Museum

Vol XXVII, n° 2, 1975

The modern living museum:

some reflections and
experiences
museum
Vol. XXVII, NO. 2, 1975
. 1I

I '
I.
Museum, successor to Mouseion, is published ( 1
by the United Nations Educational,
Scientificand Cultural Organization in Paris.
Museunl serves as a quarterly survey of
activities and means of research in the field
of museography.
Opinions expressed by individual
contributors are not necessarily those of
Unesco.

EDITORS

Chief Editor : Conrad Wise

.AssociateEditor: Anne Erdös

ADVISORY BOARD

O m Prakash Agrawal, India

Sid Ahmed Baghli, Algeria
Raymonde Frin, France
Jan Jelinek, Czechoslovakia
Michael Kustow, United Kingdom Y

Grace L. McCann Morley, Director,

ICOM Agency for South-East Asia
Georges Henri Rivière, Permanent Adviser \

of ICOM
Mario Vásquez, Mexico
The Secretary General of ICOM, ex oficio

Each number : I 7.5 o F. Annual subscription

rate (4 issues or corresponding double issues) :
I.
60 F.
Editorial and publishing offices:
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization,
7 Place de Fontenoy, 75 700 Paris (France)
0Unesco 1975
Printed in SwzXyerland
Presses Centrales S.A., Lausanne
 The modern,
living museum

Some reflections and experiences

Editorial 51

Jan Jelinek The modem, living iwtlseum j2

Iker Larrauri The school mzdseum programme in Mexico 6I

Coral Ordóñez García The Casa del Museo, Mexico Cìg: atz experiment ìti bringiq the museum t o the
people 71

Louis Valensi Bordeaux. 2,000 Years of History. Cdtziral actioii in support of an exhibition
relating the history of the town-an appraisal 78

I
Museum notes
Labellilzg (Ralph A. Lewin) go i

Science in Conservation of Cultural Property. Exhibition at the Natiofzal Mtlse24~2,

New Delhi (O. P. Agrawal and Smita J. B a i ) 91

Taiztra Mtlseum, New Delhi (Ajit Mookerjee) 94 j -

of exact and nattlral sciemes. A. J. Rose, A. Bose,

Some points of view on nzuse~~zs
G. McCann Morley, J. Kuba, J. Arnold 94
 Editorial

Museums, in life. Reflections, experiments centring on this essential and really

salutary theme for a museum of today which is to be equal to our day.
First, the President of ICOM, Dr Jelinek, presents the philosophy of the
question when he successively considers needs : the need to direct museum
language to the general public; the need for a museum to reflect the state of
progress of its basic disciplines; the need, which the museum must meet, to
educate the young, the adults of tomorrow, and make them take part.
From Mexico, a land of museums which sets an example, come two articles
of applied wuseology. The first concerns school museums with their problems
of collecting and exhibiting material, for which the pupils themselves are
responsible. The second is about the ‘integral’ museum and is based on an
experiment undertaken in a suburb of Mexico City, thanks to the initiative and
with the Gelp of the National Anthropological Museum. An experiment which
should be tried elsewhere and perfected in the light of this initial success.
Lastly, an appraisal The appraisal of cultural activity round a major temporary
exhibition on the history of Bordeaux which was three years in preparation.
A partial and yet well-developed sketch of what will, a few years from now,
be the Museum of Aquitaine.

I
NATUR-MUSEUM SENCKENBERG, Frankfurt.
Environmental exhibition. ‘Eco-plague’,
symbol for the modern environmental
situation of the world. Sculpture by Professor
Schäfer, biologist, artist and director of the
museum.
 The modern, living museum

Jan Jelinek The population explosion, particularly in South and Central America, in Africa
and in Asia, has brought wi+ it, in &ese continents, despite all efforts and local
success in the fight against it,'a continuing steep increase in illiteracy. Not only
does today's education fail to meet the needs of society, but its whole conception,
methods and goals are outdated.
While educadon has up to now been concentrated on young people, it needs
to be started considerably earlier, that is before a child reaches the age of 6,
and to be adapted for adulthood to ensure a constant education of adults
&muglaout their whole life. ~

The methods and techniqges of education must keep up with &e requirements
of this day and age. For the &ose part we lag behind with old-fashioned methods,
equipment and teaching aids.
Our goal can no longer be merely to attain a sum of knowledge; it must be
above all &e education of a harmonious modem person, the transmission of
It$ormafion bulletinpublished the methods of gaining knowledge, and then, finally, the attainment of knowledge
Västerbotten Museum showitg how the mweultll
itself.
can be used as a feachitgaid, and how audiojuisual
techniques and televisionform an essential part of the The whole educational syst~mof today therefore finds itself on the brink of
musem's work. revolutionary change. This is a question of the greatest importance to society;
without appropriate education, people will not know how to use the discoveries
and technical achievements which modern science is putting at their disposal.

I ducati ion is an essential predondition for the success-of futire society.

2
The staff of the museum reviewing
videocassettes to be integrated in the new
study collections and environments under
construction in the museum.
3 (a), ( b ) , (cl
The museum as teaching aid.
The modern, living museum j3

Education and museums 'potential

The traditional way of spreading information by the written word is archaic
and today already insufficient. It does not basically differ from writing cuneiform
letters on earthen tablets. For the distribution of information we use a certain
number of abstract signs-letters-grouped into abstract symbols, thdt is words.
This method can no longer compete with pictorial information. The growth
of the publication of illustrated books, and especially of films and television,
makes this quite clear. The invention of videocassettes has now removed one
serious disadvantage of television and allows even the long-term storage of
television information in the form of videocassette banks, libraries or docu-
mentary'centres.
This means of transferring information has its own educational disadvantages,
especially in so far as the viewer acquires information passively, without personal
ïnvolvement, without any occasion to check the information and confirm it by
experience. Compared with these methods, museums surely have the disad- ._
vantage of less publicity (unless they work together with television),2 but also
the advantage that they mainly transfer information by means of original three-
dimensional objects-authentic and inexhaustible sources of information. A
further-so far little used-quality of museu,, is the direct involvement of
the visitor, the possibility of transferring personal experience together with I. See 'Museums and Video', page 19.
certain information, in other words, of transferring information and its attesta- t. See on this subject: John Read, 'Television and the
Museum', Musewm, Imagination and Education, p. 83-90,
tion at the same time (Figs. z and ?(a), ( b ) , (c)). Such experience is then Paris, Unesco, 197J (Museums and Monuments, vol. xv).
essential to the creation of a knowledge of values, which, in today's complicated
environment, is essential for the future of our society. This educational method
is a valuable counterweight to the passive consumption of information from
television, where, though the viewer can partisipate emotionally, he is none
the less unable to test the information himself, unable to gain from this form
of education the verification of experience.

FACHERS ATTEND A
ONE-DAY COURSE TO
FAMILIARIZE 7HEM5ELVfS
WITH TIE MUSEUM'S BY5TfM

.- #
II
EACH SCHOÕL HA6 A ö.Li-
AT THE MUiîEUM ENTRANCE THE!?& IS A COLLECTION OF TEACHERS'MAWUALTO nw ~ ~ ~ ~ D
CARDS 'WHICH CORRESmND TO THE 7FACHING MAE&WS PLAN TEACHING
AND DJFFERENT FlELCITOF SCHOOL AGTIVITY SIZE OF GROUP:
2-4 PU PI^^ III
rnmE: ~ O U RREGION AS IT
OSED TO BE#

FMHERS IN THE t'&PARAnONdF

TEACHING MATERIALS AND THE
j4 Jan Jelinek

I
-- __ __ __ _.. ..-. . .. .. .. .

Our society is accustomed to a rapid succession of ever-new information. This

is a result of our scientific and technical revolution. In such a situation museums
cannot remain mere conservatories and mausoleums of documentation on nature
and human society. They must also help us to meet h e requirements of modern
society. In h e educational sector, the rapid outpouring of informtion resulting
from &e scientific and technical revolution reveals itself in the growth of a need
for topical exhibitions in museums. Such exhibitions can be grouped under the
new idea of‘museum journalism ’ (Fig. I). A choice of suitable themes can easily
be found in a critical review of, for example, television pro-grammes. W e r e
scientific subjects are concerned, the classical ‘permanent’ museum exhibition
(Canada)
is going out of existence. It remains in the form of long-term exhibitions, since
Field &!dies and publicparticipation
some classical scientific themes require long-term education, but &e whole or
the greater part of any scientific exhibition still requires, in &e light of new
scientific discoveries, extensive revision, additions and amendments, after only
4
Pioneer crafts were the topic of an activity a few years. As far as workldlg methods are concerned, no modern museum can
session: (a) a youngster practises carding wool get by without a sensible system of co-operation with television. Casual co-
at a museum open house; (b) instruction
in making a wooden butter mould; operation is no longer either suitable or sufficient.
Saturday morning class.
J
Geology club. museums for the education of the youn
6
Environmental studies. Summer school The question of the education of the young in an age when some traditional
teachers taking part in field trip sponsored by ethical norms have been abandoned and the formation. of new ones is a difficult
the Science Section of the museum. Field process, the question of the lack of any p r o g r a m e in this education and the
trips were one aspect of a special summer
course given for science teachers for two related question ofthe growth of juvenile delinquency, are world-wide problems,
summers. which go beyond the sphere of professional pedagogues. More than ever before,
The modern, living museum >>

7 8
9
Total education in the total
environment (TETE)
Founded in 19 64, as a non-projt educational
consultang established in Connecticut (United
States). Museums have been a ‘natural’ resource
for this institution, the goal of which is to maximiye
the utìlixation of existing resources, both
natural and human, as thefoundation for learning.
In I970, an ‘Earth Day’programme, organixed
at the South Street Museum in New York City,
resulted in a grant from the New York date
Council on the A r t s , for a pilot project in the
state of New Y o r k The Hudson River w a selected
as a ‘microcosm of the world’, the Hudson River
Museum as headquarters and schools infour com-
munitiesfrom N e w York City t o Albany to relate
the pbsical, biological and cultural interactions
in their shared environment. The students’
multidisciplinay projects that resulted were then
exhibited in the four areas :in the State Museum
o f N e w York, in Albany, in the Transportation
Building in Poughkeepsie, in the Hudson River
Museum in Yonkers, and final4 in ayear-long
exhibit at the headquarters of the United States
National Commission on United Nations Plaxa,
New York.

7
A pupil observes for himself the cause and
effects of detergents. Students shared learning
experiences with other T E T E pilot schools
focusing on the Hudson River as the common
denominator. The results of these learning
experiences were recorded in a variety of
ways for the resultant exhibits, in 1371-72.
8
On board the Hudson River Sloop Restoration
(HRSR Clearwater), multidisciplinary
activities were organized by the Arts and
Science Division of the Hudson River
Museum: water sampling, plankton tests,
sketching, ship handling, etc. Photographs
were taken and developed by students and
were included in the four museum exhibits
that were the pilot project results.
9
Students preparing exhibits in their school
showcase ‘Art from Used Objects’. This
exhibit was to be included in subsequent
exhibits during 1972.
rG Jan Jzlinek

young people need an attractive educational programme which would fulfil

their natural and healthy longing for creative work, romance, discovery and a
reasonable degree of ambition.
One of the most valuable educational structures is the one in which there is
personal involvement, where we gain new knowledge together with first-hand
experience. Here the modern museum, which does not merely present an exhibi-
tion of objects, but explains their character, function and use, can play an
important role.
Let us imagine what a different sort of education it can be. A boy sees in an
anthropological exhibition a device for making fire by rubbing two sticks of
wood together. He may feel that such a method of making fire is difficult and
lengthy. How Ifferent the effect will be i f we say: ‘That’s what you think! If
it was really so difficult and lengthy, such a method of making hre would not
have been very usefd to the primitive hunters. On the contrary, it is a corn-
paratively quick and easy method, provided you know which is the best wood
to use and what the correct method of producing fire is. Here’s a good sort of
wood, properly dry; try for yourse~f.y
By such an education he will then gain not only a practical knowledge of
technological methods, but also a knowledge of the value of things and of work.
This is the same difference as that between the boy whose father buys him an
automatic toy, and the boy who makes his own toy, however simple. Por the
first, the automatic toy has limited value. And if it gets damaged, he will soon
throw it away because, after all, his Bather will buy him another one. On the
other hand, the boy who makes his own toy-perhaps unskilfully-must think
about it, solve the technical problems; above all he gets from it creative enjoy-
ment which is in itself already an irreplaceable treasure.
Even those who view this question superficially will perceive the educational
method that is being applied. Information is connected with the gaining of
 The modern, living museum j7

II
I2 Musée National des Techniques
Cotiservatoire National des A r t s e t Métiers,
Paris.
Clubforjlormg techtiicians. This clrib,
started b 19 60, is open [Link],q peoplefrom
the age of 14. It is so popular that membership
nzitst be appliedfor severalyears ìti advance.

