Chapter 11

HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
1. At constant pressure the graph between V and T is
(A)Hyperbola (B) straight line (C)ellipse (D)parabola
2. Boltzmann’s constant ‘k’ is given by
R 1 N
(A) (B) (C) A (D) RN A
NA RN A R
3. Which is the average translational kinetic energy of molecules in a gas at temperature 27oC?
(A) 6.211021 J (B) 6.211026 J (C) 6.211023 J (D) 6.211026 J
4. Pressure of the gas depends upon
(A) Only on molecular speed
(B) Only on mass of molecule
(C) Only on number of the molecules in a unit volume
(D) Number of molecules in unit volume, mass and speed of molecules
5. The value of Boltzmann’s constant “k” is:
(A) 1.38×10-24 J K-1 (B) 1.38×10-23J K-1 (C) 1.38×10-23J-1 K-1 (D) 1.38×10-23J K
6. Boyle’s law is applicable at constant:
(A) pressure (B) temperature (C) volume (D) density
7. Charles’ law is applicable at constant:
(A) temperature (B) pressure (C) volume (D) heat
INTERNAL ENERGY
8. In Thermodynamics, the change in the Internal Energy depends upon
(A) The Initial State only
(B) The Final State only
(C) The path taken between these two states
(D) The Initial and Final State
9. If heat enters the system, then internal energy:
(A) remains same (B) decreases (C) increases (D) becomes zero
10. A diatomic gas molecule has:
(A) translational energy (B) rotational energy
(C) vibrational energy (D) all the above
WORK AND HEAT
11. Joule is a unit of
(A) Kinetic energy (B) Potential energy (C) Heat energy (D) All of these
12. In SI unit joule is equal to product of:
(A) mass and volume (B) pressure and volume
(C) pressure and temperature (D) pressure and mass
13. Heat is a form of:
(A) power (B) momentum (C) volume (D) energy
14. Work done is positive if:
(A) work is done by the system (B) work is done on the system
(C) both a & b (D) none of these
15. Work done is negative if:
(A) work is done on the system (B) work is done by the system
(C) both a & b (D) none of these
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
16. Isothermal process is carried out at constant
(A) Volume (B) pressure (C) energy (D) temperature
17. At constant temperature if the volume of given gas is doubled then density of the gas becomes
(A) Double (B)1/4 of original (C) unchanged (D) 1/2 of original
18. Which is not example of adiabatic process
(A) Rapid escape of air from burst tyre (B) rapid expansion of air
(C) Conversion of water into ice in refrigerator (D)cloud formation in the atmosphere
19. The form of the first law of thermodynamics for adiabatic process will be
(A) Q = W (B) Q = -W (C) W = -∆U (D) W = ∆U
20. A process in which no heat enters or leaves the system is called
(A) Isothermal process (B) Adiabatic process
(C) Isochoric process (D) Isobaric process
21. The curve representing an adiabatic process is called an:
(A) Isotherm (B) Adiabat (C) Adiabatic (D) Isothermal
22. Which one is true for an isothermal process?
(A) Q = W (B) Q = 0 (C) W = 0 (D) W = U
23. Which one is true for an isochoric process?
(A) Q = 0 (B) W = 0 (C) U = 0 (D) P = 0
24. Which one is true for an isobaric process?
(A) ΔW = 0 (B) ΔQ=0 (C) ΔP = 0 (D) ΔU = 0
25. Cloud formation in the atmosphere is an example of
(A) Isothermal process (B) Isobaric process
(C) Adiabatic process (D) Isochoric process
26. In isothermal process, internal energy:
(A) increases (B) decreases (C) remains constant (D) may vary
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OF A GAS
27. The amount of heat required to melt 1kg of ice at 00C is called
(A)Heat of vaporization (B) heat capacity (C) heat of fusion (D)none of these
28. The value of ‘’ for diatomic gas is
(A) infinity (B) 1.67 (C) 1.29 (D) 1.40
29. The ratio of Cp/Cv for diatomic gas is
(A) 1.67 (B) 1.50 (C) 1.40 (D) 1.29
3R
30. For monatomic gas Cv  , therefore ‘  ’ for this gas is:
2
3 4 5 15
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 15 3 4
31. The value of universal gas constant “R” is:
(A) 8.312 J mol-1K (B) 8.314 J mol-1K-1 (C) 8.313 J-1 mol-1K-1 (D) 8.134 J mol K-1
32. Cp – Cv = _______
(A) Boltzmann’s constant (B) universal gas constant
(C) Avogadro number (D) no. of moles
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS,HEAT ENGINE
33. In reversible process the entropy
(A) Decreases (B) Increases
(C) remain same (D) initially increases then decreases
34. An ideal reversible heat engine has
(A) 100% efficiency (B) Highest efficiency
(C) Efficiency which depend upon nature of working substance (D) None of these
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNIMC
CARNOT ENGINE AND CARNOT’S THEOREM
35. Efficiency of an ideal engine can only be 100% when
(A) Working substance is highly active and pure (B) working substance is in abundance
(C) Temperature of source is very high (D) temperature of sink is zero K.
36. The most important factor regarding the significance of the Carnot engine is that
(A) It is practically possible (B) its efficiency is 100%
(C) its efficiency is minimum (D) its efficiency is possible maximum
37. One of the following is true for Carnot engine:
 (A)   1 (B)   1 (C)   1 (D) Power is max
38. The efficiency of Carnot engine depends on the
(A) Size of the engine (B) construction of the engine
(C) Temperature of hot and cold reservoirs (D) nature of working substance
39. If the temperature of the sink is decreased, the efficiency of Carnot engine
(A) Decreases (B) Increases
(C) Remains the same (D) First increases and then decreases
40. Heat from a source at a single temperature cannot be converted entirely into work”. This
is:
(A) Clausius statement (B) Kelvin statement
(C) Sadi Carnot statement (D) Germian Hess statement
41. The efficiency of Carnot Engine is independent of the:
(A) temperature of hot reservoirs (B) temperature of cold reservoir
(C) working substance (D) all of the above
42. In Carnot engine each process is:
(A) reversible (B) perfectly reversible
(C) irreversible (D) perfectly irreversible
43. An ideal heat engine can only be 100% efficient of its exhaust temperature is
(A) 100oC (B) 0oC (C) 0 K (D) temperature of hot reservoir
THERODYNAMIC SCALE OF TEMPERATURE
44. The temperature of -2730C on Kelvin scale is
(A) 273 K (B)373K (C) -273K (D) 0K
45. Value of triple point of water is given as:
(A) zero K (B) 100 K (C) 273.16 K (D) 373.16 K
46. The Celsius scale starts from
(A) 32oF (B) 273oK (C) 0oC (D) 373oK
47. Absolute zero corresponds to
(A) -460oF (B) -360oF (C) 0oF (D) 460oF
48. Thermodynamic scale of temperature is independent of:
(A) temperature (B) volume (C) pressure (D) working substance
PETROL ENGINE
49. The efficiency of petrol engine is about
(A)25% – 30% (B)30% – 35% (C) 10% – 30% (D) 35% – 40%
50. The efficiency of diesel engine is about
(A) 25% to 30% (B) 35% to 40% (C) 40% to 50% (D) 50% to 60%
51. The highest efficiency of a heat engine whose lower temperature is at 17 oC and the higher
temperature of 200oC is
(A) 70% (B) 60% (C) 38% (D) 35%
52. Petrol engine is ______ stroke engine.
(A) two (B) three (C) four (D) five
ENTROPY,ENVIORNMENTAL CRISIS AS ENTROPY CRISIS
53. In an irreversible process, there is
(A) a decrease in entropy (B) no change in entropy
(C) an increase in entropy (D) no change of state
54. The change in entropy of a system is given by
Q T 1
(A) s  (B) s  Q  T (C) s  (D) s 
T Q Q  T
55. No entropy change is associated with
(A) Isothermal process (B) Adiabatic process
(C) Isochoric process (D) Boyle’s law
56. The concept of entropy was introduced by Rudolph Clausius in:
(A) 1840 (B) 1856 (C) 1857 (D) 1905
57. Change in entropy of a reversible process is
 (A) Positive (B) Negative (C) Zero (D) Maximum
58. In all natural processes, the entropy of the system
(A) Decreases (B) Increases (C) Remains constant (D) None of these
59. The S.I unit of entropy is
(A) JK-1 (B) J-1K (C) JK (D) J-1K-1
60. The increase in the entropy means the increase in
(A) Disorder (B) Unavailability of useful energy
(C) Randomness (D) All of these

