Chapter One

1. History and Background

Urea was first discovered in urine in 1727 by Dutch scientist Herman Boer have, though this
discovery is often attributed to the French chemist Hilaire Rouelle. In 1828, the German
chemist Friedrich Wöhler obtained urea by treating silver iso cyanate with ammonium
chloride.
AgNCO + NH4CL → (NH2)2CO + AgCl
Urea is an organic compound with the chemical formula (NH2)2CO. Urea is also
known by the international nonproprietary name (INN) carbamide, as established by the
world health organization. Other names include carbamide resin, iso-urea, carbonyl diamide,
and carbonyldiamine. Urea is a white odorless solid. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with
water (up to six hydrogen bonds may form - two from the oxygen atom and one from each
hydrogen urea is very soluble.
Urea is a white odorless solid. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with water (up to six
hydrogen bonds may form - two from the oxygen atom and one from each hydrogen urea is
very soluble.
Urea is a white odorless solid. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with water (up to six
hydrogen bonds may form - two from the oxygen atom and one from each hydrogen urea is
very soluble. More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a nitrogen
release fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in
common use. Therefore, it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient.
Urea is also used in many multi component solid fertilizer formulations. Urea is highly
soluble in water and is, therefore, also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions (in
combination with ammonium nitrate). For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills
because of their narrower particle size distribution, which is an advantage for mechanical
application. The main source of raw material of urea production is coal. It is the largest
source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest
worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases.
Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, either underground by shaft mining or at
ground level by open pit mining extraction.