IO
Model aeroplane workshop. Part of the
premises was damaged in a fire and a
temporary workshop had to be improvised to
meet the demands of members not wishing to
be deprived of their leisure-time activities.
II
During an outdoor weekend members of the
television workshop set up the antenna they
have constructed to pick up signals from
remote foreign stations (as far away as
the Soviet Union).
I2
The club’s mobile laboratory with set for
receiving television signals. Boys from the
club made the special apparatus necessary for
these operations and have been using it for
several years.
I3
The remote-control railway always attracts
a larger number of people than the restricted
space of the club can take. Each year, the
previous year’s railway network is dismantled
and new members start from the beginning.
jg Jan Jelinek

personal experience, im the imediate involvement of the visitor to the museum,

with am infinitely deeper pedagogical effect. By giving a true sense of values,
this contributes to the successful development ofthe individual and, consequently,
of society (Figs. 4-9).
For museums this means bringing work activity and experiment into &e
visitors' programme, Invaluable for this purpose are a simply equipped workshop
and even a limited open-air space for groups of young people. It is quite possible
to use part of the courtyard or garden which exist at many museums. There we
can carry on &e s o r t of work which C " l t be done indoors. Consider &e
programmes of some North American museums, where there is a separate
junior museum-whi& should not, of course, be a mere imitation of the adult
section. In the Soviet Uflioba, too, the utmost attention is paid to work with
young people in both schools and youth organizations. The manipulatory and
collectingprogramme is almost in austible; natural sciences, historkd sciences
and arts are all represented in museums.
Thematic excursions and youth expeditions on free days will undoubtedly be
a useful supplement to such museum work. Excursions can have a programme
of extremely varied natural science themes, including &e collection of material,
from which the young people can &en make their own exhibition, such as
'What we saw and found during an expedition into the area surroun&ng our
town., The theme may also be a historical one, a prehistoric one or an &no-
graphical one. Let us o d y remember the success of the two parts of the book
and the magazine Foxfire, which was also a result of good educational work
with young people Wow interesting the working methods of our forefathers
would be for us, particularly if we could lid them up with at least a partial
knowledge of tradition. The interest of young people in various technical clubs,
whose pursuits are modern technology, modelling or chemistry, is well known
(Figs. 10-13).Not only can a modern museum organize all this, but it can also
interest young people in the gathering of material and the assembling of their
own small e ~ h i b i t i ~ on
n s many different themes.
It need not surprise us if we discover a similar interest in practical activities
and excursions among adults. This o d y shows the value of su& activities.
Work with the young in museums means, of course, for the museum, certain
demands on space and on the stag The preparation of special programes,
excursions and activities in clubrooms and workshops will of course draw on
our time, and to a certain extent on our funds. But on h e other hand the resulting
educational work is obviously witl-aout price.
Work with young people, alongside the intensified organization of exhibitions
on topical themes as an exhibition system, and along with elhe stressing of
ecological, sociological and environmental themes, must be a characteristic
feature of the modern, living museum.
 I
IW can we avoid making unwise investments Carrying out experiments of its own With
IMUSEUMS AND VIDEO ie to fashion trends-are there not
veral indications that the museums will be
videbcassettes in certain museums.

3 next in line (which may be a good or a Studies in those museums underiaking

d thing depending on one's standpoint)? their o w n experiments. (The Nordic
this domain, co-ordination must be the Museum operated three videocassettes for the
Information leaflet published by the Films and iring the 1960s. a large number of enterprising ierative word. important exhibition on Sweden i n the last
Images Committee of the Swedish Museums ,ople i n the field of education showed 100 years; the Museum of Technology will
Association for members o f the Association irticular enthusiasm for television cameras, le Films and Images Committee of the be using videocassettes in its new museum
ieotape recorders and the possibilities of wedish Museums Association wants to make of telecommunications.) With all the
ing television and video techniques in contribution along the lines that 'information different viewpoints gathered together, a
lucation. I n many areas schools spent large events unwise investments' and is synthesis can be made and publicized, that
ims of money on television (video) oceeding with the following methods: is:
luipment.
Information given on the development of
ut serious problems arose video techniques and on experiments
(these pages are a beginning and a page of
iere was not a sufficient number of audio-visual information will be appearing
ithusiastic people to keep the system going. regularly in the Swedish museums review).

lrthermore, they had bought different types Information giveh o n conferences (the
i d makes of equipment which meant that committee is to organize an important
ogramme exchanges were restricted and conference for Scandinavian countries o n
,-ordination in general made difficult. the future production of cinegrammes in
Scandinavian museums).

I the following pages, information takes the

,rm of a list of definitions of audio-visual
:rms.

ctober 1974
ilms and Images Committee of the Swedish
luseums Association.

? videotape, does not operate reel-to-reel.

finitions ieogramme. All software designed to be t is enclosed in a cassette which is inserted
nsmitted on to a television screen, e.g. o the machine. Advantage: the tape does
rdware. The machines. e.g. projector and leocassettes, videodiscs, etc. t have to be threaded on to the machine,
,e recorder, The hardware transmits the irobiem comparable to threading the cotton
ormation contained in the software. ieotape (sample attached). A tape of a sewing-machine.
astic-like material, magnetically charged
iffware. 'That which is put into the d resembling an ordinary magnetic tape but
achines', the teaching material (e.g. the film. der (exists in different widths)
jgnetic tape or videogramme).
negramme. General term used for film. tele-
deo. The word comes from the Latin videre ;ion, videofilm, videogramme productions.
> see) and is used i n various composite
,rds to do with television. The word is
ginning to be used t o distinguish between feotape recorder, Tape recorder with tape
evision transmitted b y waves (e.g. Swedish rrying images and sound which are -matic. Type of videocassette recorder
Idio) and other kinds. Instead of television ransmitted through the recorder on to a unched by Sony.
>e recorder w e say videotape recorder, evision set. ipaE fora sampleof
,d instead of television cassette we say
pe recorder with videocassettes. Tape
!-inch videotape
ìeocassette, etc.
:order in which the magnetic tape, that is the type used by
adio companies).

Software
CR. Type of videocassette recorder invented
q Philips but now manufactured b y Tele-
inken, Grundig, etc.

/T\ Hardware 'ideodisc. Resembles a very thin gramophone

?cord, with images as well as sound recorded
1 the grooves, which are transmitted b y
leans of the videodisc recorder. The disc
?volves very quickly: at 1,500 r.p.m. for
1 ttardware
xample in the Telefunken machine.

iansmission by waves, Wave transmission

iy Swedish Radio, as opposed to transmission
iy individual machine, the method used for
ideotapes, films, etc.

SbFtware leference: A V i Biblioteken, Lund, ;"ens*= Museifiireningen,

,OX5405, 114 84 Stockholm.
I
3ibiiotekstjänst. 1973, 34 kronor.
Software
 61

The school museum

programme in Mexico

Iker Larrauri

With the aim of establishing a museum in every school throughout Mexico,

the National Institute of Anthropology and History' launched the School I. The Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia
(INAH) is an official branch of the Secretariat for Public
Museum Programme in July 1972. So far, about 400 schools in 7 of the 3 I states Education It carries out anthropological and historical
of the republic have adopted the programme, under very varying conditions, surveys; it is responsible for the study and conservation of
cultural property of historical, archaeologicaland ethno-
in both rural and urban areas, some of which are highly developed industrially, graphic importance and for the dissemination of anthro-
pological and historical information. It supervises and
while others are virtually at subsistence level. This shows that it is based on operates four national, forty-two regional and twenty-four
archaeological or historical site museums, in addition to the
sound principles, which can be applied at widely differing levels of development Local and School Museum Programme.
-in recently established towns or in communities with a deep-rooted cultural
tradition, in small country villages or in large cities-since it is the school with
its own organization that constitutes the basis for the development of the school
museum.
The programme was an attempt to achieve three objects : to encourage large
numbers of the people to co-operate voluntarily in the safeguarding and con-
servation of the cultural heritage; to bring about a radical change in the traditional
relationship of the public with museums so as to make them an effective cultural
instrument, used by the public at large (Fig. 14); and, indirectly, to provide
schools with auxiliary teaching materials (Fig. I/).
Two conditions had to be met in applying these principles: the financial
outlay had to be very modest, and the programme had to be extended throughout
the country in a relatively short period (eight years), without the need to set
up complex administrative and operational machinery.
The basic features of the programme can be summed up as follows :
The programme is national in scope.
It operates permanently and without interruption.
It is based essentially on the co-ordinated action of pupils and teachers in each
school, with the co-operation of the community.
The museums set up are not separate from the school; they are an integral part
of the school system.
The programme is based on voluntary participation. Under no circumstances
do the educational authorities enforce its adoption
The promotion of the museums and the planning of the programme are the
responsibility of the National Institute of Anthropology and History until
the stage of development reached is such that the project can be continued
without the assistance of the institute.
The setting up, organization and operation of the school museum is essentially
the pupils' task.
The part teachers play in school museum activities is to advise the pupils,
assisting them and guiding their decisions without imposing their authority.

, .,.
62 Iker Larrauri

The p r o g r a m e is administered by a co-ordinating office consisting of three

sections : administration, research and advice, and promotion, It also has a small
workshop for the design and production of graphic and eihibition material.
There is a promotion centre in each state in the republic where the programme
is functioning; it has a considerable degree of autonomy; it follows the pro-
gramme in general and maintains constant contact with the co-ordinating office,
but it is free to adopt the procedural methods h a t are the most effective in the
circumstances in which it is operating,
The programme organizers are trained teachers, mostly at the primary level.
They are chosen locally since they must reside in the area in which h e y are to
work. They are generally teachers from schools in which the programme has
been launched, who, from the outset, have shown specialinterest and enthusiasm.
The educational authorities second them for work in the promotiion of the
museums, heir post and salary being maintained. Directors of education in
the states are not always prepared to allow one of their teachers to give up
teaching in order to work on the programme, but it is not di%cult to convince
them when it is explained that the advantages derived from the work of the
museum organizer fully make up for his absence from the classroom, since he
works in several schools, and all groups in each school take part in museum

JI
The lack of teaching materials in schools is
remedied to a large extent by the use of
exhibits iin the school museum.
The school museum programme in Mexico 63

16
Pupils and their teachers who lack specialized
training have to find how to solve problems
of specimen conservation and display and put
their ideas into practice.

I7
In selecting organizers the qualities regarded
as essential are imagination, enthusiasm for
the work and complete understanding of
the purpose of the programme. They need
not have had specialized training, for their
task is not to teach, but to guide the children
in carrying out activities through which the
children-and they themselves-will learn.

activities. In practice, however, the most compelling argument is a visit to one

of the museums that have been set up elsewhere, where results can be seen at
first hand and where teachers and children who have already taken part in the
programme can be asked their opinion.
The most important point about the programme is the fact that the children
themselves set up the museum. They organise, arrange and administer it; but
their principal function is to build up the collections.
This is the fundamental activity and it demands the establishment of a dynamic
relationship between the teacher and his pupils, transforming the passive,
receptive attitude of the children into one of active participation. It is a relation-
ship in which the teacher ceases to be a tutor and becomes a guide, encouraging
the group to investigate, explore and discover significant similarities and
64 I ker Larrauri

18
The school museum programme in Mexico 65

differences, always making maximum use of the children’s curiosity and their
own interests (Figs. 16, 17).
Thus activities hitherto regarded as work that only specialists and research
workers could do are carried out every day in schools : the collection, description
and classification of objects which the children, according to their own inclina-
tions and tastes, have found and selected, and the registration and description
of such objects so that they can be placed in the museum and exhibited to the
whole school and to the community.
Programme organizers and teachers are told that they should not provide
the children with information about exhibits; their task is to guide them and
encourage them to seek such information outside the classroom, from relations
and neighbours, approaching and questioning anyone who, they think, might
be able to give them information. For instance, if their intention is to reconstitute
a skeleton, they can learn most from the butcher, the gravedigger or the local
doctor. Similarly, in preparing a mineral collection they should question potters,
stonecutters and masons or people who sell building material. Gardeners can
also provide invaluable information, as can miners, engineers and geologists.
In other cases the people to ask are the chemist, the tradesmen in the market,
muleteers and shepherds, and particularly the old people, who are aware of a
great many things that others fail to notice.
Children naturally go first of all to their parents; they get information from 18
In displaying a theme, original objects are
them, and also a good many unwanted objects that clutter up the house, but sometimes combined with exhibits
are important additions to the museum. constructed for the purpose, as in this group
In this way a much closer relationship than usual grows up between the which shows different ways of measuring
time.
school and the community, a relationship due to the museum and the children’s 19
interest. Citizens must respect their cultural heritage if
In classifying their objects, the children will no doubt give them the names it is to be preserved. By taking part in the
work of school museums children learn to
used locally, or they may invent names for them; similarly, they will adopt value the objects conserved in them and gain
cri\eria and categories for grouping their specimens that do not correspond to the ability to recognize and appreciate other
the more orthodox and generally accepted classificationsadopted by the specialists. relics of the past.
At the outset, the museum will be full of disparate and useless objects, heaped
together in apparent disorder. It will look like a bazaar in which anything the
children think of is accepted. All our great museums began in the same way,
and the process of selection, elimination and classification that has taken them
so many years will have to be accomplished in a short space of time by the
school museums.
What really matters is that the children should take part in the process, in the
activity that leads to the establishment of the museum. With the passage of time
the museum will gradually be improved and enriched, and in this way the
community will ultimately acquire its own local kuseum.
If necessary, the school museum can be dismantled at intervals and the process
recommenced, only items of special value being retained.
Pupils bring to the museum everything that interests them or which they
consider merits a place there. But they should not merely contribute objects.
Each item must be registered, and the pupil who has obtained it must provide
information as to its origin and what he knows of its history. He is then encouraged
to find out more about it and to discover how his specimen is related to other
objects, so that it can be placed in a group. He is encouraged to continue to
study the theme with his fellow-pupils; in this yay the initial effort to find and
obtain an object will lead to the sharing of similar interests and, more especially,
participation in the subsequent tasks that must be undertaken-the correct
arrangement of the collections, their conservation and the setting up of the
exhibitions (Figs. I 8-23).
The tasks to be done in connexion with the museum are not allocated by
grades; on the contrary, an effort is made to ensure that they are shared by
pupils at all levels, outside the classroom. All children can come to the museum,
and they work together in it independently of their formal organization in
groups.
66 Iker Larrauri
20
The children and the teachers decide what
is the best way of displaying the exhibits;
they rely only on school resources and help
from the community to do this.
21
Anyone presenting a new specimen to the
museum must provide information as to
when and where he found it, study it with a
view to classification, and find out how to
preserve and display it properly.