ANSWER KEYS
1 B 16 D 31 B 46 C
2 A 17 D 32 B 47 A
3 A 18 C 33 C 48 D
4 D 19 C 34 B 49 A
5 B 20 B 35 D 50 B
6 B 21 B 36 D 51 C
7 B 22 A 37 B 52 C
8 D 23 B 38 C 53 C
9 C 24 C 39 B 54 A
10 D 25 C 40 B 55 A
11 D 26 C 41 C 56 B
12 D 27 C 42 B 57 C
13 D 28 D 43 C 58 B
14 A 29 C 44 D 59 A
15 A 30 C 45 C 60 D

Short Questions from Topics

Q.1 Define thermodynamics and kinetic theory of gases.
Ans Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with relationships and conversion
between heat and other forms of energy.
Kinetic theory of Gases:
Kinetic theory of gases is a scientific model that describes the behavior of gases based on the
motion of their individual molecules or atom.
Q.2 Describe the relation between temperature and kinetic energy of gas molecules.
Ans Absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly proportional to average translational kinetic
energy of gas molecules.
𝑇 𝛼 < 𝐾. 𝐸 >
Q.3 State Boyle’s law. Draw its 𝑷𝑽 diagram.
Ans It is stated as: Pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume at
constant temperature.
1
Mathematically 𝑃𝛼 𝑉
PV diagram
Q.4 State Charles’s law. Draw its 𝑷𝑽 diagram.
Ans The volume of given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature when the pressure is kept constant.
Mathematically 𝑉𝛼𝑇
𝑃𝑉 diagram
Q.5 Define internal energy.
Ans The sum of all forms of molecular energies such as kinetic and potential energy of a
substance is called internal energy.
Mathematically
Internal Energy = K. Erot + K. Evib + K. Etran + P. E
Q.6 Derive the formula of work done in thermodynamics.
Ans Derivation:
F
P = A
F = PA
W = F∆y
W = PA∆y
W = P∆V (∵ A∆y = ∆V)
Q.7 State first law of thermodynamics.
Ans It is stated as: When heat Q is added to a system, this energy appears as an increase in the internal
energy ∆U stored in the system plus work done W by the system on the surroundings.
Q = ∆U + W
Q.8 Differentiate between isothermal and adiabatic processes with graphs.
Ans
Isothermal Process Adiabatic Process
A process in which the temperature of the A process in which no heat enters or
system remains constant is called leaves the system is called adiabatic
isothermal process. process.