1.2 Problem statement

In our country almost all people depends on agricultural production. During the season of
agriculture the use of urea is very high for obtaining of good products. Since there is no urea
plant in our country, it is imported by high amount of cost. Before six years the p rice of urea
was medium, but in the recent times the price of urea increasing highly with the increase of
its necessity for agricultural purpose. The problem in this area is the shortage of the product
and its availability. Therefore, to decrease such problem urea plant must be erected by using
raw material coal which available in our country. This implies reducing of importing cost
from foreign countries and decreases unemployment.
1.3 Objectives
General Objectives
The general objective of this project is to produce urea with required quantity and quality
from available raw material mainly coal, to fill the gap between low supply and high demand
of the product which increases the capital of the country.
Specific Objective
 To determine the exact size of the plant that can balance supply and demand or at
least reduce the shortage (suggestion of process technology)
 the market and demand study (economic evaluation)
 To determine the financial feasibility of the process plant.
1.4 Introduction
Urea (carbamide) is an organic compound with the chemical formula CO (NH 2)2. The
molecule has two –NH2 group joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group. Urea serves an
important role in the metabolism of nitrogen- containing compounds by animals and is the
main nitrogen- containing substance in the urea of mammals. This project covers process
used coal to synthesize ammonia from syngas and air, and then synthesize urea from this
ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Urea is used most popularly as a fertilizer due to its high levels of nitrogen. The nitrogen
makes the urea water-soluble and easy to mix in soil. It is best used during the cold weather
for sod and winter wheat, and best if applied before it rains. The rain helps mix the urea with
the soil. This project also contains the amount of the material flow, energy flow across
equipment, sizing of equipment and cost analysis.
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Coal can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H 2)
gas. This syngas can then be converted into transportation fuels, such as gasoline and diesel,
through the fischer-tropsch process. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification
can be used for various purposes, such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia,
or upgrading fossil fuels. During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam while
also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize
the coal into carbon monoxide (CO), while also releasing hydrogen gas (H 2). This process has
been conducted in both underground coal mines and in the production of town gas.
C (as coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + CO
If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas
shift reaction, where more hydrogen is liberated.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
By using the treated and purified gas (H 2) from coal gasification combined with nitrogen
(N2) obtained from air separation unit to synthesize ammonia i.e.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Ammonia, NH3, is a comparatively stable, colorless gas at ordinary temperatures, with a
boiling point of –33℃ . Ammonia gas is lighter than air, with a density of approximately 0.6
times that of air at the same temperature. The characteristic pungent odors of ammonia can be
detected as low as 1-5ppm. Ammonia can be highly toxic to a wide range of organisms.
CO2 is an odorless and colorless gas which contains 0.03% in the atmosphere. It is emitted as
a pollutant from number of industries. CO2 can be obtained from a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen (syngas).
Urea is commercially produced from two raw materials, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. Large
quantities of carbon dioxide are produced during the manufacture of ammonia from coal or
from hydrocarbons such as natural gas and petroleum-derived raw materials. This allows
direct synthesis of urea from these raw materials. The production of urea from ammonia and
carbon dioxide takes place in an equilibrium reaction, with incomplete conversion of the
reactants. Two principal reactions take place in the formation of urea from ammonia and
carbon dioxide.
The first reaction is exothermic:
2 NH3 + CO2 ↔ H2N-COONH4 (ammonium carbamate)
Whereas the second reaction is endothermic:
H2N-COONH4 ↔ (NH2)2CO + H2O
Both reactions combined are exothermic.
Material and Methods
The urea production process takes place through the following main operations:
1) Produce syngas
2) Synthesize ammonia
3) Urea synthesis and high pressure recovery.
4) Urea purification and low pressure recovery
5) Urea concentration.
6) Urea prilling.
 Coal preparation
Dried, pulverized coal is fed to the pressurized gasifier unit through a system of lock hoppers.
The coal feed fluidizes as it enters the gasifier.
 Air separation unit
Air separation unit (ASU) supplies pure O 2 to the gasifier and pure gaseous N 2 to the
ammonia synthesis loop.
 Coal gasification in gasifier
Partially dried, pulverized coal, oxygen and steam are fed to the gasifier, coal gasification
reactions take place in the resulting fluidized bed operating in the high velocity, ‘transport
regime’. Steam is added to the gasifier, both as a reactant and as a moderator to control the
reaction temperature at about 980℃ .
 Syngas saturation and sour shift
To maximize the production of H2 for making ammonia, carbon monoxide is reacted with
steam catalytically in a water gas shift reactor to form CO2 and H2.
 Heat recovery and mercury removal
Shift effluent is cooled and syngas free of condensate is passed through a mercury removal
guard bed of activated carbon.
 Acid gas removal unit (AGRU)
The bulk of the acid gases in syngas are removed in the acid gas removal unit (AGRU). After
sulfur polishing, the recovered CO2 can be sent to a urea plant. Refrigeration load for the
AGRU is provided by the ammonia refrigeration compressor.
 Sulfur removal unit (SRU)
Elemental sulfur can be recovered from the h 2s stream from the overhead of solvent stripper
in a sulfur recovery unit (SRU) by a suitable catalytic sulfur removal process.
 Nitrogen wash / PSA
Syngas leaving the AGRU is sent to nitrogen wash or pressure swing adsorption (PSA) unit
