CHAPTER 4

ENTOMOLOGY

Definition of terms
Entomology – the study of insects and related arthropods; branch of zoology that deals with
the study of insects; “entoma” – insects and “logos” – study
Entomologist – people who specialize in entomology
Arthropods – invertebrate animals with segmented bodies and jointed appendages; “arthros”
– jointed and “poda” – leg
Insects – animals belonging to Phylum Arthropoda under class Insecta; “insecare” – cut into
and “secare” – cut

II. Fields of Entomology

Insect Morphology – study of the form and structure of insects including their function
Insect Systematics – deals with the classification and nomenclature of insects
Insect Physiology – study of the physical and chemical mechanisms that make it possible for
the insect to survive in every environment
Insect Ecology – study of interrelationship of insects and with its environment
Medical Entomology – study of insects that are associated with mammals
Apiculture – refers to the rearing of honeybees Sericulture – refers to the rearing of silkworm
Acarology – study of mites and ticks

Insect Morphology
Distinguishing Characteristics of Insects
a. Body with the distinct regions: Head, Thorax, and Abdomen
b. One pair of antennae
c. Three pairs of legs
d. Two pairs of wings
e. The mouthparts consist of the mandibles, a pair of maxillae, labrum and labium

Parts of an insect
a. The insect body wall is composed of three parts
a.1. Epidermal cell – cellular layer of the body wall; secretes molting fluid involved in the
growth process
a.2. Cuticle – non – cellular layer of the body wall; covers the entire body surface and the
lines the insects’ air tube lining, salivary glands and parts of the digestive tracts.
3 layers of cuticle:
Epicuticle – outermost thin layer which contains cuticulin, wax and cement
Exocuticle – middle part which give the cuticle its characteristics strength and
resilience; it is formed of chitin (a resistant substance insoluble to water, alcohol, alkali, and
dilute acids)
Endocuticle – innermost thick layer of cuticle
a.3. Basement membrane – separates body wall from internal organs

b. Head – comprises the globular to capsule like anterior body segment of an insect which
bears the eyes, antennae and mouthparts
b.1. Types of head orientation. Classification based on the head position in relation to the axis
of the body
Hypognathous head – condition wherein the mouthparts are at the right angle to the body axis
or the mouthparts is in continuous series with the legs on the lower surface of the head close
to the first thoracic segment. Occurs mostly in phytophagous or plant – feeding species
Example: grasshopper, roaches, mantids, larva of butterfly

Opisthognathous/ Opisthorrhynchous head – condition wherein the mouthparts are projecting

backwards or posteriorly between the front legs
Example: cicada, bugs, hoppers

Prognathous head – mouthparts is in line to the body axis or directly forward. Commonly
seen in carnivorous adult insects or in burrowing wood & soil larvae particularly beetles
Example: ground beetle, earwigs, antlion, wood borer

b.2. Mouthparts – vary in type depending on the kind of food the insect eat
Mandible – or jaws; Tooth – like structure used for chewing, grinding, tearing or pinching –
off solid food. May be used for defense. Heavily sclerotized, paired and unsegmented
Maxillae – helps in putting the food into the mouth. Paired segmented structures used for
mastication and lie directly behind the mandibles
Labrum – “upper lip”, forms the roof of the oral cavity and covers the base of the mandibles;
with a ventral surface called epipharynx
Labium – “lower lip” found posterior to the maxillae
Hypopharynx – a central tongue – like which drops from the membranous floor of the head
and bears the opening of the salivary ducts.