Generally, when the school year ends, all that remains as a record of class
activities is a slip of paper showing the pupil's marks, a school certificate and
possibly a group photograph. Npthing else tangible is left. th saitable guidance,
teachers and pupils can produce something in the museum which not only
remains as a lasting testimony to their efforts, but can be used subsequently for
teaching purposes. The collection grows constantly, as additions are made to it
every year, and so selection criteria are established, and objects that have become
worn or have been superseded are replaced by something better. These changes
are noted in the museum records. School museums thus provide an objective
indication of what &e school has achieved. The children take a pride in &em,
and they are tangible evidence of what the teachers have accomplished.
Another important aspect is the exchange of material and information between
school museums. Exchanges have been arranged not only among neighbouring
schools but among those far away from each other. Children in one locality
build up collections which they send to o h e r s&ools, requesting in exchange
something of special interest to them or items they need to complete their
collections. In all cases objects must be accompanied by information about &em.
All sorts of things are exchanged-photographs taken with a pinlaole camera
showing aspects of &e town,' the countryside or the school, postcards, or a
collection of minerals or molluscs may be exchanged for a collection of samples
of tropical woods, examples of craft work, or the skeleton of a reptile.
Pupils also visit other schools to see the museums that have been set up and
observe how the items that have been sent to it are displayed Generally
the members of the visiting group take a few objects with them to present to
their hosts, and return with fresh experience and more material to enrich their
own museum.
E%en school museums are to be set up in a particular region, a programme
is worked QU^ showing what steps are to be taken and the order in which they
are to be taken.
First, reports and statistics are assembled and studied for the purpose of
assessing and delimiting the area of action, and a held survey is made in order
to check the reliability of the data.
Once the nature and size of the area have been determined and the available
resources have been assessed, targets are established and a time-table set for
their attainment. In every case care is taken to launch the programme under
conditions that are most likely to ensure the success of the initial operations.
Once the initial action has been planned, contact is made with the local
authorities in order to inform them ~f the objectives and nature of the pro-
The school museum programme in Mexico 67

21
68 Iker Larrauri

22

22
Preparing and documenting each item in the
collection exercises the children’s intellectual
faculties-observation, logic, imagination-
as well as developing manual dexterity and
the ability to identify themselves with their
work and to co-operate enthusiastically in a
task that benefits the community.
23
Children must study the background, physical
features and function of each exhibit in order
to be able to describe and classify the material
and show the relationship between exhibits.
In this way they discover the significance and
cultural value of each exhibit.

23
The school museum [Link] Mexico 69

gramme and how it is to be carried out. Their co-operation and support are
enlisted and, more especially, their advice is asked as to the best way of carrying
out the programme, since there are often special circumstances or local interests
to be taken into account.
Once the authorities have given their agreement, the organizers visit the
schools personally and put the idea to teachers and headmasters, informing
them that they are in no way obliged to adopt the programme.
If the teachers like the idea and are enthusiastic, a five-day course is arranged
for them during their free time. Subsequently a joint council is set up to take
charge of the organization and supervision of the museum.
This council consists of five pupils who hold executive functions and two
teachers who act as advisers. They are all elected by a general assembly of the
whole school : pupils, teachers, the headmaster and representatives of the parents’
association. Members of this association appoint two persons to assist the
council. Members of the council hold ofice for one year.
From this stage onwards the organizers visit the school regularly once a week
to guide, supervise and encourage pupils in their activities.
One of the factors that have contributed most to the programme’s success
is the regular weekly visits paid by the organizers. They assist the schools in
this way all the time, and not only at a particular stage in the museum’s develop-
ment. This has been achieved by means of a system under which the programme
is gradually extended, and new members join the working groups, receiving
their practical training as the work proceeds.
The initial group is formed of three organizers with previous training, who
begin work in the area defined. It is estimated that after four months’ work-
half the school year-this group will have laid the foundations for the develop-
ment of twelve school museums. In the following stage (a further four-month
period) two members leave the group, each beginning work on another twelve
schools, whilst the third takes charge of the first twelve schools permanently.
When beginning work on the establishment of the new museums, each organizer
makes up his working group by the inclusion of two other members, who will
be his assistants for four months. At the end of this stage these two members
will have had enough practical experience for each of them to be able to establish
a further twelve museums with the help of two new assistants, and so the
process goes on.
In this way the programme expands in a geometrical progression as more
organizers are trained, and at the same time existing museums are regularly
supervised.
Regional meetings are held during the long school holidays so that organizers
who have worked in one area can attend meetings in other localities. For a
period of two weeks they discuss their experience, put forward proposals,
suggest changes in methods and different ways of dealing with problems,
compare results and plan their work for the next school year. Short courses are
also given on various subjects chosen by the participants themselves.
Many of the ideas put forward by organizers will be put into practice in 197j;
some are designed to simplify procedures, others to meet the need for more
effective forms of organization so as to cater for the ever increasing demands
of schools in other states in the republic.
[Translatedfrom Spanish]
 I1

24
This is what inspired the idea of the Casa del
Museo.
 71

The Casa delMuseo,

Mexico City
An experiment in bringing the museum to the people

Coral Ordóñez García

It is 7.30 on a Thursday morning. A fellow-worker of ours, a country school-

teacher, is up on the stand with a microphone, calling to the children and their
fathers and their fathers’ fathers to come closer, speaking to them in the language
of the people, the highly idiomatic language spoken by everybody around here.
From the natural amphitheatre formed by the crowded dwellings, built
higgledy-piggledy, terrace above terrace, in defiance of gravity, covering from
top to bottom, left and right, the slopes that rise from the ancient bed of the
Tacubaya river, the children and their parents and grandparents begin to draw
near (Figs. 26-28).
Background music, transparencies showing views of the Republic of Mexico
and other countries, young people and old in caps, berets and hats, children’s
faces, José, Juan, ‘ Sandy’, ‘Tiny ’, views of the Casa del Museo (museum home),
the Peruvian gold pectoral, Tláloc, the ‘7th of January’ school, the National
2/
Museum of Anthropology, and so on. Can the country and town exhibition be set
A series of slides thus shown without apparent order or sequence or guiding up in a museum like the National Museum of
theme gives rise to puzzled comment. Anthropology to which the shanty-town
dwellers never go?
But great interest has been aroused in pictorial expression, in the loan of
exhibits, in the chance to talk personally with the members of the Casa del
Museo team, in sports events and artistic and cultural activities popularized by
films and slides, folk music and Latin American folklore, mime and puppet
shows, etc. (Fig. 29).
People venture into the exhibition at present being shown at the Casa del
Museo.
The idea behind these exhibitions is to say something which goes beyond
the exhibit on view.
For instance, the strip describing the wanderings of the Aztecs (Codex
Boturini) shows the visitors the places the people passed through, how they
lived at that time as ‘squatters’ (land grabbers), and the things that happened
to them. The exhibits of pre-Hispanic and colonial times show the s o r t of house-
hold goods they had then, so that people can compare them with Ghat they
themselves have in their own homes.
The report on Tacubaya,’ which takes its story from pre-Hispanic times up
to the present day, gives an idea of the economic, political, social and cultural
changes that have occurred in the place they live in.
It was thought important, for instance, to show people the age pyramid, the
I. Tacubaya is a suburb situated to the west of Mexico
various levels of schooling, the brigin of the Observation Area and the popula- City.
2. The Observation Area: for the Casa del Museo
tion movements that have affected it, nutrition, its importance, hybridization project, one area of Tacubaya was singled out for study
of crops, the introduction of new foodstuffs, etc. (Fig. 30). and to serve as a zone of influence.
 Coral Ordóñez García

26 27

26
LACASADEL MUSEO,Mexico, D.F. The Casa
The exhibits were designed to allow the visitors to do things themselves, to
del Museo is a meeting-place for children and play an active part or to invent new games. Boards with picture postcards give
the young. them an idea of what Mexico City as a whole looks like; they can pinpoint the
27 public buildings of their own district on an aerial photograph or locate the very
View of the Observation Area.
2x
house they five in, etc. (Figs. 31-32). Another thing to be mentioned is the
Sunday at the Casa del Museo. importance of the fact that they can touch the exhibits (Figs. 33-34>;that with their
21 own hands they can beat out a rhythm on the huéhzd, a drum dating from pre-
Folk-dancing o n the stand at the Casa del
Museo. Hispanic times; that with their fingers and even with their tongues hey can
30 feel the cold texture of a suit of armour; that they can find themselves in the
The exhibition. Great Square of Tenochtitlan and know what Montezuma and Cortés used to
eat.
en the schools are open, the Casa de! Museo is visited by an average of
400 children in the course of the morning and the early part of the afternoon
(children of school age, between j and 14,account for -3 I. 2 per cent of &e total
population). A campaign is being carried on h e ~ ~ h o oto l s get primary-school
groups to visit the Casa de! Museo with their teachers.
The directress and the guides are well equipped to stimulate the children’s
imagination and answer the most far-fetched questions (Fig. pl(.), (b)).
The adults who come, being less ready to accept any &ange in the way they
live, look on at a distance, some of them with an air of indifference, others with
tolerant smiles.
Of the population 66.8 per cent is under 24 years of age (and 14. j per cent ,
under .r>, and it is these young people who feel most &awn to attend &e art I

workshops and dancing groups and try to say what the Casa del Museo means
to them and what they expect of it. Some are anxious to help in devising and
setting up future exhibitions, while others are phebaing to launch a wall news-
paper to provide information on everything, from h e exhibitions to be seen in
the city’s museums to the words of songs written by &e music groups that
have sprung up in the area, and including national and international news items,
notes on photographs and objects of interest, or announcements about the
programmes of the workshops’ extension activities, the exhibition itself and
special visits to the Gasa del Museo.
There is no logical arrangement about the Casa del Museo, nor has any definite
policy line been laid down. We work on the basis of trial and error; we correct
and alter, act on suggestions and listen to criticisms; we experiment again and
again.
Some types of work proceed normally, others develop rapidly-and &ere
are others that we simply drop.
The Casa del Museo, Mexico City 73

29

It is therefore no easy matter to reconcile what we see in practice today with

the original idea behind the Casa del Museo. It was not a wild or crazy notion .
suggested by the multifarious problems arising in connexion with a particular
temporary exhibition. It was an idea born of years of observation, years of life
and hard facts in [Link], years of worrying about and dealing with the
setting-up of museum exhibits, years of striving to see that the messages put
out by the museum to the public should reach everybody, irrespective of
economic or social standing.
The project in fact resulted from the determined efforts of Mario V á ~ q u e z , ~ 3. Deputy-Director of the Museo Nadonal de Antro-
pología y de Historia, Mexico, D.F., and Chief of the
who finally set about converting a scheme, already matured in his own mind, Department ofMuseology at the same museum
 74 Coral Ordófiea García

into reality. Gradually he began to get together a team of specialists covering

several branches of knowledge and science, who could define and lay down
basic principles concerning the fields and disciplines to be investigated and
applied for the benefit of the community and, using the museum as a centre,
could work together to draw attention to the critical problems of present-day
society. The Casa del Museo project combined a number of disciplims-
anthropology, architecture, town planning, museum practice and education-
to produce an experimental unit embodying the new idea of bringing the museum
to the people (Fig. 39. A little recent history will show the background of the
project :
[Link] General Conference at G~enoble.~ Among the ideas put forward
were the following : (a) museums are out of touch with the world of today;
(b) museums are obsolete; (c) they are for the dite; (d) they are destined to
disappear.
4. cf. The Musetinz in the Service of N a n Todq and Tonlorrow.
Are these statements true?
Papers from the ninth General Conference of ICOM, The Is it a fact that museums are incapable of changing?
International Council of Museums, I Rue Miollis, 75 01.5Paris
(France). 1972. Round Table at Santiago, Chile, on the place of Latin-American museums
5 . The Role of Museums in Today's Latin America Round
Table organized by Unesco, Santiago, Chile, 1972. See
in the modern worM5
Muserim, Vol. XXV, No. 3, 1973. The idea of bringing the museum to the people was put forward.

33

34
 The Casa del Museo, Mexico City 7)

31
Drawing and copying, or writing down what
they want to see and know about in the Casa
del Museo.
32
An arithmetic game at the exhibition in the
Casa del Museo. What percentage of children
do not attend school?
33
No ban on playing in the exhibition.
34
The exhibition-you’re allowed to touch.
31 fa), ( b )
Handwork.
36
The interdisciplinary team.

The decision to set up the Latin-American Museum Association was taken.