to recover hydrogen at more than 99.5% mol purity.
 Gas processing
The remaining components in the syngas, along with the unrecovered hydrogen, concentrate
in the tail gas leaving the PSA unit and then sent to air transfer reformer (ATR) for
reforming. The hydrogen from the PSA unit is mixed with high purity nitrogen from the ASU
in a 3:1 molar ratio.
 Ammonia Synloop
The mixed synthesis gas is compressed in a syngas compressor, and recycles gas from
synthesis loop primary separator mixes with the make-up syngas. Ammonia is produced from
the mixed gas in a fixed bed converter filled with iron promoted catalyst. Ammonia is
condensed from the converter effluent stream by chilling with ammonia refrigerant at two
levels and the ammonia vapors from refrigeration levels are compressed further. The
compressed ammonia is condensed and goes through warm section of the refrigerant receiver.
Under normal conditions, the plant produces all – warm ammonia product.
3) Urea synthesis and high pressure recovery
Urea is synthesized from liquid ammonia and gaseous carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
drawn from battery limits at about 1.6atm.pressure and about 40°c temperature is compressed
in a centrifugal compressor up to 162 atm. A small quantity of air is added to the co 2
compressor suction in order to passivate the stainless steel surfaces. Thus protect them from
corrosion due to both, the reagent and the reaction product.
The liquid ammonia coming directly from battery limits is collected in the ammonia receiver
tank from where it is drawn to and compessed at about 23atm. Pressure by means of
centrifugal pump. Part of this ammonia is sent to medium pressure absorber and remaining
part enters the high pressure synthesis loop. The nh3 of this synthesis loop is compressed to a
pressure of about 240atm. Before entering the reactor it is used as a driving fluid in the
carbamate ejector, where the carbamate coming from carbamate separator is compressed up
to synthesis pressure. The liquid mixture of ammonia and carbamate enters the reactor where
it reacts with compressed CO2.
In the reactor the nh3 and gaseous co2 react to form ammonium carbamate, a portion of which
dehydrates to form urea and water. The fraction of carbamate that dehydrates is determined
by the ratios of various reactants, operating temp, the residence time in the reactor and
reaction pressure. The mole ratio of NH3 / CO2 is around 2:1; the mole ratio of water to CO2
is around 0.67: 1.
2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) ↔ NH2COONH4 (s); exothermic
NH2COONH4 (s) ↔ NH2CONH2 (s) + H2O (l); endothermic
In the synthesis conditions (t= 190°c, p= 154 atm), the 1 st reaction occurs rapidly and is
completed. The 2nd reaction occurs slowly and determines the reactor volume.
Urea reactor is a plug flow type with 10 numbers of sieve trays to avoid back mixing and to
avoid escape of gaseous CO2 which must react in the lower part of the reactor. Stage wise
decomposition is carried out to reduce water carry over to the reactor which could adversely
affect conversion.
Urea solution containing urea, carbamate, H 2O and unconverted co2 and nh3 enters the high
pressure stripper where the pressure is same as that of the reactor. The mixture is heated as it
flows down the falling film exchangers. The CO 2 content of the solution is reduced by the
stripping action of nh3 as it boils out of the solution. The carbamate decomposition heat is
supplied by 24 atm. Steam. The overhead gases from stripper and the recovered solution from
the mp absorber, all flow to the high pressure carbamate condenser through mixer, where
total mixture, except for a few inert is condensed and recycled to the reactor by means of
carbamate ejector. Condensing the gases at high temperature and pressure permits the
recovery of condensation heat in the production of steam at 4.5 atm in the high pressure
carbamate condenser.
From the top of the carbamate separator the incondensable gases come out consisting of inert
and a little quantity of NH3 and CO2 unreacted in the condenser. These are sent to the bottom
of MP decomposer.
4) Urea purification and low pressure recovery
Urea purification takes place in two stages at decreasing pressure as follows:
1st stage at 18 atm pressure, i.e., MP decomposer
2nd stage at 4.5 atm pressure, i.e., LP decomposer
1st stage purification and recovery stage at 18 atm:
It is falling film type mp decomposer. It is divided into 2 parts: top separator, where the
released flash gases, the solution enters the tube bundle and decomposition section where the
residual carbamate is decomposed & required heat is supplied by means of 24atm steam
condensate flowing out of the stripper.
2nd purification and recovery stage at 4.5 atm:
The solution leaving the bottom of mp decomposer is expanded at 4.5 atm pressure and enters
the LP decomposer (falling film type). This is again divided in to two parts: top separator
where the released flash gases are removed before the solution enters the tube bundle.
Decomposition section where the last residual carbamate is decomposed and the required heat
is supplied by means of steam saturated at 4.5 atm.
5) Urea concentration
Next section is urea concentration and objective is to reduce water content of urea to as low
as 1%. For the purpose a vacuum concentrator in two stages is provided. The solution leaving
the LP decomposer bottom with about 72% urea is sent to the 1 st vacuum concentrator
operating at a pressure of 0.23 atm. The mixed phase coming out enters the gas liquid
separator, wherefrom the vapours are extracted by the 1 st vacuum system, while the solution
enters the 2nd vacuum concentrator operating at a pressure of 0.03 atm.
The two concentrators are fed by saturated steam at 4.5 atm. The mixed phase coming out
enters the gas liquid separator, where from the vapours are extracted by the 2 nd vacuum
system.
6) Urea prilling
The molten urea leaving the 2nd vacuum separator is sent to the prilling bucket by means of a
centrifugal pump. The urea coming out of the bucket in the form of drops fall along the
prilling tower and encounters a cold air flow which causes its solidification. The solid prills
falling to the bottom of the prilling tower are sent through the screeners to retain lumps only,
and then to belt conveyor which carries the product to the automatic weighing machine and to
the urea storage sections. Urea lumps by the means of belt conveyor are recycled to the
underground tank, where they are dissolved.
Process description
Process block diagram (PBD)