Types of Insect Mouthparts

Mandibulate or chewing type – the mandibles cut off and grind solid food, and the maxillae
and labium push it into the esophagus
Example: beetle, grasshopper
Cutting – Sponging type – the mandibles are produced into sharp blades, and the maxillae
into long probing style
Example: Horse fly
Sponging type – the mandibles and maxillae are non – functional and the remaining parts
from the proboscis with a sponge – like apex called labella
Example: Housefly
Chewing – lapping type – the mandibles and labrum are of chewing type and are used for
grasping prey, molding wax or nest materials; feed on solid and liquid
Example: honeybee
Piercing – sucking type – the mouthparts of this group are modified to piercing tissues and
suck juices from them
Example: Mosquito
Siphoning type – the food either nectar or liquid food already are sucked up by means of a
long proboscis compost only of a united galea of each maxilla
Example: Butterfly and moth
Rasping – sucking type – has a cone – shaped beak formed from clypeus, labrum, parts of the
maxillae and labium; feed on liquid as in plant sap
Example: Thrip

b.3. Antennae – elongated, mobile segmented appendages in adults of varying designs and
sizes, are used for sensory purpose and sometimes for defense
Three main parts:
Scape – basal segment
Pedicel – second segment
Flagellum – whip – like part beyond the pedicel

Type of Antennae
Filiform – threadlike, segments nearly uniformly cylindrical in size
Example: grasshopper, cricket, cockroach
Moniliform – beadlike, segments similar in size and nearly spherical in shape
Example: termite
Clavate – clubbed, segments gradually increase in diameter distally
Example: butterfly, ladybird beetle
Serrate – saw – like, the distal half of the antennal segments triangular.
Example: female click beetle
Pectinate – comb – like, most segments with long slender lateral process
Example: male click beetles
Bipectinate – double comb – like
Example: Male Atlas Moth
Flabellate – fan – shaped
Example: Male twisted – wing parasite
Geniculate – elbowed, the first segment is long, and the following segments are small and
going off at an angle to the first
Example: ants, bees
Plumose – feathery – like or hairy – like, most segments with whorls of long hair
Example: Male mosquito
Aristate – with a large third segment bearing a conspicuous dorsal bristle called arista
Example: housefly
Setaceous – bristle – like or needle – like, segments taper distally
Example: dragonfly and damselfly, cicada, leafhoppers
Capitate – having a head, terminal segments suddenly enlarged
Example: sap beetle
Lamellate – leaf – like or plate – like, terminal segment expanded laterally to form rounded
lobes
Example: June beetle

b.4. Eyes
Compound eyes – located on each side of the head of most adult insects, which consist of
many hexagonal elements known as facets or ommatidia
Simple eyes or ocelli (singular: ocellus) – are three simple lenses located between the
compound eyes on top of the head, typically arranged in an isosceles triangle; for light
detection and are not designed for high resolution vision
Lateral or posterior ocelli – found between the eyes and above the bases of the antennae
Anterior or median ocellus – antero – ventral to the lateral ocelli and between the antennal
bases

c. Thorax
- The middle region of the insect body which is connected from the head by a flexible
membranous neck (cervix)
- Major function is for insect locomotion
- Contains 3 distinct segments: prothorax (bears the prolegs), mesothorax (bears the
forewings and midlegs), metathorax (bears the hindwings and hindlegs)
- Each thoracic segment is composed of hardened plates that give it rigidity, such as: Notum
(upper plate), Sternum (lower plate), Pleuron (side/ lateral plate)

c.1. Legs – are articulated appendages comprising five segments.

Legs comprises of five segments:
Coxa – the proximal segment that is usually short and stout
Trochanter – connects the coax with the femur
Femur – the stoutest and sometime the largest segment of the leg, in some instances, it is
armed with strong spines
Tibia – is often a long, slender structure with downward – pointing spines that aid in climbing
Tarsus – usually made up of several subsegments called tarsomeres, terminate in a pretarsus

Types of insect legs and their uses:

Raptorial legs – grasping forelegs. Example: praying mantis
Cursorial legs – running legs. Example: cockroach
Gressorial legs – walking legs. Example: stick insect
Fossorial legs – digging forelegs. Example: mole cricket
Saltatorial legs – jumping hind legs. Example: grasshopper, flea
Natatorial legs – swimming legs of aquatic insects. Example: diving beetle, water scorpion
Clinging or Clasping legs – hooks on legs. Example: louse
Grooming legs – legs for cleaning head. Example: fly, honeybees
Pollen – collecting legs – flower visiting insects. Example: Hind legs of honeybee called
pollen basket have hairs were pollen is attached
Silk producing legs – forelegs of some insects have silk glands to produce silk to make
homes. Example: Web spinners