Q.9 Define molar specific heat. What is the difference between molar specific heat at constant
volume and constant pressure?
Ans Molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one
mole of a substance through 1 K.
Molar specific heat at constant volume:
The heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K at constant
volume, is called molar specific heat at constant volume.
QV = CV ∆T
Molar specific heat at constant pressure:
The heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K at constant
pressure, is called molar specific heat at constant pressure.
QP = CP ∆T
Q.10 Differentiate between reversible and irreversible processes.
Ans Reversible Process: A reversible process is one which can be retraced in exactly reverse order,
without producing any change in the surroundings, e.g., process of liquefaction and slow
compression of a gas in cylinder.
Irreversible Process: An irreversible process is one which cannot be retraced in exactly reverse
order, without producing any change in the surroundings, e.g., explosion and rapid processes
involving dissipation of energies.
Q.11 State second law of thermodynamics and heat engine.
Ans Second law of thermodynamics:
It is impossible to make a heat engine which converts all the heat absorbed from a hot
reservoir into work without rejecting any heat to sink. A heat engine is a device which
converts heat energy into mechanical work.

Q.12 What is Carnot theorem and how Carnot engine works on the basis of this theorem?
Ans A Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine that operates on the
reversible Carnot cycle.
Sadi Carnot in 1840 proposed this ideal engine using only
isothermal and adiabatic processes.
i. Isothermal expansion
ii. Adiabatic expansion
iii. Isothermal compression
iv. Adiabatic compression
Q.13 What is the efficiency of Carnot engine?
Ans Efficiency of Carnot engine is the ratio of output (work done) to input (heat supplied). Efficiency
of engine depends on the temperature of hot and cold reservoir.
T
η = 1 − T2
1
T
% η = ( 1 − T2 ) × 100
1
Q.14 State the second law of thermodynamics in terms of Entropy.
Ans It is stated as: If a system undergoes a natural process; it will go in the direction that causes the
entropy of the system plus the environment to increase.
Q.15 Define triple point of water.
Ans The temperature at which a substance can exist in equilibrium in the liquid, solid, and
gaseous states. The triple point of pure water is at 0°C or 273.16 K.
Q.16 How does a Diesel engine work?
Ans No spark plug is needed in diesel engine. Diesel is sprayed into cylinder at maximum compression.
Because air is at very high temperature immediately after compression, the fuel mixture ignites on
contact with the air in the cylinder and pushes the piston outward. Its efficiency is 35% to 40%.
Q.17 What is petrol engine?
Ans A petrol engine is a combustion engine designed to run on petrol. Petrol engine is based on Carnot
engine. It consists of four strokes:
1. Intake stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Power stroke
4. Exhaust stroke
Its efficiency is 25% to 30%.
Q.18 Write the postulates of kinetic theory of gases.
Ans Following are the postulates of kinetic theory of gases:
1. A finite volume of gas consists of very large number of molecules
2. The size of the molecules is much smaller than the separation between the molecules.
3. The gas molecules are in random motion and may change their direction of motion after
every collision.
4. Collision between gas molecules themselves and with the walls of the container are
assumed to be perfectly elastic.
5. Molecules do not exert force on each other except during a collision.
 Exercise Short Questions
Q.1 Why is the average velocity of the molecules in a gas zero but the average of the square of
velocities is not zero?

Ans The gas molecules are in random motion. It is assumed that the same number of molecules move
along +𝑣𝑒 and – 𝑣𝑒 axes. Therefore, average of each component of velocity is zero and hence
average velocity of the molecules in a gas is zero.
v + (−v)
vav = =0
2

But the average of the square of the velocities of the molecules is not zero because it includes
square of negative velocities.
Q.2 Why does the pressure of a gas in a car tyre increase when it is driven through some
distance?
Ans When car is driven through some distance tyre of the car becomes hot due to force of friction
between the road and tyre. This heat is transferred to the gas molecules inside tyre and increases
the translational kinetic energy of the molecules. Since pressure is directly proportional to the
average translational kinetic energy of gas molecules, therefore pressure of the gas in a tyre will
increase. 𝑃 𝛼 < 𝐾. 𝐸 >
Q.3 A system undergoes from state P1 V1 to state P2 V2 as shown in the fig. What will be the
change in internal energy?
Ans The figure shows an isotherm where 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 . It means temperature
remains constant. Hence, the change in internal energy (ΔU) will be zero i.e.,
ΔU = 0
Q.4 Variation of volume by pressure is given in the fig. A gas is taken along the
paths ABCDA, ABCA and A to A. What will be the change in internal
energy?

