UNDERSTANDING

AND SYSTEMATICALLY
COLLECTING DATA
 01
04
RESEARCH DESIGNS

02
SAMPLES AND
INSTRUMENTS

03 05
SAMPLING METHODS

DATA COLLECTION

RANDOM SAMPLING
 By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

● Choose an appropriate quantitative research designs;

● Describe a sampling procedure and sample;

● Construct an instrument and establish its validity and

reliability;
● Plan the data collection procedure, data analysis using

statistics and testing the hypothesis; and

● Present a written research methodology
 RESEARCH
01.
DESIGNS
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Classified into five general kinds: DESCRIPTIVE,
CORRELATIONAL, EX POST FACTO, QUASI-
EXPERIMENTAL AND EXPERIMENAL

RESEARCG DESIGN – refers to overall strategy that

a researcher uses to logically and coherently
integrate the various components of a study.
Kind Goal Variables and Data Collection Sample Titles
Experimental Technique
Manipulation

To observe Variables are Questionnaire Assessing Nurses’

and report on measured as Observation Attitudes Toward
a certain they occur. Death and Caring for
Des
phenomenon Dying Patients in a
cript
Experimental Comprehensive
ive
manipulation is Cancer Center
not used. (Lange,M., Thom, B.,
Kline, N.E., 2008)
Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. Survey – used when the researcher wants to provide

a quantitative or numeric description of trends,
attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a
sample of that population (Creswell, 2003)
Types of Descriptive Research Design

*2. Correlational – tests for the relationship between two

variables
• conducted on a minimum of two groups
• Facilitates prediction of one parameter based on another
• If a relationship is found, its degree is identified by
correlation coefficient -1.00 and +1.00
• When one variable and the other also = positive

• Otherwise, it’s negative.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

2. Correlational – has three types:

• 2.A. Bivariate Correlational Studies – obtain scores
from two variables for each subject, then use them to
calculate a correlation coefficient. The term bivariate
implies that the two variables are correlated (variables
are selected because they are believed to be related)
• Example : Children of wealthier and better educated
parents earn higher salaries as adults
Types of Descriptive Research Design

2. Correlational – has three types:

• 2.B. Prediction Studies – use correlation
coefficient to show how one variable (the predictor
variable) predicts another (the criterion variable)
• Example : Which high school applicants should be
admitted to college?
Types of Descriptive Research Design

2. Correlational – has three types:

• 2.C. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies –
suppose the high school GPA is not the sole
predictor of college GPA , what might be the other
good predictors? All of these variables can
contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation
that adds together the predictive power of each
identified variable
Types of Descriptive Research Design

*3. Ex post facto Research Design – these are

nonexperimental research design that are used to
investigate causal relationships
• Examines whether one or more pre-existing
conditions could possible have caused subsequent
differences in groups of subjects
• Example : What is the effect of home schooling on the
social skills of adolescents?
Types of Descriptive Research Design

4. Comparative Design – involves comparing and

contrasting two or more samples of study subjects on
one or more variables, often at a single point of time
• Example : A Comparative Study on the Health
Problems Among Rural and Urban Older People from
District Mehsana, Gujarat
Types of Descriptive Research Design

5. Evaluative Research – seeks to assess or judge in

some way providing information about something other
than might be gleaned in mere observation or
investigation of relationships
• Example : Where a test of children in school is used to
assess the effectiveness of teaching or the
deployment of a curriculum
Types of Descriptive Research Design

6. Methodological – in this approach, the

implementation of a variety of methodologies forms a
critical part of achieving the goal of developing a scale-
matched approach, where data from different disciplines
can be integrated
Kind Goal Variables and Data Collection Sample Titles
Experimental Technique
Manipulation

To determine Variables are Questionnaire The Relationship

the nature of measured as Observation Between Service
relationship they occur. Tests Quality and Customer
Corr
between Satisfaction in the
elati
variables Experimental Telecommunication
onal
without looking manipulation is Industry: Evidence
into the cause not used. from Nigeria (Ojo, O.,
2010)
Kind Goal Variables and Data Collection Sample Titles
Experimental Technique
Manipulation