c.2. Wings
Insect wings show much diversity, varying in shape, texture, and coloration. Some specific
types of wings are used to identify insect orders, such as:
Elytra (singular: elytron) – are thick chitinous and hard with uniform texture which is used to
protect the soft abdomen. Example: forewings of beetle (Coleoptera)
Hemelytra (singular: hemelytron) – thickened basal section and membranous apical section.
Example: true bugs
Fringed type – are hair – like along the margins of the central using structure. Example:
wings of thrips (Thysanoptera)
Membranous type – are soft, flexible, translucent or transparent with prominent wing veins
Halteres/ Halter – are small knob – like structures which are used for balancing instead of
flight. Example: hindwings of flies and mosquitoes (Diptera)
Scaly wings - flattened seta or hair because of cuticular extension. Example: scaly wings of
Lepidoptera
Tegmina/ Tegmen – hardened leathery or horny forewings which protect the membranous
hind wings and soft abdomen. Example: forewing of grasshopper, mantis, roach (Orthoptera,
Mantodea, Blattodea)

d. Abdomen
- This is third body region and usually the largest part especially among females
- The abdomen differs from the head and thorax by its simple structure and lack of
appendages in the anterior segments
- It is primarily for reproduction, excretion and digestion because the abdomen bears the
genitalia, the anus, outwardly, and the digestive system inside, respectively.

d.1. Spiracles – these are external openings of the respiratory system found along the side of
the thorax and the abdomen.
d.2. Tympanum – “ear” is located on the first abdominal tergite in grasshopper but may be
found elsewhere in the body of other insects
- it is the main auditory organ
Tympanal organs may also be located on the: Ventral thorax between the metathoracic legs of
mantids; Prothoracic legs of many orthopterans; Abdomen of cicadas and some moths and
beetles; Wing bases of some moths and lacewings; Prosternum of some flies; Cervical
membranes of some scarab beetles
d.2. Cerci – slender, pointed structures found on the eleventh segment of the abdomen
Claspers – found at the posterior end of male insect usually use to hold female during mating
while depositing sperm
Ovipositor – found on the posterior end of female insect usually use for depositing eggs; in
some insects the ovipositor is modified as needle like tube that can be inserted to soft tissues
were eggs are being deposited
Style – slender tubular process, long spine – like appendages, thickened cerci could also be
styles
Vesicle – a little sac bladder or cyst

Classification, Nomenclature, and Identification of Insects

I. Definition of terms:
Classification – ordering of an organism into a hierarchy of categories
Nomenclature – naming of organisms (“Nomen” – name; “Calare” – to call)
Identification – major application of classification and takes place within a pre – existing
classification framework
Keys – comprise a sequence of paired statements and questions that allow the user to
eliminate alternative options and eventually associate the unknown specimens with a
name
Taxonomy – involves the theoretical basis for classification and the study of classification
schemes
Systematics – is the scientific study of the diversity of and relationship between the
different organisms

II. Structural Diversity of Insects

Five most dominant insect order
Coleoptera (Beetle) - 40% of describe insects; estimated 350,000 species
Hymenoptera (wasp, ant, bee) - Estimated 250,000 species Lepidoptera (moth, butterfly,
skipper) - Estimated 150,000 species
Diptera (Fly and mosquito) - Estimated 150,000 species
Hemiptera (bug) - Estimated 95,000 species

III. Functional Diversity of Insects: the feeding guilds

a. Phytophagous – plant eating insects
 Leaf feeders – type of damage include defoliation, tissue damage resulting to
skeletonize leaves; leaf rolling; leaf mining
Sap feeders – feed on succulent plant parts by sucking the sap or liquefied tissues; act
as vectors of diseases
Flower, nectar, pollen, feeders – pollinators
Seed and fruit feeders
Stem and root borers/ feeders
Gall makers
b. Zoophagous – carnivorous; feeding on living animal
Predator – feed on other insects; eat several preys to complete development; may be
specialized or generalist
Parasitoid – larval stage develops in the host which they kill; require only one host to
complete development
Parasite – live in another animal
c. Saprophagous/ Detrivores – decomposers/ scavengers; insects that feed on decaying
or dead organic matter
d. Mycetophagous – fungus feeders