Ans. In the figures all three paths return to the initial state. Hence, there is no change in internal energy
i.e., ΔU = 0.
Q.5 Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure is greater than specific heat at constant
volume. Why?
Ans In case of specific heat at constant pressure, a part of heat given to the system is used in doing
work on piston and a part of it is used in raising the temperature of the gas. But in case of specific
heat at constant volume all the heat is used in raising the temperature only. Since more heat is
required to raise temperature at constant pressure hence 𝐶𝑝 is greater than 𝐶𝑣 .
Q.6 Give an example of a process in which no heat is transferred to or from the system but the
temperature of the system changes.
Ans In an adiabatic process, no heat is transferred to or from the system. During adiabatic expansion,
work is done by the system and the temperature decreases whereas during adiabatic compression,
work is done on the system and temperature increases.
Q.7 Is it possible to convert internal energy into mechanical energy? Explain with example.
Ans Yes, it is possible to convert internal energy into mechanical energy.
By 1st law of thermodynamics 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
For an adiabatic expansion 𝑄=0
0 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
𝑊 = −∆𝑈
 Hence, in adiabatic expansion, internal energy is converted into mechanical energy or work.
Q.8 Is it possible to construct a heat engine that will not expel heat into the atmosphere?
Ans No, according to 2nd law of thermodynamics, it is not possible to construct a heat engine without
a heat sink or cold body that will not expel heat into the atmosphere.
Q.9 A thermos flask containing milk as a system is shaken rapidly. Does the temperature of milk
rise?
Ans Yes, while shaking the flask, work is being done on the system (milk) which increases the K.E of
the system. Since the temperature is directly proportional to the average translational K.E.
𝑇 𝛼 < 𝐾. 𝐸. >
Hence the temperature of the milk will rise.
Q.10 What happens to the temperature of the room, when an air conditioner is left running on a
table in the middle of the room?
Ans The net temperature of the room will slightly increase. The reason is that heat absorbed from the
room is expelled into the same room. Whereas work done by the compressor produces some heat
that will slightly increase the temperature of the room.
Q.11 Can the mechanical energy be converted completely into heat energy? If so give an
example.
Ans Yes, mechanical energy can be converted completely into heat energy. One common example is
friction. When two surfaces are rubbed against each other, mechanical energy is converted into
heat energy due to frictional forces.
Q.12 Does entropy of a system increase or decrease due to friction?
Ans The change in the entropy is given by the formula:
𝛥𝑄
𝛥𝑆 = 𝑇
Heat produced due to friction is transferred to the surrounding. As it is an irreversible process
therefore entropy of the system will increase.
Q.13 Give an example of a natural process that involves an increase in entropy.
Ans Melting of ice into water:
Melting of ice is a natural process during which heat 𝑄 will be absorbed by the ice from its
surrounding.
𝛥𝑄
Since 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑇
Therefore, 𝑄 is +𝑣𝑒 and entropy increases.
Q.14 An adiabatic change is the one in which
a. No heat is added to or taken out of a system
b. No change of temperature takes place
c. Boyle’s law is applicable
d. Pressure and volume remains constant
Ans Correct answer is (a) No heat is added to or taken out of a system in the adiabatic change.
Q.15 Which one of the following processes is irreversible?
a. Slow compressions of an elastic spring
b. Slow evaporation of a substance in an isolated vessel
c. Slow compression of a gas
d. A chemical explosion
Ans Correct answer is (d) a chemical explosion is an irreversible process.
Q.16 An ideal reversible heat engine has
a. 100 % efficiency
b. Highest efficiency
c. An efficiency, which depends on the nature of working substance
d. None of these.
Ans Correct answer is (b), an ideal reversible heat engine has highest efficiency. From second law of
thermodynamics, a heat engine cannot have 100 % efficiency and is independent of the working
substance.
 LONG QUESTIONS
2 1
Q.1 Define pressure of gas. Prove that P = 3 NO <2 m v2>. OR
On the basis of kinetic theory of gases, prove that pressure of a gas is directly proportional to
average translational K.E. of gas molecules.
Ans Pressure of Gas:
Pressure exerted by a gas is the momentum transferred to the y
walls of the container per second per unit area due to continuous
G B
collision of gas molecules.
Consider a cubical vessel of side ℓ, contains N molecules and
mass of each molecule is m. Let velocity v1 of one of the F A
l
molecules is resolved into three rectangular components v1x, v1y,
v1z parallel to three coordinates axes, x, y, and z respectively. This H C x
molecule strikes the face ABCDA and rebounds with same speed
as collision is perfectly elastic. Its change in momentum is given l
as: E l D
Change in momentum = Final momentum – Initial momentum z
∆p = - mv1x - mv1x
∆p = - 2 mv1x ------------- (1)
After recoil the molecule strikes the opposite face EFGHE, rebounds and travels back to face
ABCDA after covering a distance 2 ℓ. The time ∆t between two successive collisions with face
ABCDA is
2ℓ S
∆t = v ------------------ (2) (∵ S = v t, t = v )
1x
∆p
Rate of change of momentum =
∆t
Putting value of ∆p and ∆t from eq. (1) and (2)
∆p - 2mv1x
Rate of change of momentum = =
∆t 2ℓ
v1x
∆p v1x - mv21x
= -2 mv1x × 2 ℓ =
∆t ℓ
The rate of change of momentum of the molecule is equal to the force applied by the wall (Fwall =
∆p
) . According to Newton’s 3rd law of motion, the force F1x exerted by the molecule on the face
∆t
ABCDA is equal but opposite, so
2
- mv 1x 
F1x = - ℓ 
 
2
mv 1x
F1x = ℓ ------------------ (3)
The total force exerted by N molecules along x-axis is given as
Fx = F1x + F2x + F3x + - - - - - - - + FNx
mv21x mv22x mv23x mv2Nx
Fx = + ℓ + ℓ + - - - - - + ℓ ----------(4)
ℓ
F
As P = A
So pressure on the face perpendicular to x-axis is given as
Fx
Px where A = ℓ x ℓ = ℓ2
=
ℓ2
By putting the value of Fx from eq. (4), the above equation becomes
 1 mv21x mv22x mv23x mv2Nx
Px = ( + + + - - - - - - +
ℓ2 ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ )
m 2 2 2 2
Px = ℓ3 (v 1x + v 2x + v 3x + - - - - + v Nx ) -------------- (5)
As m= mass of one molecule, So N x m = mass of N molecules
mass Nm
Density = where ℓ3 = Volume of vessel
Volume = ℓ3
Nm
 = ℓ3
m 
= putting this value in eq.(5)
ℓ 3
N
 2 2 2 2
Px = N (v 1x + v 2x + v 3x + - - - - - + v Nx )
2 2 2 2
v ix + v 2x + v 3x + - - - - - + v Nx
Px =   
 N 
2 2 2 2
 v ix + v 2x + v 3x + - - - -+ v Nx 2
where   = <vx > = Mean square velocity of N molecules
 N 
moving along x-axis.
2
Px =  <vx > ------------(6)
Similarly, pressure on the faces perpendicular to y and z axes will be
2
Py =  <vy >
2
Pz =  <vz >
Since molecules are moving randomly, so mean square of all the components of velocities will be
equal
2 2 2
<vx > = <vy > = <vz >
From vector addition
2 2 2
< v2> = <vx > + <vy > + <vz >
2 2 2
< v2> = <vx > + <vx > + <vx >
2
< v2> = 3 < vx >
1 2 2
3<v >= < vx >
Putting this value in in eq. (6)
1
Px =  3 <v2>
 2
Px = 3 <v >
By Pascal’s Law, pressure on each side of the container is same when the density of the gas is
uniform. So,

