCURS THERE ENZYMES PRESENT

MOUTH Food is broken down MECHANICALLY by AMYLASE

the teeth into small pieces.

Starch is digested CHEMICALLY by

salivary amylase.

OESOPHAGUS PERISTALSIS allows food to be carried -----------

into the stomach.

STOMACH The chewed food is churned with acids and PEPSIN

enzymes into a mixture called CHYME.
RENNIN (in babies)
Proteins are broken down by PEPSIN.

LIVER BILE is secreted, which EMULSIFIES fats. CATALASE

Bile is eventually stored in the
GALLBLADDER.

PANCREAS Releases juices to NEUTRALIZE stomach AMYLASE

acid and numerous ENZYMES to digest
TRYPSIN
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
LIPASE

DUODENUM Allows bile and pancreatic juices and Same as above.

(small intestine) enzymes to digest food.

ILEUM Contains villi, which allows the -----------

(small intestine) absorption of food into the blood.

COLON Helps with absorption of water and -----------

(large intestine) dissolved vitamins.

RECTUM/ANUS Stores solid waste (FECES) before it is -----------

(large intestine) EGESTED from the body.

15
USES OF WATER

1. It acts as a SOLVENT to absorb, dissolve and transport materials in the body.

2. It assists with the regulation of BODY TEMPERATURE, helping produce SWEAT to
cool the body.
3. It helps with the production of URINE, to get rid of urea, one of the major excretory
products of the human body.
4. Water allows certain breakdown reactions to occur, called HYDROLYSIS.

ASSIMILATION

After the digested nutrients have been absorbed into the bloodstream from the villi in the small
intestine, they are then transported to cells in various parts of the body by the blood, so they can
be utilized. This process is called assimilation. Here are a few things that occur with assimilated
glucose and amino acids (simple proteins).

1. Glucose is used for RESPIRATION to release ATP. Excess glucose gets stored as FATS
or GLYCOGEN in the liver of humans, or STARCH grains in plant cells.

2. Amino acids are used for GROWTH and REPAIR of cells. They may be used to form
hormones and enzymes as well. Excess gets converted to UREA and are eventually
excreted by the kidneys.

Absorbed nutrients are first sent to the

LIVER. This ensures that the toxins are
removed from the food before they become
assimilated into the cells.

NOTE: It is unnecessary (and possibly

harmful) to take supplements to ‘cleanse’ the
body or blood, as the liver and kidneys are
fully capable of doing this if no disease is
present.

16
 HSB SECTION A (Pt. 2/3): RESPIRATORY & CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

FAMILIAR TERMS GLOSSARY – RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION

Term Definition or Explanation

BREATHING The movement of air in and out of the lungs.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION The release of energy using glucose and oxygen.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION The release of energy using glucose without oxygen.

LACTIC ACID Forms in the muscles during anaerobic respiration, causing cramps.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE The movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and
capillaries in the lungs.

OXYGEN DEBT Occurs when the body is deprived of oxygen after exercise.

VITAL CAPACITY The maximum amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs.

SYSTOLE The contraction of ventricles, squeezing blood out of the heart.

DIASTOLE The contraction of atria, squeezing blood into the ventricles.

ATHEROSCLEROSIS The clogging of coronary arteries due to plaques made of fat.

THROMBUS A blood clot that restricts blood flow, leading to a heart attack.

PLASMA Fluid in blood that transfers nutrients and clotting factors.

SERUM Fluid similar to plasma but with no clotting factors.

LYMPH Fluid that carries antibodies into the blood.

TISSUE FLUID Fluid that surrounds cells and helps with exchange with the
capillaries.

ASTHMA A chronic non-communicable disease that inflames bronchi tubes,

obstructing airflow.

It should be noted that breathing and respiration are not the same thing. Breathing is simply a
step involved in respiration while respiration is the release of energy from the oxygen received
from breathing. Respiration occurs in cells and the energy is released from the
MITOCHONDRIA in the cell.

17
 BREATHING (or ventilation)

Breathing is the process that lets air in and out of the lungs. The lungs are enclosed in an airtight
area of the body called the THORAX. Beneath this is a sheet of internal muscle called the
DIAPHRAGM that assists in the movement of the rib cage as its muscles contract and relax.

Lung pressure Factor Inspiration Expiration

decreases Lung volume INCREASES DECREASES
while Rib cage movement UP AND OUTWARD DOWN AND INWARD
breathing in
and increases Diaphragm CONTRACTS (flattens) RELAXES (domes)
while
Rib (intercostal) muscles CONTRACTS RELAXES
breathing out.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE
It is important to note that you do NOT breathe in just oxygen and do NOT just breathe out just
carbon dioxide, but other gases as well. The main gases in the atmosphere we inhale include:

GAS INHALED CONTENT (%) EXHALED CONTENT (%)

NITROGEN 78 78
OXYGEN 21 16
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.04 4
WATER VAPOUR ~1 2–3

So, while the air is in our lungs, only some of the oxygen DIFFUSES into the red blood cells in
the blood and some of the carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into the air in the lungs, not all.

The respiratory tract is prone to

infection by inhalation of foreign
bodies. To filter the inhaled air, tiny
hairs called CILIA act as a
mechanical barrier against dust and
microbes.

Specialized cells produce MUCUS to

act as a chemical barrier for
microbes.

18
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ALVEOLI

The alveoli have several adaptations for carrying out their function of gaseous exchange.
Adaptation Explanation

LARGE There are roughly 300 million alveoli, which collectively occupy a large
SURFACE AREA area suited to maximize gaseous exchange.

VERY THIN Alveolar membranes are only one cell thick, allowing quick diffusion.

MOIST LININGS Gases dissolve more easily in moisture.

CLOSE TO There is a dense capillary network around each alveolus.

CAPILLARIES

There are TWO types of respiration:

Type Description Reaction

AEROBIC ATP is released from glucose Glucose + Oxygen → Water + CO2

using oxygen
(+ ATP)

ANAEROBIC In the absence of oxygen, glucose Glucose → Lactic acid (+ less ATP)
is converted into lactic acid. Much
less ATP is produced than aerobic
respiration.

NOTE: ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE) is converted NOTE: Anaerobic respiration also

to ADP (ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE) and then back again occurs in YEAST.
to ATP constantly. It is this cycle that releases the energy from
Yeast releases CO2 and ETHANOL,
glucose.
which are used for in the manufacturing
of the following products:
- Bread
- Wine
- Beer 19
OXYGEN DEBT

When one exercises vigorously until the During exercise, their heart rate also
point of anaerobic respiration, A chemical increases. This occurs to supply
called LACTIC ACID builds up in the OXYGENATED BLOOD to the muscles for
muscles. This can lead to a burning respiration.
sensation as well as MUSCLE CRAMPS.

However, the heart continues beating quickly even after exercise finishes. This is to ensure that
OXYGEN is delivered to dissipate the lactic acid built up in the muscles.

MOUTH-TO-MOUTH RESUSCITATION

VITAL CAPACITY

- VITAL CAPACITY refers to the

maximum amount of air one can
expel from the lungs.

- RESIDUAL VOLUME is the

maximum amount of air that
remains in the lungs after
maximum expiration.

- TIDAL VOLUME refers to the

amount of air inhaled and exhaled
during normal breathing.

20
 FACTORS AFFECTING BREATHING RATE.

Factor Why

Exercise More oxygen is required by the muscles when they are doing more work.

Smoking Tar can clog the alveoli. Nicotine increases heart rate.

Weight A bigger person has more cells that oxygen must be delivered to.

HOW ALTITUDE AFFECTS RATE OF RESPIRATION

Many athletes train at high altitudes or were raised in areas high above sea level. This is because
at high altitudes, there is less OXYGEN. As a result, their lungs have adapted to carry a higher
VITAL CAPACITY. In addition, their RED BLOOD CELLS are more abundant and the
haemoglobin is able to have a higher oxygen-carrying capacity.

RESPIRATORY DISEASES

ASTHMA is a chronic (long-lasting or recurrent)

disease that CANNOT BE SPREAD. It is caused
by an overactive immune system and is
characterized by the following symptoms:

Wheezing, shortness of breath, bronchospasms

The bronchioles become swollen or inflamed,

obstructing airflow to the lungs. A muscular
RELAXANT must be inhaled to combat the
inflammation. Asthma is frequently triggered by:

Dust, pollen, fur, smoke, strenuous exercise.

BRONCHITIS is similar to asthma except the bronchi inflammation is less. It is caused by inhaling
viruses. Bronchitis, unlike asthma, is COMMUNICABLE meaning it CAN BE SPREAD.

PNEUMONIA causes the alveoli may fill with mucus and decrease the rate of gaseous exchange and
thus, decrease respiration rates.

21
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

All large animals need circulatory systems. This is

because of their LOW SURFACE AREA TO
VOLUME RATIO which means that their surface
area is much less than the volume of their bodies.