It was agreed to put on a big exhibition at the National Museum of Anthropo-
logy, Mexico City, for the purpose of illustrating the problems of country
and town, peripheral slums, and the population explosion. It is possible to
put on a country and town exhibition in a museum like the National Museum
, of Anthropology, to which the people living in the shanty towns do not come?
For whom should the exhibition be designed?
November-December 1972. A survey was carried out among the Mexican
public at the National Museum of Anthropology to ascertain the sex and age
of those visiting the museum. 36
Men represented 69 per cent of the visitors and women 3 I per cent.
The highest percentage, 3 0 per cent of ;he men, were between 20 and 29 years
of age.
So far as their occupations were concerned, 38 per cent were students, 2 1 per
cent belonged to the professional classes, and 24 per cent were white-collar
workers, the remainder consisting of small percentages of workmen, shop-
keepers, craftsmen, housewives and unemployed people.
In short, the survey showed that the powers of observation of the immense
76 Coral Qrdóñea García

majority of the Mexican public are undeveloped. That they come with a wrong
idea of what they are going to h d exhibited; that they have no time for what
they do not know and, instead of asking questions continue in their ignorance;
that many have the feeling h a t the National Museum of Anthropology is not
meant for them but, once this taboo is overcome, they want to visit it again
(only I per cent said they would not come back again).
But of course, all this applies to the people who have actually come to the
National Museum of Anthropology. allliaat about hose who have passed by not
only the Nationd Museum of Anthropology but also the many other museums
in Mexico City? What do we know of them?
The people, all the people, including the ‘marginal citizens’, come to Chapul-
tepec Park6 and walk along the streets of the centre, stopping in front of the
shop windows; they look askance at the doors of &e museums.. . and don’t
come in (Fig. 21).
The Casa del Museo was intended to show them that museums are recreational
centres (both providing entertainment and ‘creating anew,) and to demonstrate
to them that what is exhibited of the past is in fact what is shaping h e present :
that the museum can be part of their daily lives.
Everyone knows h a t , for people like these, the need for food and for shelter
f~9m the elements is more important than going to a museum.
The Casa del Museo seeks to awaken the desire to know, and still more the
desire to look around and ask questions ;to get people to raise their sights above
and beyond a slum h a t has sprung up in a river-gully. It seeks to create common
interests and thereby to weld a community together; it seeks to get all those
living in the community to identify themselves with their country, their city
, and heir section ofthe city, while appreciating its present-day historical context.
For this reason, the Casa del Museo set out to cater for these ‘marginal
1 ,
,- citizens’, on the periphery of the country’s economic, social, political and
cultural development, and more especially in bleak contrast to the city in which
they live. Each country uses a different name for h e s e peripheral slums but
the conditions found in them are everywhere the same; thus in Mexico we have
the so-called ‘lost towns’, shanty-towns and poverty-belts ; in Brazil the javelas;
in Panama the barriadas br2ias; in Chile the G ~ ~ ~ in~ Colombia
~ p a sthe~ barrios
__ clandestims; in France the bidonv~lle5,and so on.
Many of our ‘lost towns’ were visited before &e choice fell on the Observation
37
The Casa del Museo going up in the Area (Tacubaya) (Fig. 27). Here a curious phenomenon can plainly be seen:
Observation Area.
as YOU go d o m towards the bottom ofthe gully, you also go down the economic
and social scale. This gave us a mixed populatiqn to work on.
Tacubaya or Atlacuihuayan (the place where the atlatl or throwing-stick is
taken) was originally settled by the Acolhuas. Eater on, the Aztecs
lived here, around A.D. I I 73 on their way to Chapultepec. In the early years of
the colonial period, the place was held by the conquistador Hernán Cort6s and
the natives came and settled in the neighbourhood ofthe chapels. The D o ~ n i c a n s
made converts and founded religious communities in what later became the
Iglesia de la Candelaria and the archbishop’s palace. The district became noted
for the cultivation of olives, fruit and vegetables.
As a result partly of land expropriation after the I 9 IO revolution, and partly
of the selling of holdings and their being split up, the look of the area changed
so much that, twenty-five years ago, two very low-class settlements came into
being. Two other settlements sprang up spontaneously, and quite unplanned,
as a result of people coming from various parts of the city, or from outside,
in search of a place where they would be sheltered from the weather and taking
steps to meet their immediate, primary needs.
With a view to getting to know more about &eir way of life, their family
arrangements, their housing conditions, their food, clothing, origins, problems
and concerns, a survey was carried out and inquiries made among I O per cent of
the 6,860 families and 41,030 inhabitants of the area (representing 0.6 per cent
6 The National Museum of Anthropology IS located in
Chapultepcc Park of the population of Mexico City). We thus began to learn something about
The Casa del Museo, Mexico City 77

them and to establish contact with them, to awaken their interest and deepen
our own in returning to them all the information which they themselves had
provided, in a simple form in which they could see and recognize themselves.
The anthropologists thus carried out their investigation not for its own sake,
with the sole object of publishing their findings in one more study of a shanty-
town; instead they demonstrated in this case what a far-reaching applied social
anthropology study really means.
All the data recorded for the survey were sifted in the greatest detail as a
basis for exhibits, and to aid in choosing the site for the Casa del Museo and
even designing the way it was to be built.
The structure of the building is based on what the local people are themselves
used to. Essentially, it is the same as all the other buildings in the area. Sheet
iron is used for the walls and the roof; it can be put together very quickly and
when it is taken down almost all the materials can be re-used. 38
It differs only in its formal appearance; the plan is hexagon-based but the The scheme for modules which can be taken
down.
system used allows for expansion in any direction, so as to take advantage of
any empty lot, street, park, gully or level place (Figs. 37-39).
We have had a year’s work on the site and have seen the reaction of the local
public, our Casa del Museo public; they are coming to the exhibitions, which
last from four to five months, and they are beginning to take a direct part in
looking after them, and will share in the assembly and setting-up of those to
come; we ourselves, too, have learned to live side by side with them and to do
things. In fact now even we ourselves do not know who is responsible for
drawing, investigating, managing, singing, cleaning or painting, who produces
the theory and who the design, who asks the questions and who gives the
answers. The team are hnding it difficult to extricate themselves from their
direct involvement with the Casa del Museo.
And what about the local people? I cannot guarantee this, but it might well
be said that for many of them hereabouts, in this community, the Casa del-
Museo, as a place, an exhibition, a landmark, already forms part of their daily
lives. Take the old man who comes in the daytime and looks long at a photo-
graph in the exhibition before settling down in the sun; take the housewife
who will cut the television serial to go and have a chat with her neighbour, not
in this house or that, but in the Casa del Museo; take the mother, dragged off
by her son to see a drawing that he has done; the young man who joins up
with his gang there; and the older man who, instead of going to the saloon to
forget ‘that he is not the owner of a bit of land’, comes to see a showing of
slides representing faces, houses and landscapes just like their own.
One day, when these squatters, these land-grabbers, have to move on some-
where else, perhaps along with their rags and tatters and their cardboard walls
they will take the Casa del Museo with them on their travels, as the only thing
really their^.^
[Translatedfrom Spanish]

7. The casa del Museo in the Tacubaya zone is currently

being carefully monitored and evaluated.
Other Casas del Museo could be installed elsewhere in
the future using the ‘seagull plan’, so called because of the
lightness and ease of movement involved. The ‘seagull’
comes down on four or five key points in a district (the
entrance to the market, the church porch, the school play-
ground, a busy crossroads, etc.). Photographs and repro-
ductions of pre-Hispanic objects, texts, etc., are displayed
on a screen and act as a sort of indication as to the possi-
bilities of creating a Casa del Museo. Promotion work
and research is carried out in the surrounding area (six or
eight groups of houses) on a friendly, individual basis,
and once the inhabitants of that particular part of the
district have got together and decided to set up their own
exhibition, the ‘seagull’ fies off to come down again a
little farther away. A hexagon-the form of the first Casa
del Museo-is then installed at a centre point equidistant
from each of the landing points of the ‘seagull’. This
becomes a place for meetings and discussions organized
by the local people and where they can exhibit their history 39
and any topical questions which may interest them. Modules,
Bordeauxm2,000 Years sf History
Cdtural action in support of an e ibition reiating the
history OP the to -an appradsal
Louis Valensi On the eve of a third revolution in town planning, Bordeaux, the capital of the
south-west region of France on the Atlantic seaboard, is taking a look at its past.
Bordeaux with its surrounding area has a population of 600,000. The cultural
facilities inherited from the nineteenth century are no longer adequate for
present needs. Work has been under way since 1960 on the reorganization of
the Muste d'Aquitaine, based on the old Lapidary Museum, which was founded
in 1781, with a view to making it a regional history museum. The collections
are divided into three sections : prehistory, history and contemporary history
together with regional ethnography. Despite their i i ~ ~ p o r t ~ ~
they
t c ehave
, ~ never
been shown to the public. The museum has only one long room, which is
unsuited to the requirements of modern museology. Until &e collections can
be transferred to the former university buildings, which have been renovated,
the city of Bordeaux is concentrating on temporary exhibitions, thus enabling
the museum to engage in cultural activities and to display the riches of the
heritage in its care.
The exhibition Bordeam. z,ooo Years of Histoy afforded the inhabitants of
the town themselves many opportunities for cultural exchanges and activities
concerning a subject that closely affected them. It is an exceptional event in
40
France, and other towns with an equally rich past might well follow suit. In the
M U S ~D'AQUITAINE,
E Bordeaux. Exhibition: case of Bordeaux, it foreshadowed the future Muste d'Aquitaine, of which it
Bordeaim. 2,oo o Years of History. Arms of was an ideal illustration, because the works of art and other material from all
France and Bordeaux (circa I 5 3 I). This
haut-relief, used again in m e of the three forts sorts of sources brought together on this occasion reflected every aspect of each
which are the visible sign that Bordeaux was of the themes selected.
attached to France after 145 3, was selected as Material relating to more than 2,000 years of history, from the time the site
a general symbol of the exhibition. The
English leopard and the tower with the big was first settled to the present day, was &splayed There were I ,o3 8 items, set
clock, a symbol of the municipal freedoms out in five rooms, four audio-visual programmes and a multi-image projection
wrested from the suzerain who lived beyond
the seas, are evidence of the feudal relationship
system. The scientific catalogue, which ran to 672 pages, was the work of a team
which existed for three centuries between of sixty-eight, including museologists, research workers and technicians.
Bordeaux and the kings of:England. The First, a few figures to give an idea of the success of the exhibition: 62,000
fleurs-de-lis illustrate the final destiny of the individual visitors, $05 groups, totalling 25,730 people, a catalogue of which
province, which two dynasties had fought
over for centuries. The heraldic commentary 3,000 copies were printed, and which was sold out and reprinted. The exhibition ,
evokes the historical background. was scheduled to close on 4 Apríl 1971, after seven weeks, but in response to
demand three of the rooms were kept open until 27 June. There was general 41
In the third section of the exhibition ‘The
regret when they were closed. Monarchic Order-141: 3-171 I’ comprises
Was it enough, in view of the high aims of the undertaking, the hopes it three themes : ‘Bordeaux and France under
raised and the means employed by the city of Bordeaux? What conclusions can the Kings’, ‘Difficulties of Social Change’
and ‘A Haven of Humanism and Counter
be drawn by the Musée d’Aquitaine from the opportunity it seized to interest Reform’. The apse of Saint Bruno, the six
its future public in a carefully planned cultural activity of exceptional scope, statues and Asswnption commissioned by
original in its diversity, even if all the new ideas conceived were not developed? Cardinal de Sourdis, archbishop from I 62 1:
to 1649 and patron of the Berninis and
Champaigne, have been removed from their
original architectural setting. The presence
of these works in the midst of
seventeenth-centurypaintings and sculptures
Museology and the museum used to portray the history from the town’s churches raised the question:
Bordeaux provincialism in art? At the time of
of a town their transfer, restoration work was carried
out by the Department of Historic
Monuments, and artists’ signatures identified.
Under the direction of G. H. Rivière, Permanent Adviser to ICOM, the latest
experience in contemporary museology was adapted so that the exhibition would
be seen as a conspectus and not just as a pageant. Bordeaux. 2,000 Years of History
did not claim to be a substitute for the seven-volume Histoire de BordeauxY3a
documentary film, or the individual’s exploration of the rown It was an attempt
to explain the role of the capital of the south-west and its importance as a seaport
by the specific means that an exhibition affords (a programme in which exhibits
are displayed in a sequence of areas) (Fig. 40).