Feeding Categories
Monophagous – specialist that feed only on one taxon
Oligophagous – feed on a few taxa
Polyphagous – feed on variety of species

IV. Phylum Arthropoda and their Characteristics

1. Taxonomic classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class: Insecta, Arachnida, Crustacea, Diplopoda, Chilopoda, Collembola, Diplura,
Protura
2. General Characteristics
- Segmented body
- Body segments bear a pair of jointed appendages
- Chitinous exoskeleton
- Bilaterally symmetrical body
3. Distinct Characteristics
Class Arachnida (spider, scorpion, mite, tick) - Four pairs of legs; fused head and
thorax (cephalothorax); gnathal appendages composed of two pairs (first pair called
chelicerae and second pedipalps)
Class Crustacea (crab, shrimp, sowbug, pillbug) - Have a pair of eyes, pair of
antennae, pair of lateral mandibles for chewing; thorax composed of 2 – 60 segments
(somites), distinct or fused, often with carapace over the head and parts of thorax as a
dorsal shield or as two lateral valves; abdominal somites distinct, with telson at the
posterior end and appendages variously modified, biramous; respiration by gills,
pseudotrachea or pleopods of some land isopods; excretion by one or two pairs of
green glands, sexes separate, with paired sex openings, egg carried by female
Class Diplopoda (millipede) - Long cylindrical body; short antennae, pair of
mandibles, maxilla fused into plate – like structure called gnathochilarium; thorax
composed of four single somites, each containing two pairs of jointed legs; single sex
opening located at center of third somite of the thorax, excretion by Malpighian
tubules, respiration by trachea
Class Chilopoda (centipede) - Dorsoventrally flattened slender body; long antennae,
pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae; body somites fifteen or more each with a
pair of legs, the first legs are modified into well – developed hook – like structure
(poison claws)
Class Insecta - The class Insecta is divided into orders based on the structure of the
wings and mouthparts, the metamorphosis and on the various other characteristics

Subclass Apterygota – primitively wingless insects

Class/ Order Protura (proturan) - Entognathous; Antennae, compound eyes, wings and
cerci are absent; Forelegs held forward; 12 abdominal segments; Ametabolous
Class/ Order Collembola (springtail) - Entognathous; antennae present and presence
of abdominal forked (forcula) a jumping organ; 6 abdominal segments without cerci;
Ametabolous
Class/ Order Diplura (dipluran) - Entognathous; compound eyes and wings absent;
antennae filiform and terminal cerci is present; Ametabolous Order Thysanura –
silverfish - Three tail – like filaments, paired cerci pointed outward and nearly long as
long as the middle median caudal appendage; body covered with gray silvery scale;
Ametabolous
Order Archaeognatha (bristletails) - Humped thorax, hypognathous, large compound
eyes in near contact; three tails, paired cerci shorter than single median caudal
appendage

Subclass Pterygota – winged and secondarily wingless insects

Division Exopterygota – “external wing growth”. Characterized by the presence of

wing pads that simply grow during each moulting (Incomplete metamorphosis:
Paurometabolous and Hemimetabolous)