Microorganisms can transport materials by

DIFFUSION because their SURFACE AREA is The human circulatory system is complex and consists
large compared to their volume. Substances do not of a series of blood vessels, blood and a pump (heart).
have far to travel.

Mammals have a double circulatory system, since the blood travels through the heart twice
on one complete journey around the body. This allows cells and tissues to have a rich
oxygenated blood supply and allows the blood to reach considerable distances due to the
changes in blood pressure in the heart chambers.

Type of Definition
Circulation

Pulmonary Deoxygenated blood is

carried to the lungs to be
reoxygenated before
returning to the heart.

Systemic Oxygenated blood is

pumped from the heart to
the body and deoxygenated
blood returns to the heart.

Note the following adjectives that relate to

organs:
• Lungs - PULMONARY
• Liver - HEPATIC
• Kidney - RENAL
• Stomach - GASTRIC
• Heart – CORONARY / CARDIAC

REMEMBER: LORD
Left Oxygenated
Right Deoxygenated
22
 STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART

The tissue in
the middle is
called the
SEPTUM. It
prevents the
oxygenated and
deoxygenated
blood from
mixing.

BLOOD PRESSURE

Category What happens

Systole Muscles in ventricles contract, forcing blood out of the heart

Diastole Muscles in atria contract, refilling blood into ventricles.

The usual human blood pressure is given as 120/80 and the heartbeat is regulated by the
PACEMAKER region of the heart.

• Abnormally high blood pressure is called HYPERTENSION.

• Abnormally low blood pressure is called HYPOTENSION.

Many factors can produce a rise in blood pressure including:

Factor Explanation

Excess salt in diet Excess sodium disrupts water balance in the blood and disrupts kidneys.

Old age Arteries harden as one gets older and become less elastic.

Obesity The heart must do more work to pump blood to the excess fatty tissues.

Tobacco Tar in cigarettes deprive blood of oxygen, making heart pump faster.

23
BLOOD VESSELS

ARTERIES VEINS
Transport of blood Away from the heart Into or towards the heart
Oxygenated or Oxygenated (except the Deoxygenated (except the
deoxygenated pulmonary artery) pulmonary vein)
Outer wall Thick and elastic muscle Thin muscular layer
thickness
Valves Absent Present
Lumen size Small (high pressure) Large (low pressure)
Pulse Present Absent

CAPILLARIES AND TISSUE FLUID

The blood vessels that connect veins to

arteries and transports material from blood
directly to cells are called CAPILLARIES.

They are ONE CELL THICK, so as to

facilitate quick DIFFUSION. They often
connect organs to the bloodstream (e.g. villi
in the ileum, alveoli in the lungs)

Surrounding the cells is a liquid called

TISSUE FLUID, which helps transport
diffused materials between the cells and the
capillaries. Tissue fluid is in direct contact
with the cells, not plasma.

24
 COMPONENTS OF THE BLOOD

COMPONENT ROLE APPEARANCE DIAGRAM

PLASMA Transports soluble material Yellow fluid. -----------------

(nutrients, antibodies,
hormones, clotting factors).

SERUM Similar to plasma, but no Clear fluid. -----------------

clotting factors.

RED BLOOD Has haemoglobin to transport Biconcave disc.

CELLS O2 and CO2.

PHAGOCYTES Engulfs bacteria and foreign Irregular, blob-like,

bodies (phagocytosis) lobe-shaped nucleus.

LYMPHOCYTES Releases antibodies to combat Rounded, more

disease. rounded nucleus.

PLATELETS Reacts with clotting agents to Small and irregular

make blood clots. fragments.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
It removes foreign materials and old blood
Lymph is a fluid used to fight infection, cells. Most of this is facilitated through an
similar to serum. It contains many organ called the SPLEEN
ANTIBODIES.

It is formed from proteins and when plasma

diffuses through the arteries into the lymph
system and rejoins the blood via veins.

Lymph is filtered through structures called

LYMPH NODES, most of which are located
along the neck and armpits.

25
CARDIAC ARREST (HEART ATTACK)

Arteries in the heart (coronary arteries) can heart attack is more and more difficult to
become easily clogged with FATS and survive.
CHOLESTEROL. When this happens, blood
cannot properly flow. This is called
ATHEROSCLEROSIS.

If a blood clot or CORONARY

THROMBUS forms, the blockage can
prevent oxygen from reaching the heart.
This is called CARDIAC ARREST.
The cardiac cells die and cannot
regenerate. This is why each successive

When the brain does not receive sufficient oxygenated blood, a STROKE can occur, leading to
death of brain cells and partial to full paralysis, or even death. Smoking is a main contributor to
this, as cigarettes contain TAR and CARBON MONOXIDE.

BLOOD CLOTTING
When a tissue is damaged or wounded:

1. Blood releases PLATELETS and the CLOTTING FACTORS.

2. which converts PROTHROMBIN to THROMBIN, (with calcium and Vitamin K)
3. which causes FIBRINOGEN to form FIBRIN threads around wound,
4. which stops bleeding by forming a mesh of red blood cells and platelets (scab) before
proteins can allow new skin to grow beneath scab.

26
 HSB SECTION A (Pt. 3/3): NERVOUS, SKELETAL & EXCRETORY SYSTEMS

FAMILIAR TERMS GLOSSARY

Term Definition or Explanation

STIMULUS A change in the external environment that causes a response.

REFLEX An involuntary response that occurs due to an extreme stimulus.

HORMONE A chemical secreted by a gland that stimulates certain cells into action.

ENDOCRINE Relates to glands that have no ducts. Secretes directly into the blood.

EXOCRINE Glands that have ducts and secrete their substances external to the blood.

ACCOMMODATION The lens’ ability to change shape to focus on near and far objects.

LIGAMENT Tissue that connects bones to other bones.

TENDON Tissue that connects bones to muscles.

CARTILAGE Tissue located at joints and the edges of bones to prevent friction.

SYNOVIAL FLUID Fluid responsible for joint lubrication and nourishment.

VASODILATION Capillaries expand, so they move closer to the skin when exposed to heat.

ULTRAFILTRATION The action of the Bowman’s capsule to filter small molecules out of the
blood using high blood pressures.

SELECTIVE The action of absorption of useful molecules, such as glucose and amino
REABSORPTION acids, back into the bloodstream from the nephron.

ADH The hormone that allows water to be reabsorbed into the blood from the
collecting duct in the kidneys. Happens in hot temperatures.

HOMEOSTASIS The body’s ability to maintain an internal environment despite changes in

the external environment, e.g. constant body temperature & blood glucose

INSULIN Hormone that lowers blood glucose level by allowing cells to absorb
glucose, converting it to stored glycogen.

GLUCAGON Hormone that allows stored glycogen in the liver to convert into glucose
to raise blood glucose level.

27
STIMULI AND RESPONSE

A change in the external environment that enacts a response in an organism is called a STIMULUS.
Stimuli could include changes in temperature, pressure against skin, light intensity and sound level.

Most organisms are adapted to detect these stimuli through cells called RECEPTORS and respond to
them through EFFECTORS, e.g. skin receptors detect heat and sweat glands (effector) responds by
releasing perspiration to cool the skin.

Responses in humans occur via two systems: the NERVOUS system and the ENDOCRINE system. The
table below outlines some differences between the two.

Feature Nervous system Endocrine system

Transport medium Neurones and nerves. Blood.

Signal carrier Electrical impulses. Hormones.

Transmission speed Very fast. Slower.

Response effect Short-term Long-term

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Our nervous systems are arranged into two sections.

Section Consists of

Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Peripheral nerves and cranial nerves

NEURONE CELLS
There are three types of neurone cells. A bundle of neurones is a NERVE, which is a type of tissue.

Type Function

SENSORY To connect the receptors to the CNS.

MOTOR To connect the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands).

RELAY (intermediate) To connect the sensory and motor neurones in the spinal cord.

28
NEURONE STRUCTURE

Nerves carry information via electrical IMPULSES along the AXON. The branching ends of the nerves
(called dendrites) do not touch. There is a tiny gap called a SYNAPSE between the nerve cells. A
chemical called a NEUROTRANSMITTER is released which connects these synapses and increases
conductivity to make the electrical impulse pass through. Drugs called ANAESTHETICS usually disrupt
neurotransmitter release, so less impulses are conducted, so pain is mostly absent.

SPINAL REFLEX ARCS

Why are some actions automatic when others are Usually, sensory information gets sent to the
not? If you have ever touched a hot object, you CEREBRUM to be analyzed and then returned
would notice you would pull away immediately. to the spinal cord and muscles. A spinal reflex
These are done by reflex arcs. Reflex arcs are arc bypasses the brain process and the receptor
AUTOMATIC, are usually a defense sends a rapid response directly to the spinal cord
mechanism and are INVOLUNTARY, meaning (and brain stem) and then to an effector, which
no thought is involved. is usually a muscle or gland, which acts
immediately.