The programwe of a histoy pzusewz

It was under the Roman Empire, around A.D. 80, that Bordeaux first became
the capital of Aquitaine. In the fourteenth century it was one of the most
important possessions of the King of England, who was the Duke of Aquitaine.
In the eighteenth century, as the foremost French colonial port, it had its heyday,
followed by an eclipse which lasted a century. Today Bordeaux ranks fifth
among French towns. A town, however, is first of all the progressive occupation
of a site-in this case a bend of the river-by a human settlement. Its setting,
combined with its political, social and economic role, expresses it in various
I . 24 January 7974
ways. It was against this backcloth, therefore, that the story of Bordeaux from z. The museum houses the fifth largest French prehistory
its founding to the present day was played out in five acts (Fig. 40) : collection, including the Laussel bas-reliefs, the second
largest collection of Roman epigraphy, the largest being in
I. The Roman period, Bordeaux, capital of Aquitania (j 6 B. C. to fourth century Lyons, the third largest collection of architecture, many
stelae and reliefs, works which were included in the E:irope
A.D.). Gotbiqne exhibition, e t c
2. Expansion in mediaeval times (fifth to fifteenth century). 3. Histoire de Bordeaux, published under the direction of
C. Higounet, by the Fédération Historique du Sud-Ouest
3. The provincial capital (1453-185 2) (‘big. 41). under the auspices of the town of Bordeaux.
80 Louis Valensi

4. A century's recession ( I 8 5 2-1 9 j o).

j. Bordeaux as a regional capital ( I 9 j o onwards).
These five sections were preceded by an introduction to the methods employed,
entitled ' Writing the history of Bordeaux', which gave a brief account of the
various sources ofthe town's history :archaeological discoveries, written material
or pictures, drawings, aerial photographs, etc. For example, when an altar for
bull sacrifices found in 1868 had been cleaned, an inscription was uncovered
which added to our knowledge of the religions of the ancient city. However,
there was no point in recounting the entire history of the Roman Empire, of
the kingdom of France or that of England ira relation to Bordeaux. On the
contrary, the important thing was to show what forces gradually made the town
what it is and gave it its specific character throughout these successive phases.
The principal aspects ofthe evolution ofthe town were aplysed in the context
of each of these five periods. The 141 exhibits from antiquity demonstrate
26 theories. They are grouped around thirteen themes, illustrating five broad
subjects. Now that the recent excavations in the Allées de Tourny have been
carried out, the programme should be resumed with a view to showing how
the Romans went about town planning and, with the help of the dated sigillate
ceramics of the region, tracing the history of economic relations with the interior
(Fig. 42). A sarcophagus, the stele of a soldier from the region of Berry, who
died in Africa, was not included in the 1971 exhibition. The documentation
work increased tremendously as time went on The completion of the new
ordeaaxs4the work of the most competent specialists, under the
direction of Professor [Link], was a help. A great many research workers
collaborated with the latter and with the scientific s t d o f t h e Musée d'Aquitaine
in preparing the programme and the catalogue. Five specialized commissions
worked on a basic paper prepared by the museum, and curators, archivists,
librarians, excavation staff and inventory staff, teachers of history, geography
. and the history of art, scholars and advanced students restored to life and unity
the regional heritage which had been split up among their different institutions

Constantly encouraged by Mr Rivi?re, the museum gradually prepared the

plan ofthe exhibition-not without regrets and dsgivings- 2); broad subjects,
74 themes, I j 6 theories. The history of Bordeaux had to be not only seen in
the mind's eye, but made visible, so that the public would receive the message.

Selection of exhibits

If the object of an exhibition is to get beyond the multiplicity of events and

give a comprehensive view of history-which does not mean giving the details

27

4. Histoire de Bordear/x,
op. cit., p. j.
Bordeaux. 2.000 Years of Historv 81

of the whole story-three-dimensional objects are +e ideal means of expression;

pictures come next, and the written word last, replacing or supplementing
objects, which are always of prime importance. T h i proper proportion of these
three depends on what it is wished to convey. The’,lassitudeof the visitor must
be taken into account. There should not be too much written material, for
example, for it rapidly tires the most patient. Several readings are necessary, as
with the viewings of a film, to fill in gaps and, above all, achieve a balance
between the different types of information-maps, graphs, tables-which
are essential in order to bring out the subtle links between objects and back- 44
Entrance to the third section of the exhibition.
ground information. The statues taken for a time from museum reserve stores The exhibits relating to the provincial
or churches, the records extracted from files and registers, the coins taken capital (1453-1 8 5 z) were displayed in the
south wing of the municipal buildings, where
from medal cabinets, the old books from shelves, the prints from portfolios, the museum had its headquarters. The first
the coopers’ or journeymen’s tools, the garments, porcelain, crockery, the thing to do was to isolate the exhibition from
pictures taken down from invisible supports-all these are mutually explanatory. the architectural setting, which was out of
proportion with it, and, at the same time,
The barriers between the different brañches of conservation work give way attract the visitor’s attention to the symbol of
when the life of a century is to be illustrated and when people realize the need the monarchy (the giant bust of Louis XIV
to restore as clearly as possible the original character of a historical phenomenon. from the Château Trompette, to the left of
the photograph) and the funerary statue
The British Museum lent a sixteenth-century processional cross, originally (kneeling) of Maréchal d‘Ornano, mayor from
from Bordeaux, Chester Museum lent a mediaeval pitcher, the Wallraf-Richarts- 1599 to 1610,which evokes the granting
Museum in Cologne lent a painting by Kokoschka of the Grand Théâtre, ofinstitutions in France under the kings.

42 shortly go to enrich the Museum,of five sections of a single flexible volume. A

At the very moment that the exhibition Aquitaine. Showcase installed at the opening light signal between exhibits I I and 20
Bordeazx. 2 , 0 0 0 Years ofHistor_ywas opening, of three rooms on 27 February 1975. indicated the next stage in the itinerary. The
urgent excavations being carried out in the 43 numbers refer to the programme (L. Valensi
Allées de Tourny to make way for a new car Plan of the first section of the exhibition: the and J. Charnotet) : I. From the Celtic World
park provided a better understanding of the Roman period The five themes of the Roman to the Roman World; 2. The Layout of a
importance of first-century Bordeaux, for period had to be divided up between the Capital; 3. ‘A Little Rome’; 4. The Roman
example material from this grave which can three sections of the Dominican cloister- Influence in Agriculture and in Art; 5 . Changes
be dated to between A.D. 40 and 80-just an now the municipal library-which are of in Roman Civilization.
infinitesimal part of the collection which will unequal volume, instead of being arranged in
 82 Louis Valensi

4J Bordeaux. Never had so much silver with the Bordeaux hallmark been on
Plan of the fourth section of the exhibition.
An attempt was made to use the ground-floor display. Forty-six canvases dating from the turn of the twentieth century were
space in the Fine Arts Gallerv, where exhibited. Local seventeenth-century paintings formerly concealed by dirt or
the traditional May exhibitions are held, to
illustrate two ofthe three themes of this
neglected were revealed. Many paintings and sculptures were restored with the
section: I. The Policy of Bordeaux and that help of the Inspection Générale des Objets Mobiliers. These successes, however,
of France (I. I. The Republican Tradition; must not blind us to the omissions and gaps.
I . 2. Bordeaux in Wartime, a Provisional
Capital); 2. The Heritage of the Golden
The Blazie Atlas (Alberti& Library, Vienna), a series of drawings done in
Century (2.I. Economic Traditionalism; Bordeaux and the vicinity at the beginbling of the seventeenth century by a
2.2. Contacts; 2.3. Social Diversification; Dutch artist, Herman Van dir Hem, could not be lent, Nor could two other
[Link] in the Town). The position of I
the symbol, a Bordeaux port (André Lhote,
drawings of his which were in Stockholm, or the dies Gascons, which were in
1912), was chosen with a view to the itinerary the Public Record cD&ce. The Boston Museum of Fine Arts, which held the
to be followed. famous Gauguin belonging to Gabriel Frizeau's collection refused to send it
46 back to Bordeaux.
Map of Aquitania in ancient times
(R. Etienne). This map illustrates the political Many works subsequently rediscovered 011 reported would have been wel-
influence of Bordeaux on the northern come addtions to the exhibition-some items of importance in connexion with
border of Gallic Aquitania, which extended mediaeval history which were in England, a Van Dyck drawing of the Duke
from the Pyrénées to the valley of the
Garonne, not including the banks of the of Epernon, &e portrait of a Bordeaux woman by C. Netscher, a survey of
river. Great Aquitania was Roman ; after fishing in I 727, an illustrated' commentary on the phylloxera crisis, etc. Certain
Augustus, it was an artificial union of all the themes could not be dealt with owing to lack of time or appropriate exhibits :
' towns from the Pyrénées to the Loire, from the
Atlantic to the Massif Central This artificial Protestantism in Boxdeaux, trade with the Antilles and, of lesser importance,
creation was to give rise to the variations Dom Bedos, HGlderlin, Bertrand Andrieu, the Lainé warehouses and arcbai-
in the boundaries of the province, which
are so difficult to establish firmly until we
tecture between the two world wars.
come to the time of the regional prefectures.
47 Arrangement of space
Stele of a couple, last quarter of the second
century. The type of monument, the way the
hair is worn, the treatment of the eyes, the The exhibition is the programme converted into plastic form.
clasped right hands, are all indicative of A particular area was set aside for each theme and the hierarchical ordering
Roman civilization, as is the epigraph. of the themes was apparent in that of the areas. At the same time, the position
However, the family references in the text, the
fact that the figures wear tunics, rather than of each errhibit had to convey both its significance in the programme as a whole
togas, the naturalism of the faces, the and its importance in its ow? right. Itineraries were a natural outcome of an
awkward proportions ofthe figures, all indicate awareness of the way one thime links up with another. Large or small notices
that this is a provincial adaptation. The
conventional representation of the deceased, in showed visitors that they were entering another area or sub-area. The passage
an upright position, which is borrowed from leading from one to the other made the sequence of ideas clear (Figs. 43-4~).
north-east Gaul, illustrates the exchanges However, the exhibition was so big &at it could not be fitted into the premises
between the provinces, away from Rome.
available for the purpose, and had to be divided up and housed in five rooms.
It was to be feared that the unity of the subject-matter would be impaired.
Various means were therefore employed to emphasize the unity of conception
and arrangement :

I --I
Bordeaux. 2,000 Years of History 83

I. At the beginning of each of the five sections, the essential character of the
section was summed up in symbolic form. For instance, the section dealing
with antiquity was heralded by the Gallo-Roman stele of Inucenus illustrating
the three aspects of the Roman period in Bordeaux: the contribution of
Rome, the Gallic tradition and trade and cultural exchanges with other
provinces in the Empire (Fig. 47).
2. A map of the differentboundaries of Aquitania during the period concerned
also showed the relative influence of Bordeaux (Fig. 46).
3. Audio-visual aids were used to depict the development of town planning
and the changes that have taken place in urban life. In the fifth room a multi-
image projection system was the sole means of expression.
So the exhibition Bordeaax. 2, o o o Years of Histo? was an example of an ideal
muqeum, perhaps even a better one than the future Musée d'Aquitaine, which
will have only its own collections, rich and deeply rooted in the soil since? 78 I
as they are. Did the exhibition make a cultural impact commensurate with the
thought that went into it?

Attracting visitors
This exceptionally novel and extensive exhibition afforded an opportunity of
waging a cultural campaign with two aims in view; one of a quantitative nature
(attracing more visitors); and one of a qualitative nature (eliciting from each
visitor a personal reaction to the exhibits).

What had been done befare

This was not the first exhibition organized by the Musée d'Aquitaine, which,
from its inception had set out to attract visitors, especially amongst young

47
84 Louis Valensi

people. The figures are eloquent : one has only to compare the number of groups
taken on guided tours of the exhibition each year: 1964-65, Bordeazm ilt the
Ronzatz Period (I 2 j ) ; I 95j , One Hztndred Years o f Prehistoiy in the Périgord (9I) ;
1966, The Treasures of Baghdgd (96); 1967, Greek A r t from Mariemont (114j);
1968, Baya A r t irt Guatemali(164); 1969, The Gold ofthe Vikings (57); 1971,
Bordeatlx. 2,o o o Years o f Hi~tory(80 y).
A new post-that of cul%ural guide-was established at the museum in
January 1966 for the puppose of arousing public interest and making arrange-
ments for group visits. The inpunbent was engaged on a contractual basis, and
the auxiliary teacher’s posts filled by a teacher seconded from the education
ministry, is still precarious. Instability of staff detracts from the value of the
efforts made.
A network of regular correspondents was gradually formed-primary and
secondary school teachers, leaders of centres, presidents of various
cultural associations in the town.
The history of Bordeaux could interest more people, for the periods covered
embrace all the school history syllabuses and afford innumerable opportunities
for arousing the interest of &ildren of all ages, as of the adult inhabitants in all
walks of life, who are known. to be attached to their town, proud of its past
and anxious to understand a d appreciate. The circumstances are particularly
favourable for making a large-scale effort, for &e subject is the history of a
town which ranks fifth among French towns.

The working group

Several meetings were held by a working group comprising, with the curator
and his chief collaborators, representatives of the various categories to be
reached : one representative of the Regional Centre for Educational Documen-
tation (CRDI?);three representatives of secondary schools ;three representatives
of primary schools ; one reprdsentative or the History and Geography Teachers’
Association; one representative of technical schools ; one representative of the
Drawing Teachers’ Association; one representative of the Departmental Youth
and Sports Service; three rebresentatives of social and cultural associations ;
the education inspector for &e district.
The first meeting, held on 16 October 1970, was attended by Mr 6.W. Xiviere
and two colleagues from French museums with international experience of
cultural campaigns, Mr Pavi?re, Curator of &e Bourges Museums, and Miss
Giraudy, Curator of the Museum of Fine Arts in Marseilles. A second meeting
was held on 4 November of the same year. Preparatoqr cultural information
was sent through the CRDP, with &e supporr: of the education authorities, to
all State schools in the département of Gironde, so that interested teachers could
prepare their pupils for visits to the e&bition It consisted ofa general introduc-
tion, a summary of each section, with a list of the outstanding works, a short
reading list, examples of various ways of making the m ~ s of t the exhibition,
and a model questionnaire for distribution among the children on arrival at
the exhibition so that their attention could be concentrated on a particular
theme.
The Muste d‘Aquitaine invited groups of teachers to preliminary guided tours
to help them prepare their pupils. The provision of information for the children
and their transport were facilitated through the Organizing Committee of the
Education Department, which gave the exhibition wide publicity and provided
buses at low cost. In some secondary schools the museum organized small
exhibitions of photographs of the most outstanding works displayed, drawings,
etc.
At the same time the working group considered means of organizing similar
events in the town : exhibitions on the history of a particular part of the town,
the history of an institution, contests in model-making, photography, drawing,
etc.
Bordeaux. 2,000 Years of History *j

Reaching a wider public

The city of Bordeaux made a special financial effort by agreeing to reduce

admission fees considerably: a single ticket costing I franc for the five rooms;
free admission for children on Thursdays; a free ‘cultural guide’ distributed at
the entrance-at least to the leaders and a few members of groups. This guide
enabled the children to get more out of the visit without buying the catalogue.
In any case, the catalogue was more suitable for adults, being a volume of
672 pages, lavishly illustrated, though modestly priced at I 5 francs.
More effective publicity might have been given to the exhibition through
posters, the press and the other media. The local press in particular was not very
active, and the information it published was all too often erroneous. A few long
articles appeared in national dailies and weeklies. On television there were a
series of programmes on the various rooms, other programmes connected with
the exhibition, such as Childre8 Drawing at the Musée d’Aquitailae, and a number
of interviews, while announcements concerning it were made periodically.
The efforts made to reach social or occupational categories previously dis-
inclined to visit museums-e.g. civil servants from the Ministry of Finance and
the railways-were rewarded to some extent. Arrangements were made for the
physically handicapped to visit the exhibition outside normal opening hours.
Groups of deaf and dumb children taken round on Thursday afternoons
remained after hours to draw.
Leaders of community centres, who had long been in contact with the Musée
d’Aquitaine, agreed to the suggestion that action should be taken to interest
their members : one of the museum workers visited the centre to project trans-
parencies and answer questions, dealing particularly with museographical work,
the mounting of an exhibition and the duties of a curator; posters, photographs,
guides and catalogues were made available to the centres.
As a result, twelve conducted tours were subsequently arranged for them,
apart from individual visits.
How were the visitors taken round the exhibition?