Order Ephemeroptera – mayfly (“Ephemero” – short – lived or for a day; “ptera” –

with wings) - Presence of setaceous antennae and three tails (paired long multi –
segmented cerci and median caudal filament); vestigial mouthparts, live in 1 – 2 days
Order Odonata – dragonfly and damselfly (“Odon” – tooth) - Large compound eye,
strong chewing mouthparts; have 2 suborders: suborder Anisoptera (“Aniso” – not
equal; “ptera” – wings) dragonfly have forewings not equal in size as hindwings,
wings extended horizontally when at rest; suborder Zygoptera – damselfly have
forewings and hindwings equal is size and have the same shape, wings held vertically
above the abdomen when at rest)
Order Plecoptera – stonefly (“Pleco” – folded) - Naiads live in freshwater bodies of
water having two tails; fore and hindwings nearly equal in size, at rest wings partly
wrap abdomen and extend beyond abdominal apex; filiform antennae, chewing
mouthparts and long multisegmented cerci
Order Grylloblattodea – rock crawlers or ice crawlers - Wingless and often eyeless,
prognathous, stout coxae, females with short ovipositor
Order Dermaptera – earwig (“Derma” – skin) - Forewing small and leathery
(tegmina), hindwings are folded lengthwise and crosswise; forceps – like cerci;
predatory
Order Orthoptera – grasshopper, cricket (“Ortho” – straight) - Forewings are leathery
(tegmen) whereas hindwings are membranous; chewing mouthparts and most are
phytophagous; antennae filiform and hindlegs modified for jumping
Order Mantodea – mantis - Head mobile and triangular, compound eyes large and
separated, forelegs raptorial, forewings form tegmina
Order Phasmatodea – walking stick, stick insect, leaf insect - Prognathous
mandibulate, cylindrical stick – like or flattened leaf – like, forewings for leathery
tegmina
Order Mantophasmatodea – gladiator - Recently discovered new insect Order in 2002;
prognathous mandibulate, similar to Phasmatodea in appearance but predatory and
carnivorous habit
Order Blattodea – cockroach - Dorsoventrally flattened, hypognathous, prothorax
large and shield – like, forewings form tegmina, coxae large
Order Isoptera – termite (“Iso” – equal) - Social insects; winged forms have 4 equally
alike membranous wings; prognathous head, chewing mouthparts and moniliform
antennae; with the advent of molecular analysis, it is now considered an epifamily
Termitoidae under order Blattodea “social cockroaches”
Order Embioptera – web spinner (“Embio” – lively) - Prognathous, kidney shaped
compound eyes, have 4 membranous wings in males and wingless in females; basal
fore tarsus swollen/ enlarged and with silk gland
Order Zoraptera – zorapteran (“zor” – pure; “aptera” – wingless) - Hypognathous,
termite – like, wingless species lack either eyes and ocelli; winged species have
simple wing venation and shed readily
Order Psocoptera – bark and booklice (“Psoco” – rub small) - Filiform antennae; large
compound eyes; chewing mouthparts asymmetrical, maxillae with rod shaped laciniae
- Wings reduced or absent, if present venation simple, held like roof at rest; cerci
absent
Order Phthiraptera – Chewing lice (Suborder: Mallophaga); Sucking lice (Suborder:
Anoplura) - Dorsoventrally flattened, wingless ectoparasite; chewing mouthparts; legs
with claws
Order Thysanoptera – thrips (“Thysano” – fringe) - Hypognathous with feeding tube
formed from three stylets, the maxillary laciniae and the left mandible; 4 membranous
wings are fringed Order Hemiptera – true bug (“Hemi” – half); Homoptera – aphid,
scale insect, cicada, pyllid, whitefly (“Homo” – alike, uniform) - Forewings have a
thickened and leathery basal part while apical portion is membranous; piercing –
sucking mouthparts arise from the anterior end of the head extend ventrally Order
Dermaptera – earwigs - Elongate and flattened, prognathous, forewings are small
leathery tegmina, hindwings semi – circular, cerci modified as forceps

Division Endopterygota – wings in insects with complete metamorphosis may be

present internally in larvae as undifferentiated cells called “imaginal discs” and may
be only visible starting from pupal instar