Cranial reflex arcs operate in the same manner, with the message being sent directly to the brain stem
and with no conscious thought involved. They occur involuntarily, as with all reflexes. An example
would be BLINKING. Other actions such as digestion and respiration are also involuntary and are
regulated by the MEDULLA in the brain and the AUTONOMIC nervous system.

29
THE BRAIN

Section Function

CEREBRUM Memory, emotion, judgment,

senses (e.g. sight, hearing)

CEREBELLUM Movement and coordination

MEDULLA (brain Autonomic nervous system

stem) (breathing, heart rate, reflexes)

HYPOTHALAMUS Regulation of body

temperature.

PITUITARY Regulates release of hormones.

GLAND
Only a small fraction of the brain is
used for thought and memory. The rest
is used for involuntary actions such as
regulating breathing, water levels,
hormone release and digestion.
HORMONES AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

A hormone is defined as a CHEMICAL SECRETED BY A GLAND THAT TARGETS A CERTAIN

ORGAN AND STIMULATES A SPECIFIC ACTION.

There are two types of glands in the body.

Type Description Examples

ENDOCRINE Transports substances directly into Adrenal glands, thyroid gland, ovaries
the blood. Glands have no ducts.

EXOCRINE Glands have ducts. Usually Sweat glands, tear glands, salivary glands
transports substances to areas
outside of the bloodstream.

NOTE: The pancreas can be considered both an ENDOCRINE and EXOCRINE gland because:

The pancreas secretes hormones such as insulin directly into the bloodstream, but also secretes
enzymes into the small intestine through its duct.

30
 Name of Gland Hormone produced Effect of Hormone

Pituitary GROWTH HORMONE Stimulates growth of tissue and bones.

ADH Regulates water reabsorption in the kidneys.

FSH Forms follicles around egg cells; sperm development

LH Triggers ovulation during menstrual cycle.

Thyroid* THYROXINE Regulates metabolic activity.

Adrenal ADRENALINE Heightens awareness during stressful situations, raises

heart + breathing rate, increases rate of digestion.

Pancreas INSULIN Converts glucose to glycogen to be stored in cells.

GLUCAGON Converts glycogen to glucose when blood sugar is low.

Ovaries OESTROGEN Releases eggs from ovary; secondary sex characteristics

PROGESTERONE Thickens uterus lining during ovulation

Testes TESTOSTERONE Sperm development; secondary sex characteristics

NOTE*: An overactive thyroid can lead to an enlarged thyroid gland (goitre), hair loss and fatigue.

An underactive thyroid can lead to weight gain, depression and swelling of the face.
31
 THE HUMAN EYE

SECTION FUNCTION

CORNEA Focuses the entrance of light into the eye.

PUPIL The entryway of light into the eye.

IRIS Changes the size of the pupil size to regulate how much light enters the eye.

RETINA Has photoreceptors called rods and cones that detect light and forms images.

FOVEA Contains the highest concentration of cones. Develops sharpest vision.

LENS Can adjust thickness to focus light on the retina to create sharp images.

CILIARY MUSCLES Contract and relax to adjust thickness of lens.

SUSPENSORY Allows ciliary muscles to pull lens and adjust thickness.

LIGAMENTS

OPTIC NERVE Sends images from the retina to the brain via electrical impulses. No image or
photoreceptors are found here, so it is also called the BLIND SPOT.

CHOROID Prevents internal reflection of light in the eye.

SCLERA Serves as the outermost protective layer; the white of the eye.

VITREOUS HUMOUR Gel-like material that keeps the shape of the eye.

NOTE: Rods detect shapes in dim light. Cones detect colour in bright light.
32
RESPONSES TO BRIGHT AND DIM LIGHT STIMULI

Light Exposure What Happens in Eye Why

Bright The pupil CONSTRICTS. In the iris, radial To limit light entering the eye,
muscles relax and circular muscles contract. which would damage the retina

Dim The pupil DILATES. In the iris, the radial muscles To allow more light into the
contract and circular muscles relax. eye to form a clear image.

ACCOMMODATION

The process of accommodation in the eye involves the ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments
changing the shape of the lens in order to focus on near and distant objects.

OTHER EYE CONDITIONS Shortsighted vision needs

CONCAVE lenses.
1. ASTIGMATISM - The deformation of the cornea.
2. GLAUCOMA - High blood pressure near optic nerve causes blurry vision. Longsighted vision
needs CONVEX lenses.
3. CATARACT - Clouding of the lens in the eye. Can be surgically removed.

33
 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

EXTRA NOTES:

- The bones in the fingers and toes are called PHALANGES.

- The vertebral column consists of 33 individual bones.
- The ribcage consists of 24 ribs.
- The inner ear consists of 3 small bones called OSSICLES (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that vibrate to send
sound to the brain.
34
SECTIONS OF THE SKELETON

There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. Bones are a main storage site for the mineral
Newborns have more bones than adults because CALCIUM and the inner layer of the bone, called
bones begin to fuse as humans mature. This is how the MARROW, is a production site for
newborns may appear more flexible. Bones RED BLOOD CELLS.
themselves are tissues and are comprised of cells.

The skeleton is divided into two sections, the axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton consists of the
head and trunk of the body while the appendicular consists of the limbs.

There are various functions of the

Section Bones involved
skeleton:
1. Support the body
AXIAL Cranium, sternum,
2. Locomotion and movement
vertebral column, ribcage
3. Protection of organs (e.g. ribcage
protects heart and lungs)
APPENDICULAR Humerus, ulna, radius,
femur, tibia, fibula, pelvic 4. Formation of red blood cells
girdle, etc.

JOINTS
Joints are located between bones. Most of them are used for movement. There are three types of joints to
learn at this level.

Name Movement Examples

FIXED No movement is involved here. Cranium

HINGE Only along one plane. Elbow (humerus and radius/ulna) and knee
(femur and tibia/fibula)

BALL and Can move in full circles. Shoulder (scapula and humerus) and hips
SOCKET (pelvic girdle and femur)

35
 Both the shoulder and hip, in addition to having a
ball and socket joint, are known as SYNOVIAL
joints. These contain SYNOVIAL FLUID to aid in
lubricating and nourishing the joint.

On the end of each bone, where it touches the other,

is a layer of CARTILAGE which allows the bones
to move past each other with a minimum of
FRICTION.

Ligaments are bundles of connective tissue made of

a type of protein called collagen. They connect
bones to other bones.

BONE STRUCTURE

Feature Bone Cartilage

Location Throughout At joints, tips

body of bones

Blood vessels Present Absent

Elasticity Low High

MUSCLES

Muscle tissue is made of cells that are able to contract and relax. There are three main types of muscle
cells in the mammal:

Type Features Example Locations

SKELETAL or Is connected to bones by tendons. Can Biceps, triceps, quadruceps,

STRIATED contract and relax voluntarily and are abdominals
susceptible to fatigue.

SMOOTH Usually located around organs. Works Oesophagus, small and large
involuntarily. intestine, arteries

CARDIAC Contracts quickly. Works Heart muscle

involuntarily. Cannot regenerate.

36
Muscle cells have protein fibres, which are elastic
and can contract to allow flexing. All muscles
work in PAIRS. Whether they are skeletal muscle,
smooth muscle or cardiac muscle makes no
difference, all muscles must work in pairs.
They rely on the other of the pair to flex or extend.
They are referred to as ANTAGONISTIC as a
result.

The purpose of muscles is to help carry loads During exercise, muscles continuously contract
and overcome RESISTANCE The ability for and relax. Muscle fibres become damaged
muscles to remain firm while resting and
during this process. When they are repaired and
overcome resistance is called MUSCLE TONE.
reformed by PROTEINS. they become thicker
and denser. Therefore, muscular growth actually
occurs after exercise during rest periods.

TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

Feature Tendon Ligament

Function Attaches muscles to bones Attaches bones to other bones at joints.

Elasticity Lower Higher (wider range of movement)

Muscles are used for movement and locomotion,

which is important to humans because it allows
them to find food, shelter, sexual mates and to
escape danger.

All muscles have TWO points of attachment to

the bone. As stated before, muscles generally
overcome resistance by flexing or contracting.

• The attachment that does not move during contraction is called the POINT OF ORIGIN.
• The attachment that moves during contraction is called the POINT OF INSERTION.

37
JOINT HEALTH AND POSTURE

Due to the complex nature of ball and socket joints, they are usually the ones that are most subject to
disease and wear. Surgical replacement of the hips and shoulders is not uncommon if the joints become
worn enough that they cause severe pain when used. This is degenerative (meaning that is gets worse
over time) and is commonly known as ARTHRITIS.

Another similar condition exists called Wearing SUPPORTIVE FOOTWEAR and

CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME, which having GOOD POSTURE is essential to
involves wrist joint pain due to using keyboards maintaining bone and joint health. Wearing high
and typing for long periods of time. heels everyday can put excess force on the feet
and can wear away the cartilage easily.