Fig. process block diagram for urea production from coal

Process flow diagram

7 Materials and Energy Balance

Urea 1000 kg/hr of 98 % purity
No. Of working days: 330
Composition of the final product:
Urea: 98 % (980 kg/hr)
Biuret: 1 % (10 kg/hr)
Water: 1 % (10 kg/hr)
Assumption: overall conversion to urea is assumed to be 95 %.
Main reactions:
4C (as coal) + O2 + 2H2O → 2 H2 + 4 CO
(12kg/kmol) (32kg/kmol) (18kg/kmol) (2kg/kmol) (28kg/kmol)
 2) CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
(44kg/kmol)
3) N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
(28kg/kmol) (6kg/kmol) (34kg/kmol)
4) CO2 + 2NH3 ↔ NH2COONH4
(78kg/kmol)
5) NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O
(60kg/kmol)
6) CO2 + 2NH3 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O (overall reaction)
Side reaction:
7) 2NH2CONH2 ↔ NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
(103kg/kmol)
3.1 material balances
12 okg/kmol
10kg/hr of Biuret produced by = ( ¿ *10kg/hr = 11.65kg/hr of urea (reaction 7).
103 kg/kmol
So, urea produced by reaction (5) = 1000kg/hr + 11.65kg/hr = 1011.65 kg/hr
34 kg /kmol
1011.65 kg/hr of urea produced by = ( )*1011.65kg/hr = 573.27 kg/hr nh3
60 kg /kmol
6 kg /kmol
573.27kg/hr of nh3 produced by = ( )*573.27kg/hr = 101.16kg/hr h2
34 kg /kmol
44 kg/kmol
Similarly, co2 reacted in reaction (4) = ( )*1011.65kg/hr = 741.87 kg/hr
60 kg /kmol
28 kg /kmol
CO reacted in reaction (2) = ( )*741.87kg/hr = 472.10kg/hr
44 kg/kmol
12 kg/kmol
C (as coal) reacted in reaction (1) = ( )*472.10kg/hr = 202.32kg/hr
28 kg/ kmol
Assuming 95 % conversion we get
202.32 kg/hr
C actually required = = 212.97kg/hr
0.95
472.10 kg /hr
CO actually required = = 496.94kg/hr
0. 95
101.16 kg /hr
H2 actually required = = 106.49kg/hr
0.95
573.27 kg /hr
NH3 actually required = = 603.44 kg/hr
0.95
741.87 kg /hr
CO2 actually required = = 780.92kg/hr
0.95
Now, considering reaction (7):
If reaction (6) is 100 % complete then,
60 kg /hr
Urea produced = ( )*780.92kg/hr = 1064.89 kg/hr
44 kg/hr
But, for 95 % conversion
Urea produced = 0.95*1064.89kg/hr = 1011.65 kg/hr
Therefore, urea converted to Biuret and NH3 = 1011.65kg/hr – 1000kg/hr = 11.65 kg/hr
So, from reaction (7)
103 kg/kmol
Biuret produced = ( ¿ *11.65kg/hr = 9.99 kg/hr
120 kg/kmol
18 kh/kmol
Water produced in reaction (5) = ( *1011.65kg/hr = 303.50 kg/hr
60 kg /kmol
At reactor the exit (urea = 34 %)
1000 kg/hr
Flow rate of stream = = 2941.18 kg/hr
0.34
34 kg /kmol
Nh3 reacted in reaction (4) = ( )*1011.65kg/hr = 573.27 kg/hr
60 kg /kmol
17 kg/ kmol
NH3 produced in reaction (7) = ( )*11.65kg/hr = 1.65kg/hr
120 kg/kmol
So, nh3 unreacted = 603.44kg/hr – 573.27kg/hr + 1.65kg/hr = 31.82 kg/hr
44 kg/kmol
Co2 reacted in reaction (4) = ( )*1011.65kg/hr = 741.87 kg/hr
60 kg /kmol
Therefore, co2 unreacted = (780.92 – 741.87) kg/hr = 39.05 kg/hr
Now,
Flow rate of stream at reactor’s exit – (flow rate of urea+co2+nh3+water+biuret) =
Flow rate of carbamate
2941.18- (1000 + 39.05 + 31.82 +303.50 + 9.99) = 1556.82 kg/hr
Total output mass flow rate = (31.82+39.05+1000+1556.82+303.50+9.99)kg/hr = 2941.18
kg/hr
Percentage composition at exit reactor:
31.82 kg/hr
%NH3 = *100 = 1.10%
2941.18 kg/hr
39.05 kg/hr
%CO2 = *100 = 1.32%
2941.18 kg/hr
The remaining percentage composition of the outputs are listed in table 3
Table 3.1 flow of material across reactor