To infer the Groups exposed Questionnaire Comparison of

causes of a to the presumed Personal, Social
phenomenon cause are and Academic
Ex
which has compared with Variables Related
post
already those who are not to University
fact
occurred exposed to it. Drop-out Rate
o
Experimental and Persistence
manipulation is (Bernardo, A., et
not used. al., 2016)
Kind Goal Variables and Data Collection Sample Titles
Experimental Technique
Manipulation

To Intact groups are Tests The Impact of

establish used; individual Smoking Bans on
Qua cause subjects are Smoking and
si- and effect randomly assigned Consumer Behavior:
expe relation- to the TG and CG. Quasi-experimental
rime ships Experimental Evidence from
ntal manipulation may Switzerland (Boes, S.,
have limited use. Marti, J., Maclean,
J.C., 2014)
Types of Quasi-Experimental Research
Design
1. Non-equivalent Control Group – refers to the
chance failure of random assignment to equalize
the conditions by converting a true experiment into
this kind of design, for purposes of analysis.
2. Interrupted Time Series Design – employs
multiple measures before and after the
experimental intervention.
Kind Goal Variables and Data Collection Sample Titles
Experimental Manipulation Technique

To Intact groups are not Tests Effects of Mobile

establish used; individual Technology Use
Exp
cause subjects are randomly on Walking
erim
and effect assigned to the TG and (Perlmutter, S., et
enta
relation- CG. al., 2014)
l
ships Experimental
manipulation is used.
Others
1. Causal-Comparative Research
• Looks to unearth a cause and effect relationship
• This research is not conducted between the two
groups on each other
• Involves comparison
• Another key characteristic is that individuals are
not randomly assigned to groups
• Researchers are unable to manipulate a variable
because the effect of the variable has already
occurred.
Example
Mr. Rico, a grade 12 teacher, has noticed that one
research group in his class has made considerable gains
in comparison to the other research groups. He has lately
implemented a new research strategy. Perhaps the new
strategy causes this considerable gains
 SAMPLES
AND
SAMPLING
02.
METHODS
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS

• SAMPLING refers to the process of systematically selecting

individuals, units or groups to be analyzed during the conduct
of the study
• SAMPLE = POPULATION’S INFORMATION
• GENERALIZABILITY – refers to the extent the findings can be
applied in other contexts
 FOUR WAYS TO DETERMINE THE SAMPLE SIZE
1. HEURISTICS
• Is a term normally in qualitative studies as a
research approach that’s utilizes
introspections
• In quantitative, this refers to the rule of
thumb for the sample size used in a study
• Lunenburg and Irby (2008) suggested
sample sizes:
RESEARCH NUMBER OF
DESIGN PARTICIPANTS
Survey 800

Correlational 100-200

Ex Post Facto 30+

Experimental 30 or more
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
• Read studies similar to yours and check the
sample size that they used
• These studies can serve as a reference in
proving the validity of the sample size that you
plan to use
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
• Read studies similar to yours and check the
sample size that they used
• These studies can serve as a reference in
proving the validity of the sample size that you
plan to use
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS

3. FORMULAS
• We can use two formulas in getting the
sample size: the National Education
Association in the US and Slovin’s Formula
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

Let us use this formula
in obtaining the ideal
sample size for a given
population. The
population is 105.
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS

SLOVIN’S FORMULA
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS
105______
n=
SLOVIN’S FORMULA 1 + (105) (0.05)2

______105______
=
1 + (105) (0.0025)
Let us use this formula
in obtaining the ideal ___105__
=
sample size for a given 1 + .2625
population. The
_105_
population is 105 with =
1.2625
95% confidence level.
= 83.1683 or 83
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS
Find the sample of the following given using both
formulas:
POPULATION NEA SLOVIN’S FORMULA

1. 3456

2. 2300

3. 1876

4. 4826

5. 2680
 SAMPLES
4. POWER AND SAMPLING METHODS
ANALYSIS
• Among the four, power analysis is considered
the most precise.
• Strategy is founded on the principle of statistical
power
• STATISTICAL POWER refers to the probability of
rejecting a false null hypothesis, thus suggesting
that there is, indeed, a relationship between the
IV and DV
 RANDOM
03.
SAMPLING
• In qualitative studies, researchers often use
Purposive Sampling or the deliberate selection
of samples based on their characteristics
• In contrast, quantitative studies often employ
Random Sampling, or probability sampling that
involves the selection of a group of participants
from a larger population by chance
 TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING

1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• All individuals in a given population have an
equal chance of being selected
• Considered the best way to obtain a
representative sample
• One technique that you can use in SRS is the
fish bowl technique
 TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING
2. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
• Similar to simple random in that the members
of the population can all be selected by
chance
• However, population is divided into subgroups
(strata)
• This is best used when the characteristics of
the subgroups may influence the variables
being measured (homogenous)
Blue Subgroup
3/12 = .25 (25%)

Green Subgroup
3/12 = .25 (25%)

Pink Subgroup
3/12 = .25 (25%)

Red Subgroup
3/12 = .25 (25%)
 TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING
3. CLUSTER SAMPLING
• Involves the grouping of the population into
subgroups or clusters. However, these
clusters are not created based on specific
characteristics or traits; thus, they are
heterogenous
 TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING
4. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• Participants are selected from a list based on
their order in the population or on a pre-
determined interval
• This interval is obtained by dividing the
population size by the sample size of four
participants from a population of 12
 TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING
4. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• Participants are selected from a list based on
their order in the population or on a pre-
determined interval
• This interval is obtained by dividing the
population size by the sample size of four
participants from a population of 12
 EXERCISE NO. __
A. Identify the sampling
method used in each of the
given situations. Write your
answer on the blank.
____________ 1. Gina’s target population
for her study are employees from the top
500 corporations in the Philippines.
Because there are too many employees in
these corporations, she decided to
randomly select ten corporation and use all
of their employees as participants in her
study.
____________ 2. Myra’s study aims to determine
the relationship between intelligence quotient
and the language proficiency of students. There
are 105,000 students in her target population.
Of these, 15% have high proficiency, 65% have
average proficiency, and 20% have low
proficiency. She decided to utilize a sample size
of 400 participants from the target population.
This is proportional to the total number of
members in each group of the populations.
____________ 3. Ryan wants to know if the new
curriculum has an effect on the academic
performance of science students. He took the list
of all students in his school and selected every 8th
name in the class list as participants
____________ 4. Troy wants to survey principals
and supervisors in Country X. All in all, there are
12,000 principals and 24,000 supervisors in the
country. Troy decided to select 350 from the
total target population as participants in the
study.
 EXERCISE