Visitors‘ participa tion

Like lectures from the chair, the traditional conducted tours have been abandoned.
An attempt has been made to make visitors active instead of passive, receptive
no doubt, but reacting, asking questions, commenting. An exhibition is designed
by the curator but not for the curator; the visitor must feel at ease.

From moizologz~eto dìalogae

Various specialists had consented to come to the exhibition rooms and answer
any questions which visitors might wish to ask Unfortunately these ‘Dialogues
in Bordeaux with . . .’ met with a limited response. The public was not informed
beforehand. Here again, publicity was very inadequate. Nevertheless six
encounters of this kind were organized, to the keen satisfaction of participants.
Three were on topical subjects (Room 5 ) and three on historical subjects.
Group visits were systematically organized as dialogues between the com-
mentator and members of the group. This method is much more easily applied
with young children than with adolescents or adults. The procedure varied from
one group to another in accordance with centres of interest and individual or
group reactions. In any case, when people were encouraged to discover for
themselves the links between exhibits and affinitiesor differences of style, their
interest was held, even though the visit was a long one, and they were probably
able to remember the exhibition more accurately.
Questionnaires on a particular theme-Bordeaux and absolute monarchy,
trade with the islands in the eighteenth century, viniculture and the wine trade
86 Louis Valerasi
48
M L J S ~D’AQLJITAINE,
E Bordeaux. Exhibition:
Bordeazrx. 2 , 0 0 0 Years of History. Children
drawing in the space in which the golden
century (171 j-89) was illustrated. Their
attention has been taken by decorative art
objects evoking the ‘world of commerce in
Bordeaux society’. The separate easel, stand
and stool are of lightweight materials so that
they can set up their easels where they like.

49
Le Maréchal d’ortaano, by a kindergartener,
Anne. The child was at some distance from
the subject (cf. Fig. 44). The preponderance
of the bust in relation to the whole is reflected
in the drawing. Contrasting colours were
used for the lines : yellow for the face, green
for the hair, red for the arms, blue for the
other lines.

10
L’Emeigne dl4 Chapean Roige, by Catherine,
aged 9. This sign, decorated on both sides
with a cardinal’s hat, with tied strings, hung
outside a hotel. Starting from this subject,
the child went on to draw a fantastic animal.
The shapes and the colour scheme are well
balanced.
Bordeaux. 2,000 Years of History 87

1
’
Le Senazi, les Trois Amis,by Nathalie, aged I 3.
This ex voto from the end of the eighteenth
century is faithfully copied. The boat, which
is badly placed on the sheet, is linked with
the blue sea by touches of grey and ochre.
The rendering of the waves by means of
heavily drawn curves shows that the child
has a certain feeling for volume as well as a
sense of colour.
12
Gabriel Frixeau, by Didier, aged I 2. Lacoste’s
painting represents a friend of F. Jammes,
P. Claudel, A. Gide, Saint-John Perse,
Mauriac and others, who was an enlightened
collector of the paintings of Gauguin, Redon
and Lhote. The portrait is faithfully copied.
The halo of green rays radiating from the
head is the only original addition.
13
L’Ange Gabriel, by Chantal, aged I 5 . This
drawing with its delicate draughtsmanship,
which was inspired by Bernini‘s
Awzunciatioa, though not a very close copy
of the original, is an attempt to render
movement and volumes faithfully.

I’
88 Louis Valensi

from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century-were distributed to the members

of some groups of pupils on amival. A team of from four to six pupils, with
the help of the catalogue, then set about finding from the exhibition the answers
to the questions asked The teacher or group leader did not help the team unless
it was really necessary. The groups were brought together afterwards, and the
completed questionnaires were discussed with the children. The visit began
with a dialogue made more meaningful by the research done by the team.
However, all this takes a fairly long time if the children are to have an opportunity
of discovering facts and then assimilating them. It would seem preferable for
them to appreciate the materials, techniques and forms of three or four works
of their choice and what these tell us about civilization than to be lost in a maze
of knowledge.

Drawbzgfor ï%e children

On Thursdays children were admitted to the Z O Q ~ free

S of charge and allowed to
draw whichever works they chose. Drawing materials were provided (Fig. 48).
Young girls from the School of Fine Arts were &ere to give them some technical
advice, but while they discussed the child’s choice or interpretation of it with him
they did not intervene. In the mom where this experiment lasted the longest,
430 drawings were produced by children between the ages of 4 and 16 (the
majority were from 9 to 1 2 years old) (Figs. 4g-jj).
Certain subjects were preferred to others: subjects easy to copy, with vivid
colours, or striking to the child; in some cases, subjects chosen for reasons the
child was unable to explain.
From the age of I I upwards the model was more faithfully copied. With
younger children interpretation was freer. The drawings produced were so
interesting that they would warrant being exhibited.
Children who came regularly every Thursday felt at home in the museum after
a, time. When they had had enough of drawing they would wander into the gar-
den, coming back to their easels later on. We shall not go on about nature and
culture; but the idea is an attractive one.

Outside response

Few concurrent events were held in connexion with the exhibition.

The Galerie du Fleuve held two exhibitions, one of old works of the principal
representatives of the group of Bordeaux artists classed with the Indépendmts,
and one on Bordeaux painters of the end of the nineteenth century.
The Lycte Camille Jullïan organized a small exhibition on the history of the
&ée, a State secondary school for girls.
A film on the exhibits displayed in Room I (the Roman period, Bordeaux,
capital of Aquitaine) is to be screened in institutions for t5e händicapped, in the
hope that it will inspire &em to take part in &e excavation work.
Teachers in many cases followed up the visit by class activities deriving from
it. Lessons were built up from reports, drawings, notes, photographs and films
of the exhibition. Various methods were used: essays, reports, projects, etc.
Some classes produced small exhibitions.
Even if the results did not come up to expectations, the Musée d‘Aquitaine
certainly attracts many more visitors than in the past. Does this mean that its
cultural campaign has been given a new impetus? It undoubtedly would have
if the post of collaborator in charge had been retained. A museum cannot make
its visitors feel welcome 02 attract them to come unless teachers and pupils are
always received by the same person. Cultural experience cannot be progressively
deepened unless the merits and demerits of each effort made can be assessed by
one and the same person. Cultural experience cannot be revitalized unless a
‘curator’ makes himself familiar with these specialized techniques. In short, it
is essential that one person should be in charge.
Bordeaux. 2,000 Years of History 89

Conclusion

The generalpublic and the children

The person in charge should realize that the response of the schools and the
response of the general public are quite different. He should try to find out the
reasons for this. On the one hand, the museum caters for organized groups in
which there is little variation in age, and the group is usually receptive, if not
motivated. On the other hand, it caters for individuals with different back-
grounds and different levels of education As adults with independent minds,
they do not enter so easily into the spirit of the exhibition They may even regard
attendance as a social duty. Can there be no form of dialogue in such cases?
Unfortunately the muséum had no means of conducting sample surveys for
the purpose of evaluation. As all those whose opinion was sought were in favour,
it was decided to extend the exhibition, but it was not possible to make an analysis
which might have led to a change in the architectural programme of the museum,
its layout or its ways of catering for visitors, making it a cultural centre and per-
haps even a recreation centre. The children who have come to regard it as a
place to play in will later on want to leave their own children there with the art
instructors while they do their Saturday shopping, and even spend some time
there themselves going round the exhibitions, reading, resting, seeing a film or
taking part in team games. An opportunity has been lost, no doubt, for lack of
means, though the scientific and cultural programme of the exhibition covered
that of the future museum to a great extent.

The ,+"on, the children and their everydq ewironzment

It is easy enough, however, to encourage all the schools in the town and suburbs
to organize an exhibition on their part of the town as seen by the children, and,
in the case of schools in rural communes, on their village and its surroundings
as seen by the children'.: In this way we might discover what the children see 5. During the school year i973/74. the Musée
d'Aquitaine conducted an experiment on the museum, the
and whatthey do not see, how they perce& or transfigure their surroundings. child and his everyday environment with seven fourth-grade
To what extent are they sensitiveto the uniformity of the small shops, the vertical classes from primary schools in four areas of the town and
three communes of a different type. The results were issued
lines of recently built areas, the style of eighteenth-century courtyards, the vast- in an offset publication obtainable on request from the
Musée d'Aquitaine, 20 Cours d'Albret, 33000 Bordeaux
ness of the vineyard or its fragmentation, the forest or the outpost in the moors?
How far are they aware of the activities customary in these environments, the
effects of historic evolution, current transformations?
Will they be capable, with the help of the museum, of identifying centres of
interest, linking them up, and explaining them to pupils of the same age living
in other parts, through drawings, writings, photographs and tapes of their
first discussions, their first research? Will they be keen on doing this?
Afterwards, will they want to look for items in various museums, archives
and attics, undertake surveys, visit historic buildings or residences, draw paper
frescoes, assemble audio-visual material, expressing what they have seen, felt,
appreciated, and realize the delights of both what is real and what is imaginary?
Lastly, will they enjoy preparing an exhibition, going to see exhibitions
prepared by other pupils, taking the ones they think most attractive to the
museum and showing their everyday world to other people, to adults?
What remains after the exhibition which closed on 27 June 1971?A poster
competition? Five hundred drawings produced by children? Team work? A
reprinted catalogue? There remains, first of all, something that cannot be mea-
sured, the delight of children to be seen on laughing faces, the pleasure or
interest of adults; and, as a first step, we could make the exhibition on Bordeazx.
2, o 00 Years afHistor_y,which was held in accordancewith the wishes of the town,
an adventure finishing on the other side of the ocean Two American museums
are ready to show the exhibition Bordeam. 2 , 0 0 0 Years of Histoy as Seen Ly
Childreiz. Let US take up the challenge !
[ Translated from French]
 Labelling

I have just spent the last four months travelling But of course it s h h d n ’ t be allowed to de-
around the world I have walked around so tract from the aesthetic appeal of the exhibit
many zoos, botanic gardens, museums, aqua- itself.
ria and art galleries that my ankles swell at the
mere thought of such things. But what I want 4. Lkbting. Likewise, the illumination of the
to protest about here is not the mileage but the label should be about the same as that of the
labelling. Mostly, the labelling has been so bad exhibit-neither too gloomy to read nor so
that I have been led to wonder about the com- bright that it dazzles us.
petence of the curatorial staffs, who must
include more than the usual proportion of 5 . Lettering. Letters should be selected which
intellectually myopic dotards. Partly for my neither fall off nor fade away. They should be
own guidance-since, God knows, I may find simple and clearly readable, preferably black
myself in a similar position (if not in a similar (on white) or white (on black), without cur-
state) one of these days-I have compiled a licues or other gimmickry. Gold lettering on
code of guidelines, more or less generally an orange background may look arty, but it’s
applicable to displays of all sorts (except, of difficult to read at thirty paces-or even three.
course, for displays of curatorial indifference).
Like that of Moses, this code has ten articles.
6. Langzlages. Languages for all signs should
I. Presence-or absence-of exhibits. Thou shalt be selected according to the linguistic spectrum
not label that which is not there; and every- of the visitors: French, English, German, and
thing which is there shalt thou label, each unto now maybe Japanese, in the Louvre; Russian,
its kind If your octopus dies, don’t leave his and maybe Esperanto, in the Hermitage; Japa-
label on the aquarium; remove it with the nese and English in the Tokyo Zoo; English
corpse. It wastes my time to look for him in and Spanish in aquaria along the Uoited
vain. If you put birds of different species in the States-Mexican border; Vietnamese and Chi-
same enclosure, then let them both have a nese, and maybe also French, in the Saigon
label-and make it clear which refers to museum, etc It is convenient to distinguish
which. Some of us can’t tell a quail from a the various languages by distinctive colours
quetzal-or a chassepot from a javelin-until -but see z above.
we’re told how to distinguish them.
7. Vora’age. Legends should not be equivalent
2. Materials, jxation, ana’positioning. Out-door to paragraphs from textbooks or guidebooks.
labels should be resistant to the weather, inert One goes to a museum (or zoo, or whatever)
to mould, rust or other decay, and so position- primarily to see the exhibits, and one shouldn’t
ed that they will not become rapidly obscured be distracted by excessive verbiage that could
by lichens or bird droppings. They should be be better read in a library or in greater comfort
firmly secured against wind, weather and at home. A few explanatory panels-telling
vandals, but at a height legible even by us about Mayas, or Pre-Raphaelites, or ungu-
children and dwarFs. Indoor or outdoor, lates-can be helpful, but they should be kept
they should be as close as possible to the to a minimum Dates of acquisition, museum
exhibit to which they refer-not on the next index numbers, etc., are best relegated to the
tree, or on the wall a few paces away. backs of the labels, along with other unin-
teresting information such as ‘Bronze bust
3. Size. The sign and the lettering should be weighing 8.3 8 kg’ or ‘Donated by the Vicar of
big enough for the legend to be easily readable Brae in August 1883’. We could do without
while the exhibit is being viewed Anyone who much of the trite information that is currently
has toured an art gallery by going three steps proffered: ‘Wooden figure of a boy, naked,
on, three steps forwards to read the inscription, holding a pole in one hand and a fish in the
three steps backwards to admire the picture, other’ tells us little that we couldn’t see for
three steps on,. . . etc, will understand why. ourselves.
Museum notes 91

/I

Walrus Morsa Grinding stone Metate

Odobenus dentatus L.