input output
Material flow rate (kg/hr) % material flow rate kg/hr
%
Feed unreacted

NH3 (liq) 603.44 43.59 NH 3(liq) 31.82

1.08
CO2 (g) 780.92 56.41 CO 2 39.05
1.32
Total 1384.36 100

Recycle
1556.82 100 products
Carbama
te
urea 1000
 34
water 303.50
10.32
Biuret 9.99
0.34
carbamate 1556.82
52.92
Total 2941.18 100 2941.18
100

At entrained flow reactor the exit (CO2 = 100%)

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (reaction 2)
780.92 kg/hr
Flow rate of stream = = 780.92kg/hr
1
28 kg /kmol
CO reacted in reaction (2) = ( )*780.92kg/hr = 496.95kg/hr
44 kg/kmol
18 kg /kmol
H2O reacted in reaction (2) = ( ¿*780.92kg/hr = 319.46kg/hr
44 kg/kmol
Input flow rate = output flow rate
ṁCO +ṁH2O = ṁCO2 + ṁH2
496.95kg/hr + 319.46kg/hr = 780.92kg/hr + ṁH2
ṁH2 = 35.49kg/hr
Total input = 816.41kg/hr
496.95 kg /hr
%CO = ( )*100 = 60.87%
816.41 kg /hr

%H2O =¿)*100 = 39.13%

 at fluidized bed reactor

4C +O2 + 2H2O → 2H2 + 4CO

48 kg/kmol
C reacted in reaction 1 = ( )*CO actually required
112 kg /kmol
48 kg/kmol
= *496.95kg/hr
112 kg /kmol

= 212.98kg/hr

H2 (treated in reaction 1) = H2 actually required – H2 treated in reaction 2

= (106.49 – 35.49) kg/hr = 71kg/hr

36 kg /kmol
H2O reacted in reaction 1 = *CO (actually required)
112 kg /kmol
36 kg /kmol
= *496.95kg/hr
112 kg /kmol

= 159.73kg/hr

ṁ input = ṁ output
ṁCO +ṁO2 +ṁH2O = ṁCO +ṁH2

212.98kg/hr +ṁO2 + 159.73 kg/hr = (496.95+ 71) kg/hr

ṁO2 = 195.24kg/hr
Total input = (212.98+159.73+195.24)kg/hr = 567.95kg/hr
212.98 kg/hr
%C = *100 = 37.50%
567.95 kg/hr

159.73 kg/hr
%H2O = *100 = 28.1%
567.95 kg/hr

195.24 kg /hr
%O2 = *100 = 34.4%
567.95 kg /hr

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 (reaction 3)

