Biomedical Instrumentation

BME-301
Lecture -4

Dr. Muhammad Umair Ahmad Khan

18-09-2024
Bioelectric potentials

Bioelectric potentials are electrical potentials that originate from living

organisms. These potentials arise due to the ionic concentrations and
activities occurring within and outside cells. When ions move across cell
membranes through ion channels, they generate tiny voltages. The
detection and measurement of these electrical signals provide important
information about physiological processes and can be used to diagnose
certain conditions.
 INTRODUCTION
• The principles associated with the biological generation of electricity were
described, by physiologists Hodgkin and Huxley, in four papers that they
published in 1952. The papers clearly noted the details of potassium and
sodium ion movements as related to the generation of nerve impulses.

• Hodgkin and Huxley received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or

Medicine in 1963 for their discovery.

• Biopotentials are electrical signals (voltages) that are generated by

physiological processes occurring within the body.

• Biopotentials are produced by the electrochemical activity of a type of

cell, called an excitable cell.
INTRODUCTION

• Excitable cells are found in the nervous, muscular and glandular

systems in the body. When an excitable cell is stimulated, it
generates an action potential, which is the essential source of
biopotentials in the body. Excitable cell types, that contribute to
biopotential generation, are:
 INTRODUCTION

1. Afferent (receptor or sensory) neurons that transmit signals

from tissues and organs to the central nervous system
2. Efferent (motor) neurons that transmit signals from the central
nervous system to effector cells
3. Effector cells, which include muscle cells and neuroendocrine
cells, that instigate a physical effect on the basis of a received signal
4. Interneurons that exist entirely within the central nervous
system, including the brain. Interneurons convey signals between
afferent neurons and efferent neurons.
known
 Resting and Action Potentials
• During the refractory period, the sodium/potassium pump
returns sodium ions to the outside of the membrane and
potassium ions to the inside. After the refractory period, the
neuron is determined to be in resting potential. Resting potential
is established after repolarization.
• A traveling nerve impulse is a propagating wave of depolarization
and repolarization. A traveling nerve impulse is the movement of
an action potential, through connected neurons, as the series of
ions channels open and close. A electrical nerve impulse travels
much slower than electrons moving in a conductor. This speed of
travel is known as nerve conduction velocity and can vary
between 0.5 -120 meters/second, depending on type and location
of the nerve.
BIOELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG): This measures the electrical activity of the heart. Every
heartbeat is associated with an electrical pattern.
Example: An ECG can be used to diagnose various heart conditions, such as arrhythmias
or a heart attack.
Electroencephalography (EEG): This measures the electrical activity in the brain. The
brain's neurons constantly produce electrical signals.
Example: An EEG can be used to diagnose and monitor seizure disorders, sleep disorders,
and other brain conditions.
Electromyography (EMG): This measures the electrical activity in muscles. When a muscle
contracts, it produces an electrical signal.
Example: An EMG can help diagnose conditions that affect muscle function, such as
muscular dystrophy or nerve disorders.
 BIOELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Electrooculography (EOG): This measures the resting potential of the retina and can capture
the electrical activity associated with eye movements.
Example: EOG can be used in sleep studies to detect rapid eye movement (REM) during
sleep.
Electroretinography (ERG): This measures the electrical responses of different cells in the
retina, including the photoreceptor cells (rods and cones). It can give information about the
performance of the retina.
Example: ERG can be used to diagnose and monitor diseases of the retina, such as retinitis
pigmentosa.
Evoked Potentials: These are electrical signals generated by the nervous system in response
to external stimuli. They can be visual, auditory, or somatosensory.
Example: An auditory evoked potential test might be used to diagnose and monitor diseases
and conditions that affect the auditory nerve.
BIOELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• The distribution of positively charged ions on the outer surface and
negatively charged ions inside the cell membrane results in the difference of
potential across it and the cell becomes, in effect, a tiny biological battery.
• Within a cell is approximately –90 mV with reference to the outside of the
cell.
• When the cell is excited or stimulated, the outer side of the cell membrane
becomes momentarily negative with respect to the interior. This process is
called depolarization and the cell potential changes to approximately +20
mV.
• Repolarization then takes place a short time later when the cell regains its
normal state in which the inside of the membrane is again negative with
respect to the outside. Repolarization is necessary in order to re-establish
the resting potential.
 ECG
Meaning of ECG waves
P wave: Depolarization of the right and left atria
QRS complex: Depolarization of the ventricles
T wave: Repolarization of ventricles
Meaning of ECG intervals
PQ interval: Time period between start of atrial depolarization to start of
ventricular depolarization
QRS duration: Time period of ventricular depolarization
QT interval: Time period between start of ventricular depolarization and end
of ventricular repolarization
RR interval: Time period of complete cardiac cycle (inverse of heart rate)
ECG
• The recording of the electrical activity associated with the functioning of the
heart is known as electrocardiogram.
• ECG is a quasi-periodical, rhythmically repeating signal synchronized by the
function of the heart, which acts as a generator of bioelectric events. This
generated signal can be described by means of a simple electric dipole (pole
consisting of a positive and negative pair of charge).
• The waveforms thus recorded have been standardized in terms of amplitude
and phase relationships and any deviation from this would reflect the
presence of an abnormality.
• The heart has its own system for generating and conducting action
potentials through a complex change of ionic concentration across the cell
membrane.
ECG
• Sino-atrial node (SA node) Located in the top right atrium near the entry of
the vena cava, are a group of cells known as the that initiate the heart
activity and act as the primary pace maker of the heart.
• The SA node is 25 to 30 mm in length and 2 to 5 mm thick. It generates
impulses at the normal rate of the heart, about 72 beats per minute at rest.
• Because the body acts as a purely resistive medium, the potential field
generated by the SA node extends to the other parts of the heart.
• The wave propagates through the right and left atria at a velocity of about 1
m/s. About 0.1 s are required for the excitation of the atria to be completed.
The action potential contracts the atrial muscle and the impulse spreads
through the atrial wall about 0.04s to the AV (atrio-ventricular) node.
ECG
• The AV node delays the spread of excitation for about 0.12 s, due to
the presence of a fibrous barrier of non-excitable cells that effectively
prevent its propagation from continuing beyond the limits of the
atria.
• The conduction system, known as the bundle of His carries the action
potential to the ventricles.
• The fibres in this bundle, known as Purkinje fibres, after a short
distance split into two branches to initiate action potentials
simultaneously in the two ventricles.
• Conduction velocity in the Purkinje fibres is about 1.5 to 2.5 m/s.
ECG
• Since the direction of the impulse propagating in the bundle of His is from
the apex of the heart, ventricular contraction begins at the apex and
proceeds upward through the ventricular walls. This results in the
contraction of the ventricles producing a squeezing action which forces the
blood out of the ventricles into the arterial system.
• The PR and PQ interval, measured from the beginning of the P wave to the
onset of the R or Q wave respectively, marks the time which an impulse
leaving the SA node takes to reach the ventricles.
• The PR interval normally lies between 0.12 to 0.2 s. The QRS interval, which
represents the time taken by the heart impulse to travel first through the
interventricular system and then through the free walls of the ventricles,
normally varies from 0.05 to 0.10s.
ECG
• The T wave represents repolarization of both ventricles. The QT
interval, therefore, is the period for one complete ventricular
contraction (systole). Ventricular diastole, starting from the end of
the T wave extends to the beginning of the next Q wave. Typical
amplitude of QRS is 1 mV for a normal human heart, when recorded
in lead 1 position.
ECG
Interpretation of ECG
Assignment
• Explain inferior, lateral, septal leads in 12 lead ECG
Assignment
Explain the following figure