• Good posture can be defined as having • Good lifting technique involves

the head, thighs and chest all aligned, squatting (bending knees and hips),
with the chest high and forward. Having grabbing the object and then slowly
bad posture, or “slouching” can cause raising the body up by straightening the
the upper back to be overworked and knees.
result in neck strain. It can also lead to
This ensures that the lifting is done by
lower back pains.
the UPPER LEG muscles, not the back
muscles. Improper lifting technique can
• lead to back pains and unnecessary
muscle strain.

38
 THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Metabolic activities produce WASTE products, which can be toxic to the body if allowed to accumulate.
EXCRETION is the elimination of these waste products of metabolism.

NOTE: The removal of faeces or undigested food is considered EGESTION, not EXCRETION. Why?
Faeces is not formed due to a metabolic process. It is a mixture
of undigested food, bacteria and dead tissues.

EXAMPLES OF EXCRETORY ORGANS AND PRODUCTS IN HUMANS

Excretory Organ Notes

Excretory Product
Lungs By-product of respiration, excreted in exhaled air.
Carbon dioxide
Kidneys, skin Produced in the liver after removing nitrogen from proteins
Urea
and is excreted in urine and sweat.
Kidneys, skin, Main constituent of urine and sweat. Expired air also contains
Water
lungs water vapour.
Kidneys A major constitutent of kidney stones.
Calcium oxalate

FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEYS

1. These are main excretory organs to

remove unwanted metabolic wastes,
including urea, excess water and mineral
salts from blood, in the form of URINE.
2. The kidneys also reabsorb useful
substances back into the blood (such as
glucose).
3. Regulates WATER and SALT balance
of body fluids. This is called
OSMOREGULATION.

NOTE: A person can survive with only one kidney. However, if both kidneys fail, they
will have to undergo a process called RENAL DIALYSIS.

39
KIDNEY NEPHRONS

To summarize:

1. Blood enters via RENAL ARTERY.

2. It enters the GLOMERULUS of the BOWMAN’S CAPSULE, which filters small molecules out.
3. The small molecules form a FILTRATE and passes down to the PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED
TUBULE, where only useful substances (e.g. glucose and amino acids) are reabsorbed.
4. The filtrate eventually reaches the COLLECTING DUCT, where only water, mineral salts and urea
remain. These make up URINE. It then passes into the URETER.

ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

Sensors in the brain detect amount of water in the blood and responses are sent to balance it if there is too
much or too little. Water levels in the body may be affected by environment temperature and exercise.
These responses involve the hormone ADH also called anti-diuretic hormone. It is secreted by the
PITUITARY gland in the brain. ADH makes the collecting duct’s walls more permeable to water. More
water can then pass back into the blood stream.

Scenario Action of pituitary gland What happens

Hot day Secretes ADH More water reabsorbed into blood. More sweat. Concentrated urine.

Cold day Suppresses ADH Less water reabsorbed into blood. Less sweat. Diluted urine.

40
 THE SKIN AND HOMEOSTASIS

The skin is the largest organ of the human body. It acts as a natural barrier against outside bacteria and
particles. However, the skin plays a crucial role in regulating body temperature. Heat is produced within
the body as a result of metabolic activities. This heat has to be excreted somehow, or our metabolism
would be affected and even death could occur.

HOMEOSTASIS is defined as: THE REGULATION OF THE BODY’S INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AS

A RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.

The pigment that gives the skin its colour is

called MELANIN, which is located in the
EPIDERMAL layer of the skin.

Melanin protects the skin from ultraviolet

rays from the Sun. The phenomenon of skin
bleaching, which reduces melanin, thus
increases the risk of skin cancer.

To prevent against sunburns and other harm

to the skin, the application of SUNSCREEN
is often recommended.

The SPF label on sunscreen stands for SUN

PROTECTION FACTOR.
Skin’s Role in Temperature Regulation

Section of Skin Warm Environments Cold Environments

Blood vessels Become larger and move towards Become smaller and move away from
surface (VASODILATION). surface (VASOCONSTRICTION)

Sweat glands and Releases sweat, which cools the body Muscles vibrate rapidly (shivering) to
muscles upon evaporation. produce heat.

Hair Remains flattened. Hair erector muscle contracts. Hair stands

up to trap heat.

41
 DIABETES AND REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

Blood glucose level rises anytime sugary or starchy foods are digested and absorbed into the blood.
However, the glucose is then taken in by the body cells for RESPIRATION allowing the level to drop.

The excess glucose is converted to GLYCOGEN and stored in the LIVER and body cells with the help of
a hormone known as INSULIN secreted by the PANCREAS.

The type of diagram above is called a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK loop. It shows the responses that occur
in the body due to certain changes or stimuli and is required for homeostasis.

When insulin cannot be produced, this disease is called DIABETES TYPE 1. An individual with this would
require insulin shots.

When the body cells have difficulty taking in glucose from the blood, this is DIABETES TYPE 2. Low-carb
diets and exercise are recommended to manage it.

42
 HSB, SECTION B – REPRODUCTION, HEREDITY AND VARIATION

FAMILIAR TERMS – GENETICS GLOSSARY

Term Definition or Explanation

DNA The material that comprises an organisms’s genes. It stands for:

GENE A sequence of DNA that codes for a characteristic

CHROMOSOME A strand of DNA in the nucleus that contains genes.

ALLELE Each of an alternative form of a gene, coding for a different aspect of a

trait, e.g. eye colour could have brown or blue alleles.

GENOTYPE The set of genetic code in the DNA, represented as letters, e.g. BB codes
for brown eyes while bb codes for blue eyes.

HOMOZYGOUS When the genotype code has two of the same alleles, e.g. BB, bb

HETEROZYGOUS When the genotype code has two different alleles, e.g. Bb

PHENOTYPE A physical characteristic expressed by the genotype, e.g. if BB codes for

brown eyes, the genotype is ‘BB’ and the phenotype is ‘brown eyes’.

DOMINANT When a phenotype is expressed even if only one allele is present.

RECESSIVE When a phenotype is only expressed if both alleles are present, e.g.
Brown (B) is dominant to blue (b). If a person is Bb, their eye colour will
be brown despite carrying a blue gene.

GAMETE A sex cell that is used for fertilization, e.g. sperm and eggs.

ZYGOTE A fertilized egg, which will divide to form an embryo and fetus.

DIPLOID The chromosome number in a cell that is not a gamete. (46 in humans)

HAPLOID The chromosome number in a gamete. (23 in humans)

GENETIC VARIATION Resulting from meiosis. Genes ‘cross over’ to produce new phenotypes.

MUTATION A random change in a gene or chromosome.

43
CHARACTERISTIC MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Number of cell divisions One Two

No. of daughter cells produced Two Four

DNA of daughter and parent Identical (clones). Genetically varied.

cells

Chromosome number Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Mitosis and meiosis are both processes that are involved with replication or cell division. Cells usually
reproduce by splitting into two or more cells. Their paired (homologous) chromosomes move apart and
separate before replicating. and There are, however, major differences between these two processes.

Mitosis allows cells to divide without Meiosis only occurs in gametes. Meiosis allows
exchanging DNA and so all daughter cells are the genetic material or DNA to ‘cross-over’ and
identical, called CLONES It is used in create new sets of DNA in the daughter cells.
GROWTH and ASEXUAL reproduction. Since genes undergo INDEPENDENT
Mitosis occurs in every cell (besides to form assortment in the gametes, there is a different
gametes). DNA combination in each gamete, promoting
variation for sexual reproduction.

Why must gametes be haploid (have half the number of chromosomes)?

Gametes halve their chromosome number because they are produced during meiosis. When
two haploid gametes fuse during fertilization, the zygote will become diploid. The zygote will
have a mix of DNA from the mother and father.
44
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION SYSTEMS

The purpose of reproduction is to carry on the species of the organisms across generations over time. If
a species cannot reproduce as fast as its population decreases, it will become extinct.
There are two types of reproduction:

Type Description

ASEXUAL Involves one parent. Typically occurs in bacteria, protozoa, some plants and
animals, e.g. starfish, sea anemones and yeast. The offspring are identical to
their parents because they only obtain one set of chromosomes.

SEXUAL Involves two parents. Two gametes, produced by reproductive organs or

gonads, fuse to form a zygote. Occurs in most animals and plants that have
male and female parts.

During EJACULATION, sperm are

released from the TESTES. Once in
the vagina, they swim towards the
CERVIX and into the UTERUS.

Diagrams of female reproductive system (above) and male reproductive system (below).

45
CHILDBIRTH AND POST-NATAL CARE

Most sperm before they get to this uterus. The

Most sperm before they get to this uterus. The
rest swim towards the FALLOPIAN TUBES,
rest swim towards the ____________________,
where the ovum will be fertilized to form a
where the ovum will be fertilized to form a
zygote and then embryo.
zygote and then embryo.