 H2 actually required = 106.49kg/hr
 NH3 produced at reaction 3 = 603.44kg/hr
ṁN2 + ṁH2 = ṁNH3
ṁN2 +106.49kg/hr = 603.44kg/hr
ṁN2 = (603.44- 106.49) kg/hr = 496.95kg/hr

 Stripper
 Fig 3.4 Flow of material across stripper

Since, no reaction takes place in the stripper & only carbamate gets recycled back to the reactor. Therefore,
the amount of ammonia, carbon dioxide, water and Biuret in the outlet stream of stripper will be same as it
was in the inlet stream.
At top product mass flow rate:
Carbamate = 1556.82kg/hr
%carbamate = 100 (recycled)
At bottom product total mass flow rate = (31.83+39.05+1000+303.50+9.99) kg/hr
=1384.37 kg/hr
 Medium Pressure Separator (MPS)
50 % of ammonia and carbon dioxide are assumed to escape from the top of the separator and rest goes with
the bottom product. Amount of water and Biuret remains constant as no reaction takes place.
 Fig.3.3 Flow of material across medium pressure separator.
The total input is = 1384.37kg/hr
Input percentage:
%NH3 =¿)*100% = 2.3%
%CO2 =¿)*100% = 2.8%
303.50 kg /hr
%H2O = *100% = 22%
1384.37 kg /hr
9.99 kg /hr
%Biuret = *100% =0.7%
1384.37 kg /hr
Output percentage: (Total output = 1348.93kg/hr)
15.915 kg/hr
%NH3 = ( )*100 = 1.2%
1348.93 kg/hr
%CO2 =¿)*100 = 1.4%
The remaining ones are listed in table 3.3
Losses percentage: (Total loss = 35.44kg/hr)
15.915 kg/hr
%NH3 = ( )*100 = 45%
35.44 kg /hr
19.525 kg/hr
%CO2 = ( )*100 = 55%
35.44 kg /hr
 INPUT OUTPUT
Material Flow rate (kg/hr) % Material Flow rate (kg/hr) %
NH3 31.83 2.3 NH3 15.915 1.2
CO2 39.05 2.8 CO2 19.525 1.5
Urea 1000 72.2 Urea 1000 74.1
H2O 303.50 22.0 H2O 303.05 22.5
Biuret 9.99 0.7 Biuret 9.99 0.7
Total 1348.93 100
Losses
45
NH3 15.915
55
CO2 19.525

Total 1384.37 100 35.44 100

Table 3.3 Flow of material across medium pressure separator
 Low Pressure Separator (LPS)
Remaining ammonia and carbon dioxide are assumed to escape from top.

Total input = (15.915+19.525+1000+303.50+9.99) kg/hr = 1348.93kg/hr

Percentage of input:
15.915 kg/hr
%NH3 = ( )*100 =1.2%
1348.93 kg/hr
19.525 kg/hr
%CO2 = ( )*100 = 1.5%
1348.93 kg/hr
The remain are listed in the below table
Total output = (1000+303.50+9.99)kg/hr = 1313.49kg/hr
Percentage of output:
1000 kg/hr
%urea = *100%= 76.13%
1313.49 kg/hr
303.50 kg/hr
%H2O = *100% = 23.11%
1313.49 kg/hr
9.99 kg/hr
% Biuret = *100% =0.76%
1313.49 kg/hr

INPUT OUTPUT
Material Flow rate (kg/hr) % Material Flow rate (kg/hr) %
NH3 31.83 2.3 Urea 1000
76.13
CO2 39.05 2.8 H 2O 303.50
23.11
Urea 1000 72.2 Biuret 9.99
0.76
H2O 303.50 22.0 Total 1313.49
100
Biuret 9.99 0.7 Losses
NH 3 15.915
45
CO 2 19.525
55
Total 1384.37 100 35.44
100
  Vacuum Evaporator