Px = Py = Pz = 3 <v2>
1
In general, P =  <v2>
3
 Nm
Putting  = in the above equation
V
1 mN 2
P = 3 V <v >
Dividing and multiplying above equation by 2 we get
2 N 1 2
P = 3 V <2 mv > ----------------- (7)
2 1
P = NO < m v2>
3 2
N
where No = V = Number of gas molecules per unit volume
1
P = Constant <2 m v2> In kinetic theory of gases, the
rotational and vibrational
2 motion of the gas molecules is
where 3 No = Constant
ignored.
1
P ∝ <2 m v2>
P ∝ <K.E.>
This means pressure of gas is directly proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of
the gas molecules.
Q.2 State 1st law of thermodynamics. Explain isothermal and adiabatic processes.
Ans 1st law of Thermodynamics:
In any thermodynamic process, when heat Q is added to a system, this energy appears as an
increase in the internal energy ∆U stored in the system plus work done W by the system on its
surroundings.
Isothermal process:
It is a process which is carried out at constant temperature and hence P1
the condition for the application of Boyle’s law is fulfilled.
Explanation: Constant
Is
When a gas expands or is compressed isothermally, the product of P ot Temperature
he
its pressure and volume during the process remains constant. rm
Consider a system whose pressure changes from P1 to P2 and volume P2
changes from V1 to V2 during an isothermal process, then
P 1 V1 = P2 V2 V1 V V2
or PV = constant
For an ideal gas P.E of gas molecules is zero. So, internal energy of gas molecules depends only
on the temperature. As in isothermal process temperature remains constant, hence change in
internal energy is zero i.e. ∆U = 0. Applying 1st Law of thermodynamics,
Q = ∆U + W
Q = 0+W
Q = W
Isothermal Expansion:
When gas is allowed to expand at constant temperature, work is done by the system on the
surrounding and this is called isothermal expansion. In this case, heat is supplied to the system in
order to keep the temperature constant.
Q = W
Isothermal Compression:
When gas is compressed at constant temperature then work is done on the system, and this is called
isothermal expansion. In this case, heat is taken out from the system in order to maintain the
temperature.
Q = -W
 Since transfer of heat requires time, hence, to keep the temperature constant, the expansion or
compression of gas must take place slowly.
When pressure is plotted against volume for this process, we get a curve as shown in figure. This
is called an isotherm.
Adiabatic process:
The process in which no heat enters or leaves the system is called the adiabatic process. In this
process entropy of the system remains constant.
Explanation:
As Q = 0
Applying 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Q = ∆U + W
∆U + W = 0
Adiabatic Expansion:
When gas is allowed to expand by decreasing the pressure, the work is done by the system at the
cost of internal energy. Therefore, internal energy of the system decreases. This is called adiabatic
expansion.
W = - ∆U
Adiabatic Compression:
When gas is compressed by increasing the pressure, the work is done on the system.
Therefore, internal energy of the system increases. This is called adiabatic compression.
∆U = - W
Adiabatic change occurs when the gas expands or is compressed rapidly.
Examples:
(i) Rapid escape of air from a burst tyre.
(ii) The rapid expansion and compression of air when sound
waves pass through it.
(iii) Formation of clouds in the atmosphere. P Is
ot
As the temperature of the gas does not remain constant, so Ad he
i a rm
P V = constant ba
t
Cp
where  = C V
v
The curve between P and V for an adiabatic process is called adiabat. It is steeper than an isotherm.
Q.3 Define molar specific heat and prove that Cp  Cv = R.
Ans Molar Specific Heat:
It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a
substance through 1 K. Mathematically,
Q = n C ∆T
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume (CV):
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K at
constant volume.
QV = n CV ∆T
Here, n = 1 mole, so
Constant Constant
QV = CV ∆T ---------- (1)
volume pressure
Using first Law of Thermodynamics
U=C vt  U=Cvt
Q = ∆U + W
Q = ∆U + P ΔV
where W = P ΔV Q=Cv t Q=Cpt
At constant volume, ΔV=0, hence above equation becomes (a) (a)
QV = ∆U + 0
Putting the value of QV from eq. (1) we get,
∆U = CV ∆T ----------- (2)
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (CP):
 It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K at
constant pressure.
QP = n CP ∆T
Here, n = 1,
so QP = CP ∆T -------------- (3)
Using first Law of Thermodynamics
Q = ∆U + W
At constant pressure,
QP = ∆U + P ΔV
Putting the value of QP from eq. (4), above eq. becomes
CP ∆T = ∆U + P ΔV --------- (4)
Derivation of CP-CV = R:
When one mole of a gas is heated at constant pressure and at constant volume, the internal energy
increases by the same amount for the same rise in temperature ∆T. Thus from eq. (2)
∆U = CV ∆T
Putting this value in eq.(4) we get,
Cp ∆T = Cv ∆T + P ∆V -------- (5)
For one mole of a gas, the Ideal gas equation is given by
PV = RT
At constant pressure P, amount of work done by one mole of gas due to expansion ∆V caused by
the rise in temperature ∆T is given as
P ∆V = R ∆T
Putting this value in eq. (5)
Cp ∆T = Cv ∆T + R ∆T
Cp ∆T = (Cv + R) ∆T
Cp = Cv + R
or Cp  Cv = R
It is clear from the above equation that Cp > Cv by an amount equal to R.
Q.4 What is a Carnot engine? Show that efficiency of a Carnot engine depends on the temperature
of hot and cold reservoirs. OR
What is a Carnot heat engine? Derive expression for the efficiency of Carnot engine.
Ans Carnot Engine:
Sadi Carnot in 1840 described an ideal heat engine using only isothermal and adiabatic processes.
He showed that a heat engine operating in an ideal reversible cycle between two heat reservoirs at
different temperatures would be the most efficient engine.
Carnot Cycle:
A Carnot Cycle using an ideal gas as the working substance is shown in PV-diagram. It
consists of following four steps:
1 Isothermal Expansion:
The gas is allowed to expand isothermally at temperature T1, A
absorbing heat Q1 from the hot reservoir. The process is represented Iso t
he rm
by curve AB. B
Adia