Order: Carnivora Culture: Toltec

Family: Pinnipedia Date: c. A.D.800
Diet: shellfish Material: sandstone
Use: grinding corn

This specimen: male, 450 kg, This specimen:

collected in Pribilof Island, from Chitzalputl, Son.,
1968 Mexico

8. Synzbolisnz. Use non-verbal diagrams or for. Two examples will indicate what I mean I. Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of
symbols wherever possible. A simple map (:alifornia,La Jolla, Calif. (United States).
(Figs. 14,JI).
showing the distribution of giraffes, or the
limits of the empire of Genghis Khan-per- IO. Other signs. Attendants have to answer a
haps with a cross to mark the site of origin of thousand questions a day-most of them over
the specimen-is worth a hundred words. A and over again Clear signs should indicate the
red star is sometimes used to indicate that a usual rules: No Smoking; Do not Feed the
snake is poisonous or that a painting has been Animals; No Transistor Radios; and direc-
sold: this kind of thing be extended. tions to the Toilets; Drinking Fountain;
Telephones; Emergency Exit; and, finally,
9. Standardixatioti. A standardized, well- Way Out.
planned label design is often worth striving Ralph A. LEWIN

Science n conservation of
cultural property
Exhibitioti at fhe NG aria1Musetíni, Neiu Delhi
~~ ~

T o an increasing extent, the solution of quent historical role. In this area, too, scien-
museum and archaeological problems and of tific techniques intervene because an object
problems in the conservation of materials is bears within its structure an imprint of its
becoming purely scientific Solutions applied past: the study of its structure reveals its past
in the past were often arbitrary, but recently history. When the findings of technicians are
the application of strict scientific methods has correlated with the work of archaeological
developed better and more accurate techniques. and museological scholars, a picture of history
Scientific study of the materials of which emerges more fully. At the same time, the
objects are made, the analysis of the causes of study and analysis of .the composition of
their deterioration, the diagnosis of defects materials and the physical examination of their
and the testing of the materials to be used for structure helps to determine techniques for
conservation can alone give us a real insight the treatment of objects.
into the whole conservation process. The importance of this technical work is not
In archaeology, art history and museology, often realized by the layman The exhibition
many questions are raised concerning the on Science ìti Comervatiati of C u h r a l Properg at
possible use made of objects and their conse- the National Museum in New Delhi was
 Museum notes

organized in order to show the average man cultural property. The term cultural property
the need to conserve different forms ofcultural refers to monuments, objects of archaeology,
property and the techniques of conservation in art, ethnography and folk arts, as well as to
which the achievements of modern science history, archives, etc. (Fig. 14.
find a useful application It had to be Limited to Cultural property is always subject to deter-
presenting some conseriration problems, but ioration owing to various factors, both natural
laid stress on the outcome of the process. It is and man-made. This fact was demonstrated
rather difficult to enumerate, without tiring a in the next panel The deterioration of material
visitor, the variety and complexity of conser- is due to climate, [Link] fungi, light, insects,
vation problems within the framework of a accidents, use of inferior material, e t c The
single exhibition However, the results of photographs and objects in this séction illus-
scientific treatment are impressed upon the trated the various agencies and their bad
public through a comparative study of objects effects. (Fig. 17).
before and after treatment.
The exhibition was divided into three parts :
‘Introduction to the problems: description and Part II. Application of scientzjfc techtziques.
definition of the cultural property concerned Scientific methods like magnetic surveys and
and the causes of its suffering’; ‘Application of electro-resistance are being used for the explor-
scientific techniques for the study of materials ation of archaeological sites. Charts and dia-
before conservation’; ‘Science in conservation grams can explain these methods. Appliances
techniques’. like X-rays and ultra-violet rays diagnose the
deterioration of objects. The microscope is
used for identification of material. One can
Part I. Ziltrodzictiotz to the problem!. The first distinguish, with the help of a microscope, the
panel of the exhibition explains the concept of various types of substances, for example

16
NATIONAL MUSEUM, New Delhi. Exhibition:
Science in Conservatioii of Cidtiiral Property.
Panel to emphasize that the objects of art,
archaeology, ethnography, folk and tribal
art, history and archives represent a nation’s
cultural property which must be preserved.
17
Unfortunately, cultural property is subject to
many factors that cause damage. The
exhibition presents with force the action of
deterioration factors.
18
Scientific aids are helpful in technical studies
and identification of materials.
19
Layout of the exhibition. Panel I explains the
meaning of cultural property. Panel 2:
deterioration factors. Panels 3,4and 3 : science
helps in exploration and technical studies.
Panels 6 to I j show conservation techniques
for stone, paper, archives, wall paintings,
textiles, paintings, monuments, metals, wood
and ethnographical objects.
60
A general view of the exhibition.
Museum notes 93

textiles, which were in use in ancient times, or The exhibition illustrated the fact that in the
the species of wood from which the art objects field of conservation, research on deterioration
were made (Fig. 18). factors and its causes is as important as
The use of X-ray fluorescent spectroscopy, treatment to restore the objects of cultural
emission spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, property. It provided visitors with the oppor-
electron micro-analysers is well established. tunity to know how a nation’s cultural heritage
Various types of paper testing machines to find could be safeguarded and preserved It was
out the durability of paper for restoration planned and presented to make a visual impact
purposes are a common feature of a paper on the minds of visitors. The panels were
laboratory. All these methods were illustrated carefully devised to group photographs and
objects effectively (Figs. 19, 60). The objects

4
in the exhibition.
were presented as they would be in an art
exhibition. They were displayed in showcases
Part III. Science in conservation techniques, This or on pedestals according to requirements,
part of the exhibition was divided into several but at levels best visible and against enhancing
subsections to present the utility of science in backgrounds for emphasis. The condition of
the conservationof stone, paper, wallpaintings, deteriorated objects, before treatment, was
easel and paper paintings, monuments, metal shown in a way which pointed out the deterio-
objects, wooden objects and ethnographical
material. In all these subsections, actual
ration areas very clearly. An effort was thus ’
examples of deterioration and treated objects
made to interest the average man in the
complexity of science. ‘ U
were shown. Each subsection showed, ,in
addition, the important processes involved 4

and the equipment used in detecting deterio- [

ration and ensuring preservation. O. P. AGRAWAL
and Smita J. BAXI I 13
I I

3 /9
-.

60
 C)A Museum notes

Tantra is derived from the Sanskrit root, tan, house the museum’s art collection, now show-
meaning to expand Tantra thus indicates all ing in different countries in Europe.
comprehensive knowledge or expansion of The concept behind the design of Tantra
knowledge. Tantra has developed from very Museum is to work out a building system by
ancient times an atomic theory, a space-time the repeated use of a module in such a way as
relationship, astronomical observations, chem- to create variation in the space relationship
ical formulae and a mathematical concept of and to avoid regimental monotony, resulting
the universe. in an environment which can infuse the com-
Founded in New Delhi in 1971to promote munication between object and observer with
study and research of the arts and sciences an idea of activating receptivity of mind A
integrating the Tantra heritage of wisdom, circle has been introduced as a module. Ar the
and to relate this knowledge to present needs, same time the repetition of the cirde is broken
this museum has formed the nucleus around by the introduction oEthe straight line, making
which various educational, cultural and re- it a composite unit. It is based on the Tantra
search activities will be carried on in a disci- symbol called Siva-lingam or Salagrama-
61 plined and organized manner. having circular shapes and topped with a
TANTRA
MUSEUM,
New Delhi. Ground-floor On a three-acre plot of land near the Jawa- dome-which represents the universe. The
plan I. Inquiry and reception; 2. Gallery; harlal Nehru University with a panoramic view emphasis is on generating an environment
3. Temporary exhibits; 4. Library;
of hillocks against the backdrop of an expand- where space is a liberating force. Efforts have
j. Director’s room; 6 . Auditorium;
ing horizon, the architect, Mr A. P. Kavinde, been made to have smooth human as well as
7. Toilets; 8. Canteen. has designed the building project which will material traffic flows and also flexibility within
the interior arrangement.
Ajit MOOKERJEE

Il

Some points of view on

museums ofexact and aaatuuai sciences

A recent number o f Museuni (VoLwne X X V I , A. J . Rose employed by museums in order to attain the
No. 2, 1974)~ on ‘Museum $Exact and Natural Director, Palais de la Découverte, Paris aims they pursue today.
Sciences ’, rejected vari0u.r cotaceptions $ this ope These aims are the same for all museums,
of museim. We have tried to erxourage discussion whether they specialize in science, art, or any
ota the subject s i m it is particularb relevant todq. other field Besides bringing the visitor cultural
The third mat1. Two interesting‘ articles have
The cotitributionr o f those who agreed to give us enrichment in the form of information, mu-
just.,agpeared in the review Museum published
their opinion are published herezmder. However, the seums also have the supremely important
discussion remaìm open, and we shall be grateful for by Unesco. The authors, H. Auer’ and
task of helping him acquire a certain way of
aty filrther contributioras on the sdyect.
D. N. Omand,2 have both played an active thinking, stirring him to intellectual effort,
and important part in running a big museum
and directing its activities-thé former, the encouraging the development of his faculties
Deutsches Museum, Munich; the latter, the of observation and judgement, demonstrating
to him the importance of the spirit of inquiry
Ontario Science Centre, Toronto.
and communicating to hima taste for creativity.
The Deutsches Museum is one of the oldest
‘If you give me a hsh when I am hungry I
science museums and the Ontario Science
Centre one of the ’youngest. The two are
I . Hermann Auer, ‘M[useums of the Natural and Exact
comparable in respect of size and resources. Sciences’, Mimxm, Vol. XXVI, No. z, 1974. p. 68-75
However, there is a certain difference in 2. Douglas N. Omand, ‘The Ontario Science Centre,
approach to the application of the methods Vol. XXVI, No. 2, 1974~p. 76-81.
Toronto’, MUSGNIII.
 Museum notes

shall be hungry again tomorrow’, runs a easily aroused from their mental inertia and improve human comforts and basic necessities.
Chinese proverb, ‘but if you teach me to fish, snatched out of the superficiality of their Where are all these human achievements and
then I shall no longer be hungry.’ everyday existence. their impacts to be shown? Surely in the
Museologists are also in agreement con- The museologist’s main concern should ‘comprehensive museums’. Let us therefore
cerning the criteria that should be laid down therefore be the visitor himself, who, having look at these museums in a different angle-as
for the attainment of these aims: the visitor’s come into this universe where scientific pro- a mirror to portray social changes due to
attention must be attracted by means of gress is explained and illustrated in concen- impact of science and technology.
attractively presented material and his interest trated form, must be able to find some human Museum administrators naturally get shock-
aroused, then he must be helped to understand contact, some friendly presence on his way. ed when they see the ‘brainless playing about’
and given the desire to learn This is not In other words, it is of the utmost importance by the public with the demonstration apparatus
simple. Transposing a complex phenomenon that our visitor should not remain alone, that designed and made with great care to explain
into an experiment that all can understand is he should be able to speak to a physicist, a a scientific phenomenon or a principle of
usually no easy matter, especiallywhen abstract chemist, a biologist, a mathematician, an physics. But why should we not accept this
concepts are involved So the museologist has astronomer, a geologist, a historian. . . that phenomenon as a manifestation of ‘rousing >