Let x and y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) respectively.
x= 0.7613 (76.13 %)
y= 0.9788 (97.88%)
Making urea balance:
F*x = P*y
1313.49*0.7613 = P*0.9788
P = 1021.62kg/hr
Overall material balance gives;
F = P + E; E= Evaporator
1313.49 – 1021.62 = E
E = 291.87kg/hr
H2O = (303.50 – 291.87) kg/hr
H2O = 11.63kg/hr
Total input = (1000 + 303.50 + 9.99) kg/hr
= 1313.49kg/hr
Percentage of input;
1000 kg/hr
%Urea = *100% = 76.13%
1313.49 kg/hr
303.5 kg/hr
% H2O = *100% = 23.11%
1313.49 kg/hr
9.99 kg/hr
%Biuret = *100% = 0.76%
1313.49 kg/hr
 Total output = (1000 + 11.63 + 9.99) kg/hr
= 1021.62kg/hr
Percentage of output;
1000 kg/hr
%Urea = *100% = 91.64%
1091.28 kg/hr
81.29 kg/hr
%H2O = *100% = 7.45%
1091.28 kg/hr
9.99 kg /hr
%Biuret = *100% = 0.91%
1091.28 kg/hr
Percentage of losses;
291.87 kg /hr
%H2O = *100% = 100%
291.87 kg /hr
 Prilling Tower

Let x and y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) respectively
x= 0.9788 (97.88 %)
y= 0.9796 (97.96 %)
Making urea balance:
F*x = P*y
1021.62*0.9788 = P*0.9796
P = 1020.79kg/hr
Overall material balance gives;
F = P + E; E= Evaporator
 1021.62 = 1020.79 + E
E = (1021.62 – 1020.79) kg/hr
= 0.83kg/hr
Total input = (1000 + 11.63 + 9.99) kg/hr
= 1021.62kg/hr
1000 kg/hr
%Urea = *100% = 97.88%
1021.62 kg/hr
11.63kg /hr
% H2O = *100% = 1.14%
1021.62 kg/hr
9.99 kg/hr
%Biuret = *100% = 0.98%
1021.62 kg/hr
Total output = (10.80 + 1000 + 9.99) kg/hr
= 1020.79kg/hr
1000 kg/hr
% Urea = *100% = 97.96%
1020.79 kg/hr
10.80 kg/hr
% H2O = *100% = 1.06%
1020.79 kg/hr
9.99 kg/hr
%Biuret = *100% = 0.98%
1020.79 kg/hr
Total lose (H2O = 0.83 kg/hr)
%H2O = 100%
3.2 Energy Balance