2 Adiabatic Expansion:
Ad
ba t

The gas is then allowed to expand adiabatically until its temperature P

iab

D
at

drops to T2. The process is represented by curve BC. Iso

the
3 Isothermal Compression: rm C
The gas at this stage is compressed isothermally at temperature T2 0
V1 V4 V2 V 3
rejecting heat Q2 to the cold reservoir. The process is represented V
by curve CD.
4 Adiabatic Compression:
Finally, the gas is compressed adiabatically to restore its initial state at temperature T1. The process
is represented by curve DA.
 Net work done:
During the complete cycle there is no change in the internal energy i.e. ∆U = 0. The net work
done during one cycle is equal to the area enclosed by the path ABCDA in the PV – diagram.
Heat absorbed = Q1
Heat rejected = Q2
Net heat absorbed = Q = Q1 − Q2
st
From the 1 Law of thermodynamics
Q = ∆U + W
Q1 − Q2 = 0 + W
W = Q1 − Q2
Efficiency (ղ):
The efficiency is defined as
Out put (work)
ղ = Input (work)
W
=
Q1
Q1 - Q2
=
Q1
Q2
ղ = 1 − Q ---------------- (1)
1
As heat Q1 and Q2 is proportional to Kelvin temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.
Q2 T2
Therefore, Q = T . Putting in eq. (1)
1 1 Maximum Efficiency
T2 Greater the temperature difference,
ղ = 1 - T ------------------ (2) greater will be the efficiency.
1
At absolute zero, T2 = 0 K
T2 T2
Percentage Efficiency = (1 - T ) × 100  = 1 - T
1 1
Thus, the efficiency of Carnot engine depends upon the 0
= 1 T = 1
temperatures T1 and T2 and not on the nature of working 1
= 100%
substance.
It means  is 100% when there is no
Carnot’s Theorem: cold reservoir (T = 0 K). It is against 2 nd
Statement: law of thermodynamics so, efficiency
No heat engine can be more efficient than a Carnot engine cannot be 100%. It is always less than
100%.
operating between the same two temperatures.
Extended Carnot’s Theorem:
Statement:
All Carnot engines operating between the same two temperatures have the same efficiency
irrespective of the nature of the working substance.
Q.5 Explain the working of a four-stroke petrol engine in detail. What is the efficiency of a diesel
engine? OR
Explain the working of a typical four stroke petrol engine and compare it with a diesel engine.
Ans Introduction:
Petrol engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy (work). spark plug
va lve
Principle: valv e

It is based on the principle of Carnot cycle.