The embryo undergoes IMPLANTATION on the

uterus wall where it will receive materials from
the mother’s bloodstream for further development
to occur. When the embryo assumes a more
human form, it is called a FOETUS.

Taking care of the baby after it is born is termed

post-natal care. BREAST MILK is highly
recommended over formula milk due to its high
concentration of ANTIBODIES and that it’s always
at appropriate TEMPERATURES.

There are three structures that enable the fetus to

survive in the mother’s uterus:

Section Description

PLACENTA Contains many blood vessels that transports nutrients, oxygen and
antibodies from mother to fetus, and also removes waste from fetus.

UMBILICAL CORD Allows the transfer of materials from the placenta to the fetus.

AMNIOTIC SAC or Acts as a shock absorber to prevents the fetus from being injured by
AMNION external collisions and trauma.

There are three stages of labour for childbirth:

1. The amnion ruptures and abdominal and uteral contractions begin occurring in the uterus.

2. The baby is pushed to the cervix. Crowning occurs as the contractions to push the baby headfirst.

3. The placenta emerges as the afterbirth.

46
VARIATION
Variation can also seen within organisms of the same species. A number of factors contribute to
variation such as genetic exchange during sexual reproduction, sunlight exposure, diet, water,
fertilizer.

Variation is important to species to:

1. Resist PATHOGENS (e.g. the Gros Michel banana was nearly wiped out by a fungus)
2. Prevent OVERCOMPETITION for resources
3. Encourage species survival if there is a sudden CHANGE IN ENVIRONMENT.

Type Description Example

GENETIC Mostly occurs through sexual A brother and sister will both be
VARIATION reproduction. Because there are two genetically varied because they
sets of DNA that cross-over and would have different random
recombine during meiosis and fuse assortments of genes from their
through fertilization, new genotypes mother and father.
and phenotypes are produced in the
offspring.

ENVIRONMENTAL Occurs through factors external to Two plants of the same genes can
genetics, such as lifestyle, diet and still grow at different rates if
VARIATION
surrounding environment. planted in two different soils and
given different amounts of water.

Variation of characteristics can also occur in two other categories.

Type Description Examples

CONTINUOUS Occurs due to the influence of Height, skin colour, leaf length,
VARIATION many alleles, can have possibilities foot size
across a spectrum.

DISCONTINUOUS Occurs due to one or a few alleles Eye colour, blood type, tongue
VARIATION typically. Only a distinct few rolling, widow’s peak
possibilities of phenotype.

47
CONTRACEPTION

Contraception or birth control refers to any method that prevents pregnancy.

Category Examples How they work

BARRIER Condoms Prevents sperm from entering the vagina

Caps/Diaphragms Prevents sperm from entering the uterus

NATURAL Rhythm method Pinpoint the time of ovulation and avoid intercourse
at this time. Mostly unreliable.

SURGICAL Vasectomy Prevents sperm from reaching the penis

Tubal ligation Prevents eggs from reaching the uterus

HORMONAL Birth control pill Contains sex hormones which suppress ovulation

MECHANICAL Intra-uterine devices A small piece of moulded plastic in the uterus which
interferes with implantation
(IUD’s)

For individual families, the main purpose of contraception is to avoid financial strain and to
increase standard of living for all individuals by allowing the parents to improve their careers.
Too many children may lead to cases of neglect.

For the benefit of the country, family planning is important to maintain a stable population and
to avoid economic strain, such as from welfare. It also lowers teenage pregnancies. Neglect and
abuse can lead to a rise in crime.

ABORTION

Abortion occurs when a pregnancy is terminated before childbirth. This can occur in two ways:
Type Description

SPONTANEOUS Occurs due to some internal issue, such as direct trauma, illness or
ABORTION chromosomal defect. In some cases, if the mother is malnourished, the
(miscarriage) fetus spontaneously aborts.

CLINICAL ABORTION Occurs when the pregnancy is deemed undesirable by the mother or is
a threat to her life. The fetus is extracted from the uterus by a doctor.
In many countries, this is illegal, depending on circumstance.

In countries where medical abortion is illegal, it can still be justified in the following cases:

1. Rape or incest 2. Foetus poses danger to mother’s life

48
CERVICAL CANCER AND HPV

Cancer results in the uncontrolled DIVISION OF CELLS, which can result from a tumour or from
external chemicals called MUTAGENS, such as from air pollutants and cigarettes.

Treatment for cancer involves firing gamma Men who have poor HYGIENE and are
radiation at the affected cells, a process UNCIRCUMCISED have a higher risk of
called RADIOTHERAPY. However, this carrying HPV since it can reside in the
has numerous side effects such as nausea, foreskin.
hair loss and extreme weakness. If the
cancer begins to subside, it is said to be in
REMISSION. If some cancer cells remain,
the cancer can return. This is called
RELAPSE.

Women are affected by CERVICAL cancer,

To detect cervical cancer early and avoid
which is caused by a pathogen called the
further complications, a woman should go to
Human Papilloma virus (HPV). Men are
a gynocologist for a PAP SMEAR, where
generally not affected when they carry the
they take a swab sample of the cervix and
HPV on their genitalia but can easily
test for the virus’ presence. She should also
transmit it to women during unprotected
ensure that her partner wears a condom
intercourse.
during intercourse.

Common types of cancer include those that affect:

Lungs, pancreas, prostate, ovaries, stomach, brain, bone
marrow(leukaemia)

49
OVULATION AND MENSTRUATION

Phase Description

Follicle Phase The follicle develops around the ovum after an increase of FSH.

Ovulation An increase of oestrogen and LH causes ovum to be released from

follicle.

Luteal Phase The decayed follicle (corpus luteum) secretes progesterone, which
leads to the thickening of the uterus wall for implantation.

Menstruation If pregnancy does not occur,progesterone level drops and the uterus
wall sheds.

Hormone Function

FSH Stimulates the growth and maturation of the ovarian follicle.

LH Releases the ovum from the follicle; stimulates ovulation.

Oestrogen Helps with thickening uterus lining; stimulate LH secretion.

Progesterone Thickens uterus lining for implantation.

50
MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

Characteristics, such as the colour of our eyes or skin, height and blood type are passed on to us
by our parents. They are referred to as GENETIC characteristics. Monohybrid inheritance refers
to the study of the passing down of only one genetic characteristic.

Diploid organisms will have two copies of Usually letters are used to represent alleles:
each gene in each cell. These copies are capital letters for dominant alleles and
called ALLELES and the code they make up common letters for recessive alleles. For
is called the GENOTYPE. The alleles may example, the allele for black fur in some
be the same or they may be different. mice are designated ‘F’, while the allele for
white fur is ‘f’.

• If both alleles are the same (e.g. FF or ff), the organism is said to be HOMOZYGOUS.
• If they are different (e.g. Ff), the organism is said to be HETEROZYGOUS.

Let’s assume both parents are homozygous below.

The two diagrams below are called Punnett Squares and are used to determine the probability of
offspring genotypes and phenotypes based on their parents’ genes.

51
Thus, it can be said that:

• Dominant phenotypes are always expressed over recessive phenotypes.

• Recessive phenotypes are ONLY expressed if they are BOTH PRESENT (homozygous)

GENETIC CROSSES

There is a second method that is used to calculate the probabilities called genetic crossing.

The diagram represents an inheritable

disease called sickle cell anaemia. The
disease is only present in its homozygous
recessive form.

It produces abnormal haemoglobin that

gives a curved, crescent shape to red blood
cells. This severely hinders their ability to
transport oxygen and results in fatigue.

Using ‘A’ and ‘S’ as the alleles, complete a genetic cross for a mother who has sickle cell and a
father who is a carrier. How many children have it? How many would be carriers?

In some species of dogs, short tails are dominant to long tails. A breeder observed that when his
male short-tailed dog and female long-tailed dog were mated, there were 5 puppies with short
tails and 5 with long tails. Draw a Punnett square to show this. Use ‘T’ and ‘t’ as the alleles.

52
SEX DETERMINATION
• Among the 46 chromosomes that humans have, one pair typically codes for a person’s
sex or gender. A male’s sex genotype is XY while a female’s is XX.

• The egg cell always has an X chromosomes, while the sperm cell can carry either an X or
a Y chromosome, so there is always a 50/50 chance of getting a boy or girl.

SEX-LINKED (X-LINKED) DISEASES

Some diseases, such as HAEMOPHILIA and genetic COLOUR BLINDNESS. are more
prevalent in males than in females. This is because these diseases only are carried in the X
chromosome. Since males only have one X chromosome, they have a higher chance of getting the
disease from childbirth.

For instance, if the a normal healthy gene is XH and the haemophilia gene is Xh, the Punnett
square below will show how a male has a higher chance of getting the disease.