B. Identify the sample size and the

sampling technique that you will use for
your own research. Explain how will you
determine your sample size and justify
your choice of sampling method for your
study.
Size of Target
Population
Method Used to
determine the sample
size (include
computation if
applicable)
Sample size for the
study
 04.
RESEARCH
INSTRUMENTS
INSTRUMENTS
• Tools used to gather data for a particular
research topics
• Some of the common instruments used for
quantitative research are tests
(performance-based or paper-and-pencil),
questionnaires, interviews and observations
INSTRUMENTS
• When using instruments that are prone to
subjectivity, you may consider having
another coder or evaluator to help you
gather and analyze your data
 THREE WAYS OF DEVELOPING AN
INSTRUMENT FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Adopting an Instrument
2. Modify an Existing Instrument
3. Create your own instrument
• Whether INSTRUMENT
you instrument
VALIDITYis adopted,
modified or self-created, it is necessary to
ensure its validity and reliability
• VALIDITY refers to the degree to which an
instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure
• For example, in measuring the speaking
proficiency of students, speaking
performances have greater validity than
multiple choice tests
 INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
FACE VALIDITY
• When it “appears” to Measure the variables
being studied, hence, checking for the face
validity is a subjective process
• Does not ensure that the instrument has
actual validity
 INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
CONTENT VALIDITY
• Refers to the degree to which an instrument
covers a representative sample of the
variable to be measured
• Similar to face validity, assessing the content
validity is a subjective process done with the
help of a list of specifications provided by
experts in your field
 INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
• Degree to which an instrument measures
the variables being studied as a whole.
• Instrument is able to detect what should
exist theoretically
• Construct is often an intangible or abstract
variable such as personality, intelligence or
moods
 INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
CRITERION VALIDITY
• Refers to the degree that an instruments
predict the characteristics of a variable in a
certain way
• Evaluated through statistics
• Can be typed as Concurrent and Predictive
Validity
 INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
CONCURRENT VALIDITY
• An instrument has this validity when it is
able to predict results similar to those of a
test already validated in the past
PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
• When it produces results similar to those of
another instrument that will be employed in
the future
 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
• Another important factor you need to consider
when preparing or selecting instruments
• RELIABILITY refers to the consistency of the
measures of an instrument
• Aspect involved in the accuracy of
measurement
• Has four types: Test-Retest, Equivalent Forms,
Internal Consistency and Inter-Rater Reliability
 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
TEST-RETEST RELIABLITY
• Achieved by administering an instrument
twice to the same group of participants and
then computing the consistency of the score
• Often ideal to conduct the test-retest after a
short period of time (two weeks) in order to
record a higher correlation between the
variables tested in the study
 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
EQUIVALENT FORMS RELIABLITY
• Measured by administering two tests
identical in all aspects except the actual
wording of items.
• Two tests have the same coverage, difficulty
level, test type, and format.
• Example is Pre Test and Post Test
 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABLITY
• Is a measure of how well the items in two
instruments measure the same construct
• 3 ways to measure the internal consistency
reliability: Split Half Coefficient, Cronbach’s
Alpha and Kuder-Richardson formula
 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
INTER-RATER RELIABLITY
• Measures the consistency of scores assigned by two
or more raters on a certain set of results
• Kappa Coefficient is one of the most popular
statistical tools in measuring inter-rater reliability
which says that the higher the value of the Kappa
Coefficient is, the more reliable the instrument is
• Coefficient value of .70 indicates that the instrument
is reliable
 05.
DATA
COLLECTION
DATA COLLECTION
• Is an activity that allows the researcher to obtain
relevant information regarding the specified research
questions or objectives.
• Is performed through utilizing instruments which the
researcher has developed or adopted for the study.
• Quantitative research instruments include
questionnaires, tests, interviews and observations.
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
• When developing and utilizing a research instrument,
we usually follow these steps:

1. Be clear with your research questions and the

purpose of doing the investigation.
2. Plan how will you conduct the investigation and
data collection
3. Use research instruments that are appropriate
for the type of research you are conducting
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
4. Collect, tabulate, tally and analyze the data
5. Verify the validity and Reliability of the collected
data
6. Report your findings based on the data you
collected
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
QUESTIONNAIRES
• Paper-based or electronic tool for collecting
information about a particular research interest
• List of questions or indicators
• Typically use scales
• Another approach used is the conversion of
responses into numerical values
• Can be structures, semi-structured or
unstructured
• Different from survey
ADVANTAGES OF USING QUESTIONNAIRES
• Can help collect the data quickly from a large samples
• Can encourage the participants to be open to the
researcher since their identity can be made anonymous
• Has flexibility because the respondents can answer it in
their own convenient time
LIMITATIONS OF USING QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questions it contains can be interpreted differently by
the participants
• Unable to complete the or return the questionnaire on
the set deadline
• Lack of depth
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
TESTS
• Are quantitative research instrument used mainly for
assessing various skills ang types of behavior as well
as for describing certain characteristics
• Main types of test: STANDARDIZED AND NON-
STANDARDIZED
• STs are often considered more reliable and valid,
while NSTs may be appropriate for obtaining certain
types of responses or measuring a specific skill
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

INTERVIEWS
• Is an activity that allows the researcher to obtain
relevant information regarding the specified research
questions or objectives.
• Is performed through utilizing instruments which the
researcher has developed or adopted for the study.
• Quantitative research instruments include
questionnaires, tests, interviews and observations.
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
OBSERVATION
• Is an activity that allows the researcher to obtain
relevant information regarding the specified research
questions or objectives.
• Is performed through utilizing instruments which the
researcher has developed or adopted for the study.
• Quantitative research instruments include
questionnaires, tests, interviews and observations.