Construction:
It consists of following main parts:
i. A combustion chamber.
ii. A piston attached to a crankshaft. pis ton
iii. Two inlet valves; one for air and the other for fuel.
iv. A spark plug. cran ks haf t
 Working:
A typical four stroke petrol engine consists of four successive processes in each cycle.
1. Intake Stroke:
The cycle starts on the intake stroke in which piston moves outward and petrol air mixture
is drawn through an inlet valve into the cylinder from the carburetor at atmospheric
pressure.
2. Compression Stroke:
On the compression stroke, the inlet valve is closed, and the mixture is compressed
adiabatically by inward movement of the piston.
3. Power Stroke:
On the power stroke, a spark fires the mixture causing rapid increase in pressure and
temperature. The burning mixture expands adiabatically and forces the piston to move
outward. This stroke delivers power to crankshaft to drive the flywheels.
4. Exhaust Stroke:
On the exhaust stroke, the outlet valve opens. The residual gases are expelled, and piston
moves inward.
The cycle then begins again. Different vehicles have different number of cylinders, but
they are timed to deliver power turn by turn in succession for a smooth running of the
vehicles. The efficiency of a petrol engine is 25% to 30% because of friction and other
heat losses.
Diesel Engine:
Diesel engine is same as that of petrol engine, but no spark plug is needed in it. Diesel is
sprayed into the cylinder at maximum compression. Because air is at very high temperature
immediately after compression, the fuel mixture ignites on contact with the air in the
cylinder and pushes the piston outward.
The efficiency of a diesel engine is about 35% to 40%.
Q.6 Define and explain entropy with an example. Does entropy decrease for reversible process? Why
absolute value of entropy cannot be determined?
Ans Entropy:
Entropy is the measure of disorder of a system. It is denoted by S. OR
The unavailability of heat energy to do useful work is called entropy.
Explanation:
Entropy is a state variable used to describe the state of a system like temperature, pressure,
volume and internal energy. If a system undergoes a reversible process during which it absorbs a
quantity of heat ∆Q at absolute temperature T, then the increase in the entropy (S) of the system
is given by
∆Q
ΔS = T
Like potential energy or internal energy, it is the change in entropy (ΔS) of the system which is
important. Change in entropy is positive when heat is added and negative when heat is removed
from the system.
S.I. Units:
J K-1
2nd law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy:
Statement:
If a system undergoes a natural process, it will go in the direction that causes the entropy of the
system plus the environment to increase.
Proof:
Suppose Q amount of heat flows from a reservoir at temperature T1 through a conducting rod to a
reservoir at temperature T2 and T1> T2. The change in entropy of the reservoir, at T1, which loses
 Q Q
heat, decreases by T and of the reservoir at temperature T2, which gains heat, increases by T .
1 2
Q Q
As T1 > T2, thus T > T .
2 1
Q Q
Hence, net change in entropy = T - T is positive.
2 1
It follows that in natural processes where heat flows from one system to another there is always a
net increase in the entropy. It is observed that a natural process proceeds towards a state of greater
disorder. So, there is a relation between entropy and molecular disorder.
Example:
1. In an irreversible heat flow from hot to cold substance of a system increases disorder because
the molecules are initially sorted out in hotter and cooler regions. This order is lost when the
system comes to thermal equilibrium. Addition of heat to a system increases its disorder
because of the increase in random motion of molecules. Thus, entropy is increased.
2. Free expansion of gas increases its disorder because the molecules have greater randomness of
position after expansion than before. Thus, entropy is increased.
Conclusion:
1. The entropy of a system remains constant for a reversible process.
2. The entropy of a system increases for all irreversible processes.
Absolute value of entropy:
The absolute value of entropy cannot be determined. Entropy is the measure of the degree of
randomness or disorder of a system. It does not have a fixed starting point for measurement (such as a
zero value). It is a sate function i.e. the change in entropy depends upon the initial and final state of the
system and doesn’t depend upon the path through which change occurs. So, entropy can’t be measured
but change in entropy is measurable.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
11.1 Estimate the average speed of nitrogen molecules in air under standard conditions of
pressure and temperature.
Given data:
T = 0°C = 273 K
Avogadro’s No = NA = 6.02 × 1023
Molecular mass of N2 = 28 g = 28 × 10−3 kg
k = 1.38 × 10−23 J K −1
To find:
Average speed of N2 = < v > = ?
Solution:
molecular mass
molar mass = m = N A
28 ×10−3 kg
m = 6.02 × 1023
m = 4.65 × 10−26 kg
2 1
T = 3K 〈2 mv 2 〉
m
T = 3K 〈v 2 〉
3kT
〈v 2 〉 =
m
3 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 273
= 4.65 × 10−26
〈v 2 〉
= 24.32 × 104 m2 s−2
〈v〉 = √24.32 × 104
〈𝐯〉 = 𝟒𝟗𝟑 𝐦 𝐬 −𝟏 Ans.
11.2 Show that ratio of the root mean square speeds of molecules of two different gases at a
certain temperature is equal to the square root of the inverse ratio of their masses.
Given data:
Let Mass of 1st gas = m1
Mass of 2nd gas = m2
velocity of molecules of 1st gas = v1
velocity of molecules of 2nd gas = v2
〈v1 〉
To find: =?
〈v 〉 2
Solution:
According to formula,
2 1
T = 3K 〈2 mv 2 〉
for 1st gas
2 1
T = 3K 〈2 m1 v1 2 〉…………………….(1)
for 2nd gas
2 1
T = 3K 〈2 m2 v2 2 〉………………………(2)
Comparing eq. (1) and (2),
2 1 2 1
〈 m1 v1 2 〉 = 〈 m2 v2 2 〉
3K 2 3K 2
〈m1 v1 2 〉 = 〈m2 v2 2 〉
m1 〈v1 2 〉 = m2 〈v2 2 〉
〈v1 2 〉 m2
〈v2 2 〉
= m1
〈v 2〉 m
√〈v1 2 〉 = √m2
2 1

〈𝐯𝟏 〉 𝒎𝟐
=√ Ans.
〈𝐯𝟐 〉 𝒎𝟏
Hence, it is proved that the root mean square speeds of molecules of two different gases at certain
temperature is equal to the square root of the inverse ratio of their masses.
11.3 A sample of gas is compressed to one half of its initial volume at constant pressure of 1.25×105
N m-2. During the compression, 100 J of work is done on the gas. Determine the final volume
of the gas.
Given data:
Let Initial volume of gas = V1 = V
V
Final volume of gas = V2 = 2
Pressure = P = 1.25 × 105 N m−2
Work = W = − 100 J