53
MULTIPLE ALLELES IN HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS

In a population, there may be more than two alleles for a given trait. If a gene exists in more than two
alleles, it is said to have multiple alleles. The occurrence of blood groups is an example of multiple
alleles. There are four blood groups in human populations: A, B, AB and O.

The alleles for A group, B group and O group may be designated IA, IB and IO respectively.

o IA and IB are dominant over IO

o IA and IB are co-dominant, therefore individuals with these two alleles will have an AB blood
group.

o The only way blood type O can be obtained is if both genes are IO

EXAMPLE QUESTION:

In the diagram, show how a father of blood

type B and a mother of blood type A can
produce a child of blood type O.

FAMILY TREES

54
MUTATION
Mutations occur when the chromosomal set of an organism changes unexpectedly, or there is some
alteration to a genotype. It is VERY important to remember that mutations are RANDOM, though
substances called MUTAGENS (e.g. radioactive exposure) can increase the risk of mutations.

Examples of common mutations in humans include:

Condition Description

Albinism Occurs when a recessive mutant allele prevents the production of

MELANIN, causing very pale skin and eyes.

Down’s Syndrome A chromosomal mutation that occurs when Chromosome 21 divides one
extra time, forming a total diploid number of 47.

Sickle Cell Anaemia Recessive mutation that produces abnormal haemoglobin and thus changes
the shape of red blood cells. O2 is thus not able to be transported properly.

Colour blindness A mutation that results in the underdevelopment of cones in the retina.

GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering involves THE ALTERATION OF THE ORGANISM’S GENOME OR THE

EXTRACTION AND TRANSFER OF A GENE FROM ONE ORGANISM INTO ANOTHER.

It is a controversial process that has caused many ethical debates, mainly due to religious consequences or
the wide possibility of situations that can occur due to mishaps. However, genetic engineering has
ensured great steps in biotechnology, medicine and agriculture.

Field Examples

Medicine and The production of insulin using recombined DNA in E. coli bacteria.
Biotechnology
Gene therapy for inherited disorders. Research of stem cell techniques.

Agriculture The production of Golden Rice (which produces beta-carotene and Vitamin A).
The production of crops that produce their own pesticides and crops that grow
faster and resist harsh weather conditions. The “Flavr-Savr” tomato, which had
a longer shelf-life than regular tomatoes.

55
There are, however, numerous disadvantages to genetic engineering aside from ethical problems. These
include:

Disadvantage Explanation

Health It is possible for ALLERGENS can be transferred from one food crop to
another through genetic engineering. Another concern is that pregnant women
eating GMO products may endanger their offspring.

Social or Ethical Changing the genome of an organism can be seen as ‘playing God’. The
chances of producing ‘designer babies’. The impact of ‘cloning humans’. The
risk of biological weapons.

Environmental The release of a GMO species would have the possibility of causing an
ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE. The main concern is that crops can spread their
genes to wild plants through pollination.

INSULIN PRODUCTION WITH RECOMBINANT DNA

DNA is isolated or ‘cut’ from

the human pancreatic cell and
an E. coli bacteria cell.

The human DNA is then fused

with the bacteria plasmid
DNA using an enzyme.

The DNA is reinserted into the

bacteria cell, which can now
produce insulin. The bacteria
multiply and insulin is
harnessed in a fermenter.

56
 HSB, SECTION C – DISEASE AND DRUGS

Good health, as defined by the WHO (World Health Organziation) as:

THE STATE OF HAVING PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND SOCIAL WELL-BEING.

FAMILIAR TERMS – DISEASE SECTION GLOSSARY

Term Definition or Explanation

PATHOGEN A disease-causing microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi).

VECTOR An animal or insect that can transport a pathogen without

consequences.

PARASITE An organism that lives and feeds on a host, harming it as a result.

IMMUNITY The ability to resist infection.

IMMUNIZATION The act of making a person immune to infection.

CANCER A disease caused by uncontrollable division of abnormal body cells.

ANTIBIOTIC Medication that is ingested to kill bacteria in the body.

ANTISEPTIC A solution that is applied to the skin or wounds to prevent infection.

ANTIFUNGAL Applied to fungal infections and rashes, such as ringworm.

DISINFECTANT Applied to surfaces of materials to kill bacteria.

STERILIZATION The process of removing and killing all microorganisms in a

substance.

ANTIBODY A chemical produced by lymphocytes to neutralize pathogens.

ANTITOXIN A special type of antibody that combats toxins.

ANTIGEN A toxin or foreign substance that triggers the immune response.

VACCINE A weakened version of a pathogen designed to trigger an immune

response in the body to prevent the disease in the future.

57
TYPES OF DISEASE

Category of Cause Prevention Method / Examples

Disease Treatment

PATHOGENIC or Disease-causing organisms Cholera, malaria,

Quarantine. Face masks.
INFECTIOUS called pathogens enter the dengue fever, typhoid,
body and can be spread in Vaccination and antisera.
Antibiotics, antiviral drugs, leptospirosis, tetanus.
various ways.
antifungals.

NUTRITIONAL The absence of a certain Scurvy, rickets, beri-

Having a balanced diet.
DEFICIENCY nutrient from the diet, which beri, anaemia,
can have negative effects on Nutritional supplements.
kwashiorkor.
the body.

HEREDITARY A disease that is passed on Somatic gene therapy Sickle cell anaemia,
from parent to offspring and genetic screening. cystic fibrosis,
through the genes. haemophilia.

PHYSIOLOGICAL Results from the malfunction Balanced diet. Regular Diabetes, coronary
or LIFESTYLE of an organ, due to poor exercise. Reduction of heart disease, obesity.
eating habits, lack of substance abuse.
exercise or misuse of drugs.

Diseases can also be put into two simple categories.

- Communicable diseases are infectious, - Non-communicable diseases cannot be

meaning that they can be spread to other spread to other individuals through means
individuals, whether by contact, mediums of infection. If a disease lasts for more than
such as water or air, or through vectors 3 months, it is termed CHRONIC If it
(animals/insects that carry pathogens). worsens over time, it is called
These include sexually transmitted DEGENERATIVE. Non-communicable
infections or VENEREAL diseases. These diseases include nutritional deficiency,
are always caused by pathogens. lifestyle and hereditary.

58
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A BACTERIA AND VIRUS

A bacteria is a unicellular organism that can While some bacteria are bad, some are necessary
survive in either another organism or the natural for several bodily processes. Viruses are ALL
environment. Most bacteria do not have a nucleus, harmful. They are smaller than bacteria and are
but a ring of DNA and RNA. They have a tail-like considered non-cellular.
structure that allows them to swim.

Category Bacteria Virus

Size Larger Very small

Harmfulness Only some are harmful. All are harmful.

Living or non-living Cellular and living Non-cellular; non-living

WHAT IS A PATHOGEN, VECTOR AND PARASITE?

Organism Definition Examples

Pathogen A disease-causing micro-organism, such Dengue virus, Vibrio cholerae, HIV

as a bacteria, virus or fungus.

Vector An animal or insect that can transport a Mosquitoes, flies, rats

pathogen without being affected.

Parasite An organism that lives and feeds on a Lice, tapeworms, fleas, ticks
host, harming it as a result.

59
 TYPICAL LIFE CYCLES OF A MOSQUITO AND FLY

A common example of a vector is the Anopheles When a female mosquito draws blood from an
mosquito, which is able to carry a pathogen known infected human, it takes the bacteria into its body.
as a PROTOZOA, which is harmless to the Then, when drawing blood from an uninfected
mosquito but can cause the disease MALARIA in human, the bacteria can seep into the bloodstream
humans. and infect them.

Malaria in particular is dangerous because the pathogens use the RED BLOOD CELLS as a host and can
also damage the LIVER and BRAIN if not treated.

Stage Control Method

Draining of stagnant water sources.

Egg

Introduction of predators to water sources. Spraying larvacide on water.

Larva and Pupa

Adult Spraying pesticides. Electrical zappers. Sleep under net to prevent infection.

60
 PROPER HYGIENE

Good hygiene is important in preventing certain

diseases, such as CHOLERA. It can also prevent
infections by clearing bacteria away from any cuts
that may be on the skin. Good hygiene is also
necessary for eliminating BODY ODOURS and
ensuring social acceptance.

Washing hands before eating and food before preparation can prevent diseases such as cholera, typhoid
and gastroenteritis, as bacteria may reside in dirt and fecal particles deposited by flies. Washing of feet
and genitalia after exercising can prevent rashes and ATHLETE’S FOOT (jock itch or athlete’s foot),
as fungi thrive in moist, warm areas. For some men, it can also reduce the spread of HPV, which causes
CERVICAL CANCER in women.

ANTIGENS
Antigens are described as foreign substances that stimulate an immune response in a host body.
It leads to the production of ANTIBODIES by lymphocytes, which will eventually travel to and eradicate the
threat. Each antibody is antigen-specific, for e.g. The influenza virus has certain antigens attached to it. These
are detected by the body, which then target the virus with specific antibodies to get rid of it.