Order Neuroptera – antlion and lacewing (“Neuro” – nerve) - 4 membranous wings

with numerous veins and cross veins; chewing mouthparts
Order Coleoptera – beetle (“Coleo” – sheath) - Presence of hard or thickened front
pair of wings called elytra; chewing mouthparts with well – developed mandibles
Order Strepsiptera – twisted – winged parasite (“Strepsi” – twisted) - Endoparasite;
males have forewings reduced and without veins while hindwings are fan – shaped
with few veins, females are larviform and wingless; larvae initially a triangulin with
three pairs of thoracic legs, later maggot – like without mouthparts
Order Mecoptera – scorpionfly and hanging fly - Membranous wings; hypognathous
chewing mouthparts modified into a beak, elongated rostrum formed from slender,
serrate mandibles, maxillae and elongated labium; legs raptorial
Order Megaloptera – alderfly and dobsonfly - Prognathous mandibulate; thorax
elongated but prothorax only slightly longer than mesothorax and metathorax
Order Trichoptera – caddisfly (“Tricho” – hair) - Membranous wings covered with
hair; adult mouthparts reduced (no proboscis) but well developed maxillary and labial
palps
Order Lepidoptera – moth, butterfly (“Lepido” – scale) - Adults have siphoning
mouthparts while larvae (caterpillar) have chewing mouthparts; scaly wings and
forewings is locked to hindwings by a structure called frenulum
Order Diptera – true fly (“Di” – two) - Hindwings are modified into slender, knob –
like structure called halteres use for balancing
Order Siphonaptera – flea (“Siphon” – tube; “aptera” – wingless) - Ectoparasites;
body laterally flattened; Piercing – sucking mouthparts without mandibles; antennae
lying in grooves
Order Hymenoptera – ant, bee, wasp, sawfly (“Hymeno” – couple) - Both wings are
membranous, small hindwings are interlocked with the forewings by a hook – like
structure (hamuli); chewing – lapping mouthparts; thorax either three – segmented or
forms a mesosoma by incorporation of 1st abdominal segment in which case the
abdomen is petiolated (waisted), the fusion of the metathorax with the first abdominal
segment is called propodeum.
Order Pthiraptera – louse - Dorsoventrally flattened, wingless ectoparasite;
mouthparts mandibulate or beak – like
Order Raphidioptera – snakefly - Prognathous mandibulate, prothorax much longer
than meso – and metathorax

Insect Growth and Development

I. Definition of terms
Development – changes that happens in insect from egg to adult morphologically and
physiologically
Metamorphosis – the change in form during the development period after the
embryonic development
Ecdysis/ Molting/ Moulting – the process by which an insect shed off old skin
(cuticle) to provide enough space to grow; most insects molts at least three or four
times during normal development
Exuvium (exuviae) – old skin (cuticle) left after molting
Stadium (stadia) – the total period between any two molts
Instar – the growth stage between two consecutive molts
Oviduct – one of the paired tubules through which the egg passes from the ovarian
tubes into a common oviduct then into the vagina
Zygote – a fertilized egg
Oocyte – a female egg cell before maturation
Spermatheca – a sac–like structure in the female where sperms from the male is
received and stored

II. Types of metamorphosis

Ametabolous/ Ametabola – no metamorphosis (Example: Protura, Diplura,
Collembola, Thysanura)
- There is no change in appearance of the young compared to the adult, except in size
and development of reproductive structure or genitalia (egg – young – adult)
Paurometabolous/ Paurometabola – simple, gradual or direct metamorphosis
(Example: Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Thysanoptera, Dermaptera) - The immature
(nymph) resembles the adult except in size, wings, and genitalia development (egg –
nymph – adult)
Hemimetabolous/ Hemimetabola – incomplete metamorphosis (Example: Odonata,
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera)
- in which accessory organs like gills are present in immature (naiads); naiads are
aquatic while adults are terrestrial (egg – naiad – adult)
Holometabolous/ Holometabola – complete metamorphosis (Example: Coleoptera,
Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Neuroptera)
- all stages differ in appearance (egg – larva – pupa – adult)

III. Stages of Metamorphosis

a. Egg – almost all insects produces from egg
Parts of egg:
Yolk/ vitellus – supplies nourishment to the developing egg
Vitelline membrane – a sheath that covers the yolk
Blastoderm – the one cell thick layer of cells that surround the yolk of an egg early in
embryonic development
Chorion – or shell which gives protection to the egg
Micropyle – consists of one or more very minute openings thru which the male sperm
enters, and fertilization takes place
Operculum – a lid or cap thru which the young escape a line of weakness in the
chorion which splits as the first stage of larva escapes from the egg
Embryo – the young animal before leaving the body of the parent or before emerging
from the egg