To find:
Final volume= V2 = ?
Solution:
W = P (V2 – V1 )
V
= P (2 – V)
−V
= P( 2 )
V
W =  PV2 ( V2 = 2 )
W
V2 =  P
(−100J)
V2 =  1.25 × 105
100
V2 = 1.25 × 105
𝐕𝟐 = 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦𝟑 Ans.
11.4 A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases by
300 J. If at the same time 120 J of work is done on the system, find the heat lost by the system.
Given data:
ΔU = −300 J
W = − 120 J
To find:
Heat lost = Q = ?
Solution:
By first law of thermodynamics,
Q = ΔU + W
= − 300 – 120
𝐐 = − 𝟒𝟐𝟎 𝐉 Ans.
Negative sign indicates that heat is lost by the system.
11.5 A Carnot engine utilizes an ideal gas. The source temperature is 227oC and the sink
temperature is 127oC. Find the efficiency of the engine. Also find the heat input from the
source and heat rejected to the sink when 10000 J of work is done.
Given data:
T1 = 227°C = (227 + 273)K = 500 K
T2 = 127°C = (127 + 273)K = 400 K
W = 10000 J
To find:
(i) η=?
(ii) Q1 = ?
(iii) Q2 = ?
Solution:
(i) According to formula,
T −T
η = 1T 2
1
500−400 100
 = =
500 500
1
 =5
%  = 0.2 × 100 %
%  = 𝟐𝟎 % Ans.
(ii) According to formula
output W
η = input = Q
1
W
η= Q1
W
Q1 = η
10000
Q1 = 0.2
Q1 = 50000 J
𝐐𝟏 = 𝟓. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐉 Ans.
(iii) W = Q1 − Q 2
Q 2 = Q1 − W
Q2 = 50000 − 10000 J
Q2 = 40000 J
𝐐𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐉 Ans.
11.6 A reversible engine works between two temperatures whose difference is 100oC. If it absorbs
746 J of heat from the source and rejects 546 J to the sink, calculate the temperature of the
source and the sink.
Given data:
 T1 − T2 = 100°C = 100 K (Difference of temperature is same in oC and K)
Q1 = 746 J
Q2 = 546 J
To find:
(i) T1 = ?
(ii) T2 = ?
Solution:
(i) According to formula,
T −T
η = 1T 2 ……………….(1)
1
Q1 −Q2
η= ………………….(2)
Q1
from equation (1) and (2)
𝑄 −𝑄
T1 − T2 = ( 1𝑄 2 ) × T1
1
𝑄1
T1 = T1 − T2 × (𝑄 )
1 −𝑄2
746
T1 = 100 × (746−546)
746
T1 = 100 × 200
T1 = 373 K
T1 = (373 – 273)°C
𝐓𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ Ans.
(ii) T1 − T2 = 100°C
T2 = T1 − 100°C
T2 = 100°C − 100°C
𝐓𝟐 = 𝟎°𝐂 Ans.
11.7 A mechanical engineer develops an engine, working between 327oC and 27oC and claim to
have an efficiency of 52%. Does he claim correctly? Explain.
Given data:
T1 = 327°C = (327 + 273)K = 600 K
T2 = 27°C = (27 + 273)K = 300 K
η′ = 52 %
To find:
η=?
Solution:
According to formula,
T −T
η = 1T 2
1
600−300 300
 = =
600 600
1
 =
2
%  = 0.5 × 100 %
%  = 𝟓𝟎% Ans.
Under given temperatures, efficiency is found to be 50%. Hence, the claim of the engineer about
52% efficiency of the engine is not correct.
11.8 A heat engine performs 100 J of work and at the same time rejects 400 J of heat energy to
the cold reservoirs. What is the efficiency of the engine?
Given data:
W = 100 J
Q2 = 400 J
To find:
 η=?
Solution:
W = Q1 − Q 2
Q1 = W + Q 2
Q1 = 100 + 400 J = 500 J
According to formula,
output W
η= =Q
input 1
100 1
 = 500 = 5 = 0.2
 = 0.2 × 100 %
 = 𝟐𝟎% Ans.
11.9 A Carnot engine whose low temperature reservoir is at 7 OC has an efficiency of 50%. It is
desired to increase the efficiency to 70%. By how many degrees the temperature of the source
be increased?
Given data:
Temperature of sink = T2 = (7 + 273) K = 280 K
50 1
Efficiency =  = 50 % = =
100 2
70 7
increased Efficiency =  = 70 % = 100 = 10
To find:
Increase in temperature = T = ?
Solution:
According to formula,
T2
 = 1– T1
1
When  = 2
1 280
= 1–
2 T1
1 T1 −280
=
2 T1
T1 = 2 (T1 – 280)
T1 = 2T1 − 560
2T1− T1 = 560
T1 = 560 K
7
When  = 10
T2
′ = 1 – T′1
7 280
= 1–
10 T′1
7 T′1 −280
=
10 T′1
7T′1 = 10(T′1 – 280)
7T′1 = 10T′1 – 2800
10T′1 − 7T′1 = 2800
3 T′1 = 2800
2800
T′1 = 3
T′1 = 933 K
Increase in temperature of source = T = T′1 – T1
= 933 – 560 K
𝐓 = 𝟑𝟕𝟑 𝐊 𝐨𝐫 𝟑𝟕𝟑°𝐂 Ans.
11.10 A steam engine has a boiler that operates at 450 K. The heat changes water to steam, which
drives the piston. The exhaust temperature of the outside air is about 300 K. What is
maximum efficiency of this steam engine?
Given data:
T1 = 450 K
T2 = 300 K
To find:
 =?
Solution:
According to formula,
T −T
η = 1T 2
1
450−300 150
 = =
450 450
1
= 3 = 0.33
= 0.33 × 100 %
𝛈 = 𝟑𝟑 % Ans.
11.11 336 J of energy is required to melt 1 g of ice at 0oC. What is the change in entropy of 30 g of
water at 0oC as it is changed to ice at 0oC by a refrigerator?
Given data:
Mass of water = m = 30 g
Latent heat of fusion of ice = Lf = 336 Jg −1
T = 0°C = 273 K
To find:
ΔS =?
Solution:
ΔQ = −mLf
ΔQ = −30 × 336
ΔQ = −10080 J
ΔQ
ΔS = T
−10080
ΔS = 273
𝚫𝐒 = − 𝟑𝟔. 𝟗 𝐉 𝐊 −𝟏 Ans.