NOTE: Allergens also produce an immune

response. However, allergens are non-parasitic and
usually non-living factors, such as pollen or food.

Most diseases have signs and symptoms, but these two terms should not be confused.

• Signs are often visible and measurable or testable by a doctor. This would include:
Rashes, diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, inflammation.
• Symptoms are only felt by the patient and must be told to the doctor. This would include:

Fatigue, headaches, joint pain, dizziness, nausea.

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IMMUNITY AND IMMUNIZATION

Immunity can be defined as THE ABILITY TO RESIST DISEASE OR INFECTION.

Immunization is the action of THE PROCESS OF INCREASING IMMUNITY TO A DISEASE.

Type of Immunity Description

Natural Passive Occurs when a child pre-natally receives antibodies from its mother through the
placenta or through breast milk post-natally.

Naturally Acquired Occurs when a person is exposed to a pathogen, which stimulates the production
Active of antibodies. Can prevent a future infection.

Artificial Passive Occurs when an antiserum containing antibodies is administered to the body in
order to treat an infection and kill pathogens in the short term. Cannot be used as a
preventative measure.

Artificially Acquired Occurs when a vaccine containing a weakened or deactivated version of a

Active pathogen is introduced to the body. This stimulates the production of antibodies
and memory cells to prevent future infections in the long term. Cannot be used as
a treatment.

AIDS/HIV

Question Answer

What do AIDS and HIV HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus

stand for?
AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Why is there no cure? Is HIV is very difficult to detect and produce a vaccine for. Antibiotics
there treatment? useless against viruses. Virus mutates constantly.

How is HIV transmitted? Via the exchange of bodily fluids such as semen, vaginal fluids, breast
milk and blood transfusions.

How can HIV spread be Use of barrier contraception (condoms). Limiting sexual partners. Regular
prevented or reduced? HIV blood screening. Education on safe sex for young people. Anti-HIV
drugs for pregnant women.

62
LIST OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Disease Pathogen Transmission Signs/Symptoms

AIDS Virus See page 62 Rapid weight loss, hair loss, lesions

Bronchitis Virus or Droplet infection Cough, excess mucus, shortness of breath

Bacteria

Cervical cancer Virus Sexual transmission Bleeding between periods, increased vaginal
discharge

Cholera Bacteria Flies, impure water Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea

Dengue fever Virus Aedes aegypti Joint pain, headaches, internal bleeding
mosquito (haemorrhagic)

Gastroenteritis Bacteria Flies Vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach cramps

Gonorrhoea Bacteria Sexual transmission Burning during urination, pus discharge from
urethra

Herpes Virus Sexual transmission Fever, blisters on genitalia or mouth

Influenza Virus Droplet infection Excess mucus, fever, fatigue

Leptospirosis Bacteria Rats Fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle

pain

Malaria Protozoa Anopheles mosquito Fever, headache, vomiting, abdominal pains

Ringworm Fungus Direct contact Red rashes, itching

Syphilis Bacteria Sexual transmission Sores, weight and hair loss, fatigue

Tuberculosis Bacteria Droplet infection Coughing blood, chronic cough

Typhoid Bacteria Flies Nausea, vomiting, dehydration, fever

Yellow fever Virus Aedes aegypti Headaches, nausea, red eyes

63
LIST OF NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Disease Symptoms Cause

Arthritis Pain while moving joints Degeneration of cartilage at joints. Bad

posture worsens condition.

Asthma Wheezing, coughing, Immune system attacks the body;

bronchospasms triggered by dust, pollen, etc.

Coronary heart Clogged arteries, chest pain, Fat and cholesterol clogging
disease fatigue, shortness of breath arteries, limiting blood flow

Diabetes Type I Increased thirst, fatigue, high Pancreas does not produce
blood glucose levels sufficient insulin

Diabetes Type II Same as above. Body does not respond to insulin

Haemophilia Headache, profuse bleeding Inherited mutated alleles

from injuries

Hypertension Headache, irregular heartbeat, Stress, excess sodium in diet, lack

difficulty breathing of exercise

Sickle cell anaemia Abnormal red blood cells, Inherited mutated alleles
internal bleeding, fatigue

Some other non-communicable diseases previously learnt include:

Anaemia (lack of iron), beri-beri (lack of Vitamin B), glaucoma (high blood pressure in eye), night
blindness (lack of Vitamin A), obesity, osteoporosis, rickets (lack of calcium).

64
DRUGS AND DRUG ABUSE

A drug is defined as an external chemical substance that has a physiological effect on the body
when ingested or injected.

Drug abuse is the excessive intake of drugs; or not under a doctor’s prescription.
- Drug abuse can cause TOLERANCE, where the person has to keep on taking more and more of
the drug to achieve the same initial effect.
- This leads to ADDICTION, where a person feels a strong urge to take the drug and experiences
WITHDRAWAL symptoms if they don’t. These symptoms include: nausea, trembling,
depression, acute anxiety attacks.

o Drugs can be prescription, e.g. Paracetamol, Penicillin, Quinine

o Or non-prescription, e.g. Nicotine, Alcohol, Cocaine, Heroin

MISUSE OF ANTIBIOTICS

Although antibiotics are highly effective drugs against bacterial infections, their misuse has led to severe
problems in the health and medical industry.

• Patients who do not complete the full course of an antibiotic prescription, will run the risk of
having ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT bacteria develop in their bodies.

• When they take the same antibiotic next time, it will not be effective against the resistant bacteria.

• Some antibiotics also have ADDICTIVE properties, which can make the user experience
WITHDRAWAL when the course of treatment ends.

65
TYPES OF DRUGS

Type Effect Examples

STIMULANT Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine.

Increases blood pressure and heart rate

DEPRESSANT Alcohol, codeine, benzodiazepine

Decreases blood pressure, heart rate
and reaction time.

HALLUCINOGEN Cannabis, LSD, Ecstasy

Used as an escape from reality,
amplifies emotions

ANALGESIC Morphine, heroin

Used to numb pain, disrupt
neurotransmitters.

EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE

Category Effect

Family Loss of income from rehab or addiction, especially if breadwinner is

involved. Child neglect and domestic violence. Isolation and stigma. Loss of
income from purchasing drugs and paraphernalia. Loss of employment. Cost
of rehab.

Health/Psychology Long-term physiological and psychological damage to organs. Risk of

overdose and contracting infections from sharing needles.

Society/Economy
Reduced labour force. Rise of the black market and crime if drug trade is
involved. Isolation of certain crime-ridden areas.

66
METHODS OF PREVENTING PATHOGEN GROWTH

Procedure Function

ANTIBIOTICS Usually ingested (taken orally) to treat bacterial infections.

ANTIVIRAL DRUGS Used to treat or alleviate viral infections.

ANTIFUNGAL Used to treat fungal infections, e.g. Athlete’s foot.

ANTISEPTIC Used on bodily surfaces to prevent growth of pathogens, e.g. mouthwash

DISINFECTANT Applied to material surfaces to prevent growth of pathogens, e.g. bleach

PASTEURIZATION Sterilization of milk by heating over a period of time. Another method,

UHT, heats milk for a shorter period of time but at very high temperature.

AUTOCLAVING Sterilizing surgical equipment by heating.

EFFECTS OF CIGARETTE SMOKING

Factor Effect

Nicotine
Acts as a stimulant. Increases heart and breathing rates.

Carbon Binds to the haemoglobin in red blood cells and limits the uptake of oxygen into the

red blood cells.

Monoxide (CO)

Tar Clogs the alveoli and result in a decrease in rates of gaseous exchange.

Pregnancy Reduces oxygen intake in foetus. Constricts placental blood vessels. Foetus can be

underdeveloped and baby born with nicotine addiction.

67
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL

Effect Description

Acts as a depressant, reduces reaction time to stimuli.

Nervous system

Lowers heart rate and blood pressure.

Circulatory system

Suppresses the release of ADH, allowing less water to be reabsorbed into

Water balance
bloodstream. Frequent urination and dehydration. Higher body temp.

Impact of addiction and cirrhosis of the liver.

Long-term health

Loss of income. Domestic abuse and child neglect. Drunk driving.

Social issues

TESTING FOR BACTERIA PRESENCE

• First, a cotton swab is taken from the sample (e.g. a human cheek). The swab can be
heated or STERILIZED before to ensure no bacteria is present before applying.
• A petri-dish is prepared with a NUTRIENT GEL (agar) that allows the bacteria to grow,
and the swab is wiped across it to deposit the bacteria.
• The petri-dish is secured and closed and left for a few days. Bacteria then grow in colonies and
can be observed.

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 • HSB SECTION D: THE ENVIRONMENT AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

FOOD CHAINS

A food chain represents THE FEEDING SEQUENCE OF ORGANISMS TO TRANSFER ENERGY.

There are three main categories of organisms in the food chain, stated below:

Category Description

Producers / Autotrophs Organisms that produce food by photosynthesis. They use sunlight to convert
materials such as oxygen and water into nutrients.