b. Larva – the immature stage between the egg and the pupal stage; characterized as
the growing feeding and developing stage that usually cover the longest period in
the life cycle
Types of Larva Form
Eruciform – body cylindrical, head well developed; with thoracic legs and abdominal
prolegs. Example: Lepidoptera, Mecoptera
Scarabeiform – cylindrical and curved U – shaped and head well–developed; with
thoracic legs but without prolegs; a pair of spiracles on the prothorax and 8 pairs
abdominal spiracles are present. Example: Coleoptera family including Scarabaeidae,
Bruchidae, Ptinidae
Campodeiform – lavae have flattened body and long legs and usually with cerci.
Example: Neuroptera, Trichoptera, naiads of Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera and Odonata
Elateriform – elongated body, cylindrical and hard shelled; legs present but short and
the body setae reduced. Example: wireworms, Coleoptera family including Elateridae,
Tenebrionidae, Alleculidae
Vermiform – body elongated and wormlike, legless, with or without head. Example:
Diptera, Siphonaptera
Carabiform – modified campodiform; body flattened but legs shorter and without
caudal filaments. Example: Coleoptera family including Chrysomelidae, Lampyridae,
Carabidae, Melyridae
 Types of Larva in terms of legs
Oligopod – no compound eyes. Example: Neuroptera, Trichoptera, Stepsiptera
Polypod – with thoracic and abdominal prolegs. Example: Lepidoptera
Apodous – no legs and purely sclerotinized. Example: housefly, flea
Protopod – with different forms and is often quite unlike a normal insect

c. Nymph – the active developing stage in paurometabolous insects

d. Naiad – the immature stages of hemimetabolous insects; aquatic; closed spiracles
and breathe by means of gills Example: Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata
e. Pupa – the resting (inactive/ quiescent) or reorganization stage of holometabolous
insects
Types of Pupa:
Obtect – appendages more or less glued to the body; covered with tight – fitting, more
or less transparent skin which holds all the parts except the end of the abdomen; pupa
of many Lepidoptera is covered by a silken cocoon formed by the larva before it
molts to the pupal stage. Example: Lepidoptera, Diptera
Exarate – appendages free and not glued to the body; looks like a pale mummified
adult. Example: Neuroptera, Trichoptera, most Coleoptera
Coarcate – appendages are not visible; like exarate but remain covered by hardened
exuvia of the next to the last larval instar called puparium. Example: Diptera
(Cyclorrhapha), Hemiptera (Coccidae)
Decticous – with articulated/ functional mandibles; always exarate
Adecticous – with immobile mandibles; both obtect and exarate
Pharate adult – adult inside the pupa
Pharate pupa – pupa inside the larval skin

f. Adult/ imago – the stage after the last molt; reproductive stage of insect;
reproductive system fully matured or complete

Reproduction in Insects
1. Sexual Reproduction – both male and female are required; an individual is produced
by fusion of gametes (eggs fertilized by sperm); most insects reproduce this way
Oviparity – egg – laying as the normal means of reproduction
Ovoviviparity – production of well – developed eggs that hatch inside the mother’s
body; could also refer to a type of viviparity wherein the eggs are retain in the genital
tracts until the larvae are ready to hatch; occurring just before or as the eggs are laid;
all nourishment for the embryo is present in the egg and no special nutritional
structures are developed in the eggs or parent; differ in the normal oviparity in the
retention of the eggs
Viviparity – reproduction by giving birth to live offspring rather than eggs
2. Parthenogenesis – only females are required to reproduce the young; offspring can
develop without fertilization. Example: aphids undergo sexual reproduction sometime
in the year and parthenogenesis during summer months
Two classifications:
Arrhenotoky – males are produced
Thelytoky – females are produced
Deuterotoky – males and females are produced
3. Paedogenesis/ Neotony – reproduction in the sexually immature or larval stage
Example: larvae of some hymenoptera and gall midge
4. Paedoparthenogenesis – parthenogenesis in larva
Oviparous – insects that produce eggs
Viviparous – insects that produce live young
Ovoviviparous/ Oviviviparous – insects produce living young by hatching of the
ovum while still inside the mother