not only to be a curator specialized in some ‘third man’ who bridges the gap between the people from mental inertia’?
discipline or disciplines, but also to be able to scientist and the public It is this third man H. Auer has referred very briefly to the
provide an attractive setting, which demands who will patiently answer visitors’ questions, design problems for working models and
a certain artistic talent, and to invent and who will be able to explain the fundamental whether we should select the inductive or the
construct didactic apparatus that can convey concepts of science in clear and simple deductive method. We are looking forward to
scientific truth very clearly without distorting language, illustrating his explanations by hearing something more on these subjects.
it. demonstrations calculated to arouse curiosity,
When a whole museum is to be built, who will be able to arrest attention, guide, Mr Omand describes vividly the architectural
considerable care may be taken over the enlighten, encourage and advise. It is he who features of,his buildings, the nature of exhibits
setting, within and without. The Ontario will in the long run enable the visitor to and their displaytechnique, in arealistic manner
Science Centre, inaugurated in 1969, is an partake of the joys and enthusiasm of the and the reader has no difficulty in visualizing
example. Its modern architecture, the sur- scientist on the path of d i s ~ o v e r y . ~ the function of the Ontario Science CentG.5
rounding park, the luminous, colourful, large In 1971 when the ICOM International Com-
galleries, are enough in themselves to attract mittee for Museums of Scienceand Technology
and fascinate the visitor. Unfortunately, this met at Paris and discussed the educational
cannot be said of the museums built several activities of this centre, there was a lot of
decades ago or housed in previously existing, controversy on whether one could call this
buildings ill adapted to the purpose, the sever- ‘centre a museum. In the present article
ity of whose appearance is difficult to attenuate. Mr Omand clarifies that his centre avoids the
Once this ‘setting’ has been created the Amalendu Bose conventional artefact orientation which one
apparatus must be designed so that it will meet Director of Museums, CSIR, normally associates with the word ‘museum’
the purposes outlined above. Here there is a Birla Industrial and Technological Museum, and thereby leaves us to discuss whether other
choice to be made between two approaches. Calcutta aspects of museum are present. ICOM defines
First, one may decide to use apparatus which museum as an ‘institution’ . . . which acquires,
will provide the explanation of a law or a The scholarly dissertation of Auer: who gives conserves, communicates and exhibits . . .
phenomenon if manipulated entirely by the the ‘physicists’ view of the world and analyses material witnesses of the evolution of nature
visitor, being designed in such a way as to how the museum of exact science explains the and man. These material witnesses are absent
bring into play various senses-sight, hearing, growth of knowledge, traces the history of in the Science Centre and therefore in no way
touch, smell-and muscular effort, care being methods of research and the history of the can it be called a ‘museum’.
taken, of course, to obviate all danger. This is applications of laws of physics in technology, There is no doubt that the Ontario Science
the principal approach adopted in Toronto, makes a delightful reading. Those who have Centre has introduced a new technique in
and it is certainly very effective. However, it studied carefully the Deutsches Museum sec- science teaching, it creates a congenial environ-
raises two difficulties: first, the visitor is left tions on mechanics, heat, light or participated ment, it enthuses the visitor, it involves him in
alone, and must have enough will-power, in the planetarium and observatory will no the experiments and it designs the exhibits in
tenacity and perseverance td go through with doubt agree that the Deutsches Museum, such a way that their very function requires
the experiment unaided till he grasps the Munich, can be defined as a ‘prototype of a ‘input from the visitor ’. We can assume that
point-qualities which are not given to every- museum of exact sciences’. Study of physics is it is a highly effective ‘science teaching
one; second, and this is less important, although the study of science, this is the basis on which machine’, and await for more information
it involves costly maintenance, there is a risk H. Auer has str_essd-a dictum with which about this centre as to whether the exhibits have :
that the material will be accidentally or-alas ! many of us may agree. In ancient and mediaeval been evaluated in a scientific manner and that
-deliberately damaged. times, and even down to the seventeenth according to pedagogic experts the exhibits
Second, one may devise automatic apparatus century, according to Sarton, physics con- actually perform the task for which they have
inside a glass case, which can be operated by cerned the study of nature in general, inorganic been designed and produced. However, it will
pressing a button outside the case; there may and organic be difficult to accept the contention that the
be a recorded commentary on the experiment. But strictly speaking most museums with system introduced by the centre is a new
A great deal of apparatus of this kind, some of which we are aCquainted, including Deutsches approach to the technique of museology. Why
which is remarkably designed, is to be found Museum, will come under the category of not call it a new technique of science teaching
in the Deutsches Museum, even for experi- ‘comprehensive museums’ which H. Auer through fun,’ enjoyment and involvement so
ments in chemistry. This method undoubtedly defines as those that cover subjects dealing with that the validity of the statement can be judged
has advantages for attentive visitors and for structures existing in nature and also those by experts other than museum professionals.
those who are too timid to ask for explanations, concerned with collections of artefacts pro-
but it has % t w o disadvantages. It is very duced out of human ingenuity. A technological
expensive to build and maintain the apparatus museum also comes under this category. It is
and, what is more, the visitor becomes a true that such museums trace the history of
passive observer because he is not involved sciencethrough the various research collections
in a process of manipulation that demands such as a microscope, a measuring instrument Grace McCann Morley
any particular thought or initiative. So this or a celestial globe, but the most important Head, ICOM Regional Agency in Asia
I’
apparatus is often to be seen working without function of such museums will be to tell the
p( any onlooker, a visitor having pressed the visitors the social impact of science. Through- It is very instructive to have the points of view
button merely for the pleasure of setting it in out the centuries development of technology on use of exhibitions in the two centres
motion and so creating an atmosphere of resulted in improved working methods, acce-
3. Paris, 3 October 1974.
movement and noise. It must not be forgotten, lerated production due to new processes and 4. See note I.
as H. Auer reminded US, that people are not techniques, and cheaper and better goods to 5. See note 2.
96 Museuin notes

-respectively Singaporeb and Toronto ‘-in However, we must never allow a museum of to assess in ‘units of brain power’ (UBP) what
the same number. For developing countries at science and technology to become a sort of a museum contributes to the development of
least the ‘theme’ exhibition, according to variety show with electrons and protons our intellect. I don’t believe it can ever be
careful direct observation, seems more useful moving round in a meson field Previous assessed in this way.
educationally than the ‘permissive’. . . ‘super- experiments with this kind of attraction have 1 The church learned very early in its career
market of information’ principle practised at shown that the visitor only retains an image that miracle plays get an idea across faster and
Toronto. I am glad therefore that Singapore of the superficial, entertaining aspect of the more effectively because it is an enjoyable
has adopted the ‘theme’ as guidance. presentation, while the real information escapes experience-a little sugar coating on the pill.
him. I have for a long period of time thought that
Perhaps it would be a good idea, in spite of if we could use Disneyland as a science tool we
the difficulties of such a venture, to attempt a would wipe away much of the students’
synthesis of the two kinds of museum. aversion to learning. Most modern museums
JoseP Kuba these days are not Disneylands and for the most
Director, Narodni Technicke part do not employ exhibit methods that enter-
Muaeum, Prague ; tain the public. I am the first to agree that fun
President of the International Committee for fun’s sake is a waste of very precious time.
of ICOM for Museums However, the principles of entertainment could
of Science and Technology John Arno/d readily be employed in museums as an aid in the
Designer, National Museum learning experience. ‘I suffer-therefore I
of Science and Technology, Ottawa learn’ is. not a truism.
I very much appreciate the interest shown by
the review Mtlsetm in the presentation of
exhibitions by [Link] science and techno- In reading the artides in Mtlsetlm by II. Auer
logy. I am we!! acquainted with the Deutsches of the Deutsches Museum in Munich Io and
Museums and the development it has under- D. Omand of the Science Centre in Toronto I I
gone over the last fifteen years. It is, with the I have made a couple of observations.
London Science Museum, one of the largest, In my visits to European and American
richest and most harmonious museums. Its science museums and centres I observed a
displays are systematically rearranged and difference in exhibit approach by the institu-
brought up to date with the latest scientific and tions of each continent.
technological developments. The American and European educational
AS regards the Ontario Science Centre in systems are radically different. American stu-
Canada,gI must confess that I only know this dents are left much on their own and encour-
museum through prospectuses, publications, aged to discover the laws of science by them-
and information gleaned from colleagues. selves. The European approach is much more
We are of course dealing here with two didactic. The system of learning is much more
totally different conceptions of a museum, this regimented and carefully controlled Both the
being due, among other things, to the fact that American and European museums mirror
they were founded at different times. The these two trains of thought.
creation and subsequent characteristics of a The Science Centre in Toronto is a product
museum of this type also depend on the of the American educational system as much
technical and intellectual level of the country as the Deutsches Museum in Munich is a
concerned I am convinced that there is a product ofthe European educational approach.
particular type of science museum which is American children grow up with myriad
best suited to each country. television programmes with myriad channels at
A museumas well organizedas theDeutsches their disposal. The selection is staggering.
Museum from a pedagogical point of view can, American culture is scientifically oriented with
in my opinion, replace, and even surpass in everything from space vehicles to electric
most areas of study, the secondary-school toothbrushes. It is logical that this habit in
laboratory. everyday life should be followed by the
But the question must be asked: should the educational system and by the tools of this
museum of science and technology be a well- system-the science centres and museums.
equipped popular university, or should its That is not to say that all American museums
role be to render account of scientific and do, or should follow the same path: that
technological development? would be a catastrophe of boredom But the
I consider that a museum of this type should American institutions are a product. of their
work to stimulate the interest of the public, environment and culture, and then differ
and in particular of the young, in science and vastly from their European counterparts.
technology. The interested visitor can then go The Science Centre in Toronto offers a
and find more detailedinformation if he wishes, smorgasbord of learning experiences that is
or even take up the study of the exact sciences. available for consumption by the learning
Certainly, all museums of science and public. A child has a very quick and keen
technology must, through their displays and mind, it is easily stimulated and easily bored.
activities, show the principal stages in the He changes his mind in seconds and vacillates
history of scientific and technological develop- from one subject to another in rapid succession.
ment in their country. It is therefore impossible The question is: Are all these unrelated expe-
to create a successful museum without taking riences lost to the intellect because they are not
into account the stage of development of the part of a related programme? I don’t think so.
country, its natural resources and its traditions. 1 Most of our learning experience is a patch-
If one is obliged to attend school, this is ~
work that gradually comes together as we
certainly not the case for the museum, and so an ~
gain in experience. These children are merely
important aspect of the question is how to gaining their experience in this patchwork
6. Kenneth V. Jackman and R. S. Bhathal, ‘The \ .
attract the visitor. The facilities offered by the ; manner and we cannot p a g e how much of Singapore Science Centre’, Mmum, Vol. XXVI, No. z ,
museum are important factors in visitor 1 these museum experiences. will be of use to 7974. p. 110-16.
attraction and publicity. In this respect I them a t a later time. An unrelated experience in 7. See note z
consider that the Ontario Science Centre has 8. Seenote I .
the science centre might be the catalyst that 9. Seenotgz.
shown a high level of achievement and may be brings the jigsaw of a physics law together in la. See note I .
regarded as an example for other museums. a schoolroom lecture weeks later. It is difficult I I . See note z.
 Authors Picture credits

JAN JELINEK I,Natur-Museum Senckenberg, Frankfurt;

Ph.D. Anthropologist. Has founded the 2,Olof Wallgren, Riksutställningar;
Anthropos Institute (a department of the 3 (a), (b) , (c), Västerbottens Museum,
Moravian Museum in Brno, Umeå; 4 (a), ( b ) , ' j , 6,R. E. Merrick, Nova
Czechoslovakia) and its exhibition on the Scotia Museum, Halifax; 7,8, Arax-Serjan
origin and evolution of man. Since 1918, Studios, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.; HRSR .
director of the Moravian Museum, Brno. CZearwater/Hudson River Museum, Yonkers;
Head of the Department of Museology 10-13,Musée National des Techniques,
(established in 1962) at the University of Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers,
Brno. Founder (in 1962) and editor of the Paris; 14-23,Alfonso Muffoz, Mexico, D.F. ;
international journal Anthrojos. Author of 24, zj,37,38, 83,Drawings by Coral
many anthropological publications. Ordóñez García; 26-36,INAH, Mexico,
Chairman of the ICOM International D.F. ; 40-13,Photos Jean-Michel Arnaud,
Committee for Regional Museums, and, Musée d'Aquitaine; 16-60,National Museum,
since the beginning of 1964, also chairman New Delhi; 61,62,Tantra Museum,
of the ICOM Executive Council. New Delhi.

IKERLARRAURI
Born Mexico City, 1929. Studied architecture
.i and anthropology. Held Unesco fellowship
I to study museum organization and
museographical techniques as applied to basic
education Museologist at the National
Museum of Anthropology and History in
Mexico City for several years. Head of the
team of museologists working on the
programme and organization of the new
National Museum of Anthropology. Has
taken part in the planning and setting up of
various exhibitions and museums. Teacher of
museology at the National School of
Restoration and Museography, Mexico City.
Currently Director-General of Museums at
the National Institute of Anthropology and
History. Originator of the school museums
programme.

CORALORDÓÑEZ GARCÍA
Studied drawing and painting at La Esme-
ralda school in Mexico until 196j. In 1967
was awarded a diploma in architecture by the
National Autonomous University of Mexico.
Took courses in town-planning architecture
at the La Cambre School, Brussels (Belgium)
(1969). Carried out a series of investigations
- and urban designing work in the ofice of the
-.
architect González Pozo. Has taught at the
National School of Architecture since
1970 and is at present a member of the
multidisciplinary team of the Casa del Museo
under the museologist Mario Vásquez.

LOUIS
VALENSI
Certificated teacher of history and geography
from 1954 to 1960. Degree in archaeology
and history of art, diploma in the classics,
French museum curator, posted to the Musée
d'Aquitaine in I 960.
From 1966 to 7973 teacher of the history of
architecture and civilizatiops at the Bordeaux
architecture atelier of the Ecole Nationale
Supérieure des Beaux-Arts, then at the Bor-
deaux Architecture Teaching Unit. Member
of the International Committee of ICOM for
Museums of Archaeology and History.
Author of articles on history and Roman art.