Consumers / Organisms that eat other organisms to gain their food. These obtain energy
Heterotrophs from other organisms on which they feed.

Decomposers Organisms that obtain nutrition by breaking down the dead remains of other
organisms and absorbing nutrients, releasing CO2 as a result.
Examples include: Bacteria and fungi

NOTE: Decomposers are not to be confused with CARRION FEEDERS, which are organisms such as
vultures, and DETRITIVORES, like earthworms that seek and consume already-dead organisms.

Each stage in the food chain is known as a TROPHIC level. Energy decreases through each successive
trophic level. For example, the deer will never get 100% of the energy from the plants they eat. They
only get about 10%, because the other 90% energy is used for the plants’ life processes (such as growth,
excretion and reproduction).

Imagine the solar energy the plants get is 100%. This means the plant uses 90% and can only pass on 10%
to the grasshopper. Similarly, when the frog eats the grasshopper, it only has 1% of the total energy and
must compensate by METABOLIZING AT A LOWER RATE OR EATING MORE OFTEN.

Most food chains are limited to four or five trophic level links because: THERE WOULD BE TOO
LITTLE ENERGY AVAILABLE TO SUSTAIN LIFE ON HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS.

69
FOOD WEBS
A food web is a combination of several food chains within a habitat or ecosystem.
Identify a(n):
- Producer: ALGAE
- Herbivore: Tadpole, beetle, snail
- Carnivore: Kingfisher
- Omnivore: Small fish
- Tertiary Consumer: Kingfisher
- Predator/Prey: Kingfisher and frog

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND OXYGEN CYCLE:

Formula for Photosynthesis:

Carbon dioxide + Water →
Glucose + Oxygen

Formula for Aerobic Respiration:

Glucose + Oxygen →
Carbon dioxide + Water (+ ATP)

o Photosynthesis occurs in the CHLOROPLASTS of plant cells and produces GLUCOSE. It uses
CARBON DIOXIDE and releases OXYGEN (the presence of O2 can be tested using a lit splint)

o We respire aerobically and use OXYGEN and return CARBON DIOXIDE back into the
atmosphere.

Testing a variegated lead for starch

70
 CARBON CYCLE

Three human impacts on carbon cycle:

Activity Consequence

DEFORESTATION Less trees means less

photosynthesis is occurring,
meaning atmospheric CO2
levels remain high.

FOSSIL FUEL Raises CO2 levels by

COMBUSTION combustion and emission.

SEWAGE RUNOFF Excess CO2 causes oceans to

AND OCEAN become acidified, affecting
POLLUTION marine population life.

• PHOTOSYNTHESIS - Plants undergo this process and remove CO2 from atmosphere.
• CONSUMPTION - When animals eat the plants, they gain carbon in their bodies.
• RESPIRATION - When animals breathe, they exhale CO2.
• DECOMPOSITION - When animals die, decomposers break them down, also releasing CO2.
• FOSSILIZATION - Decomposed material become fossil fuels after many years.
• COMBUSTION - When fossil fuels are burnt, they release CO2 into atmosphere.

NITROGEN CYCLE (removed from syllabus)

Nitrogen makes up 78% of

the atmosphere but cannot be
used by plants in this form.

It has to be converted by
bacteria into nitrates to form
proteins to be used for
growth.

Legume plants (e.g. peas)

have nitrogen-fixing
bacteria that can perform the
conversion of nitrogen into
nitrates.

71
WATER AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

Humans must have a water supply that is free of impurities and pathogens. This type of water that is safe
to drink is called POTABLE water. Many developing countries lack potable water and the proper
facilities to purify their water. As a result, many pathogens live in the water they use everyday.

There are mainly TWO ways to purify water in the household, if more upscale processes are absent:

1. To remove dirt particles – Filtering and distillation

2. To kill bacteria – Boiling and chlorination

However, a much larger operation is needed in order to purify water for large areas. This is done by water
treatment plants. Several processes must take place for the waste water to be potable.

1. COLLECTION - Water must be collected from all households.

2. SCREENING - Removes large waste particles.
3. SETTLEMENT TANK - Waste settles. Dry sludge is transported to landfills to form methane.
4. AERATION TANK - Aerobic bacteria and protozoa lain under stones. Air is pumped into the
sewage to allow the bacteria to respire and feed on the sewage
5. CHLORINATION - Chlorine is added to kill remaining bacteria.
6. DISTRIBUTION - Water is now potable and ready to be pumped to households.

72
 POLLUTION

Pollution can be defined as THE CONTAMINATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT DUE TO HARMFUL

DISPOSAL OF WASTE.

Water pollution usually results when untreated sewage, industrial chemicals (e.g. oil and mercury),
domestic pollutants (e.g. detergents) and agricultural pesticides leakor run-off into natural water sources.

When the NITRATES in pesticides leak into water ecosystems, they can speed up the growth of
underwater plants such as algae. This is known as EUTROPHICATION or ALGAL BLOOM, and can
kill all the other organisms in the water. Improper disposal of sewage can speed up the growth of
BACTERIA, which will deplete the water’s oxygen sources.

73
Air pollution occurs mostly due to automobiles and industrial activities, due to the release of gases such
as CARBON DIOXIDE, SULPHUR DIOXIDE and METHANE.

▪ When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide combines, they form a layer of thick haze called
SMOG, which can cause acute respiratory infections such as bronchitis and increase risk of lung
cancer. They can also combine with the rainwater to form ACID RAIN, which wears away plants
and buildings and can disrupt ecosystems such as lakes and coral reefs.

▪ Carbon dioxide is a part of a group of

gases called GREENHOUSE GASES.

These prevent the Sun’s radiation from

escaping the Earth. As a result, the Earth
heats up and CLIMATE CHANGE
occurs. CO2 is released when fossil fuels
are burnt.

PIT LATRINES

Pit (or drop) latrines are used mainly in developing

countries without a fully implemented sewage
treatment plant. It has the following features:

• The pit itself at least 6m deep in SANDY

SOIL. It cannot touch the area’s water
table as this can put everyone at risk of
diseases such as CHOLERA.
• A VENTPIPE is used to remove the
CARBON DIOXIDE from the decomposed
feces.
• A SCREEN is placed to prevent flies from NOTE: Disinfectants should NEVER be used to
coming into contact with the feces. clean the pit latrine as these will kill the bacteria
• Sometimes a LINER may be placed to necessary to decompose the feces.
prevent feces from leaching into the
underground water.

74
PROPER WASTE DISPOSAL

Proper waste disposal reduces the incidence of disease and environmental damage. It involves two main
methods: landfilling and combustion.

• Landfills generally involve the burial of

waste materials to prevent pests like flies
from coming into contact with them. They
produce significant amounts of METHANE
but recovery systems may be installed to
prevent the gases from seeping into the
atmosphere.

• Combustion involves the burning of waste materials. This is much faster than landfilling but can
be dangerous for the atmosphere if the smoke and gases are not contained. Sometimes
incinerators are used to do it efficiently. Residents burning refuse themselves is illegal in many
countries due to risk of fire spreading and respiratory illnesses from breathing the smoke.

Advantages and drawbacks of each method:

Landfill Combustion

Methane can be released but catchment systems

Much faster than landfilling.
can prevent this.
Releases a large amount of CO2 into the
Much slower than combustion, requires land to
atmosphere.
build.
Can result in respiratory illnesses such as
Almost any type of waste can be placed in landfills.
bronchitis.

NOTE that a landfill is different from a DUMP. Differences include:

• Dumps are generally smaller than landfills.

• Dumps are not covered with soil on a daily basis to prevent bad smells and deter pests.
• Dumps do not have a liner to catch liquids produced by solid wastes.
• Dumps do not have a treatment system or METHANE collection.

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METHODS OF WASTE REDUCTION

One major problem with a growing population is the increasing volume of waste produced, as well as
limited space to place this waste and the large volume of non-biodegradable waste (e.g. plastics and
glass). Waste can be classed as either:

• BIODEGRADABLE, meaning they can be broken down quickly by microorganisms.

E.g. Paper, wood, food, sewage, cloth
• NON-BIODEGRADABLE, meaning they take a very long time to be broken down.
E.g. Glass, plastic, rubber, polystyrene

To cut down on waste production, three basic concepts can be adapted:

1. REDUCE the amount of waste you create. This can be done by consciously choosing
biodegradable paper bags instead of plastic bags, or switching off lights when not in use.
Carpooling and public transport can also reduce the amount of fuel used.

2. REUSE waste materials by finding other purposes for them, such as refilling water
bottles at home, reusing bags instead of throwing them away, composting methods,
repairing instead of buying new, using waste for creative purposes.

3. RECYCLE materials by breaking their structure down and transforming them into
new materials. This isn’t the same as reusing. Throw waste into respective recycling bins
or take empty bottles to recycling factories.

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