Inlet stream
Material specific heat at 500℃
C = 0.314kj/kg.℃
H2O = 2137kj/kg.k = 2.76kj/kg.℃
O2 = 1048kj/kg.k = 1.356kj/kg.℃
heat input = ṁcp∆ t
C= 212.98kg/hr × 0.314kj/kg.℃ ×500℃ = 14269.66kj/hr
H2O: 159.73kg/hr×2.76kj/kg.℃ ×500℃ = 220427.4kj/hr
O2 = 195.24kg/hr ×1.356kj/kg.℃ ×500℃ = 132372.72kj/hr
Total heat input = 367069.79kj/hr
Outlet stream
Material specific heat at 980℃
co = 1222.36kj/kg.k = 0.976kj/kg.℃
H2 = 15540.04kj/kg.k = 12.402kj/kg.℃
Flow rates (kmol/hr): co = 17.75kmol/hr
h2 = 35.5kmol/hr
total flow rates = 53.25kmol/hr
Mol fractions (xi): co = 0.33
h2 = 0.67
cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi = 0.33*0.976+0.67*12.402 = 8.63kj/kg.℃
So, heat carried by outlet stream = ṁcp∆ t
= 567.95kg/hr*8.63kj/kg.℃ *980℃
= 4803380.33kj/hr
energy balance at reactor
Inlet stream
Material specific heat at 40℃
NH3 = 2.219kJ/kg℃
CO2 = 0.9211kJ/kg ℃
Specific heat at 180oC
Carbamate = 2.596kJ/kg℃
Heat input ṁCP∆ t
NH3: 603.44kg/hr x 2.219kJ/kg℃ x 40℃ = 53561.33kJ/hr
CO2: 780.92kg/hr x 0.9211kJ/kg℃ x 40℃ = 28772.2kJ/hr
Carbamate: 1556.82kg/hr x 2.596kJ/kg℃ x180℃ = 727470.85kJ/hr
Total Heat input = 0.8098×106kJ/hr
∆ HR = -0.013 x 107kJ/kmol of Urea formed.
Amount of urea formed during the reaction = 16.67kmol/hr
∆ HR = 16.67 x 0.013 x 107kJ/hr
= 2.1671×106kJ/hr
Outlet stream
Material specific heat at 180oC mol fractions (x) Flow rate (kmol/hr)
NH3 39.15 kJ/kmol℃ 0.034 1.87
CO2 42.37 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.016 0.89
Carbamate 202.49 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.354 19.96
Urea 121.32 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.295 16.67
Water 75.37 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.299 16.86
Biuret 183.8 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.002 0.097
Total = 56.347
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, CP= (0.034 x 39.15 + 0.016 x 42.37 + 0.295 x 121.32 + 0.354 x 202.49 + 0.002 x183.8 + 0.299 x 75.37)
kJ/kmol℃
Cp = 132.387kJ/kmol℃
So, heat carried by outlet stream = ṁCp∆ t
= 56.347kmol/hr x 132.387kJ/kmol℃ x 180℃
= 1.343x106kJ/hr
Heat input + ∆ HR - Heat output = rate of accumulation
(0.8098×106 + 2.1671x106- 1.343x106) kJ/hr = rate of accumulation
Rate of accumulation = 1.6339x106kJ/hr
Assumption: Cooling water at 25℃ is used to remove heat from the reactor. The outlet is steam at an
absolute pressure of 4.5 bar (Ts = 147.9℃ ). λ = 2120.6kJ/kg and Cp = 4.187kJ/kg℃
So, heat gained by cooling water = 1.6339 x106 kJ/hr
ṁCp∆ t +ṁλ= 1.6339x106 kJ/hr
ṁ ( 4.187 x (147.9-25) + 2120.6) = 1.6339x106 kJ/hr
ṁ = 620.03kg/hr

Total heat input = 1.343 x106 kJ/hr

Outlet stream
1) Liquid
Material specific heat at [185℃ ] mol fractions (x) Flow rate (Kmol/hr)
NH3 41.31 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.05 1.87
CO2 44.22 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.02 0.89
Urea 135.3 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.46 16.67
Water 75.37 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.46 16.86
Biuret 183.8 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.003 0.10
Total = 36.39
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
 Cp = 0.05 x 41.31 + 0.02 x 44.22 + 0.46 x 135.3 + 0.003 x 183.8 + 0.46 x 75.37 =100.81 kJ/kmol℃
 heat carried by outlet stream = ṁCp∆ t
 = 36.39kmol/hr x 100.41kJ/kmol℃ x185℃
= 0.675975x106kJ/hr

2) Vapour stream: Ammonium carbamate

Material specific heat at [185℃ ] Flow rate (Kmol/hr)
Carbamate 202.49 kJ/kmol℃ 19.96
For carbamate λ = 210 kJ/kg
So, heat carried by carbamate = ṁCP∆ t +ṁλ
= 19.96kmol/hr x202.49kJ/kmol℃ x185℃ +1556.82kg/hrx210kJ/kg

Heat carried by carbamate = 1.074647×106 kJ/hr

Here, steam at 24 atm is used (TS = 221.8℃ ).
λ of steam =1855.3 kJ/kg
Heat supplied by steam = Heat output – Heat input
= (1.074647 +0.675975–1.343) x106kJ/hr
ṁλ = 0.407622×106kJ/hr
407622 kJ /hr
ṁ= = 219.71kg/hr
1855.3 kJ /kg
Carbamate condenser

Energy balance
ṁvλv = ṁsCp (Ts -25) +ṁsλs

4.187 kJ
1556.82kg/hr x 210kJ/kg = ṁS ⌊ (147.9−25)℃ +2120.6 kJ /kg ⌋ (where λs =2120.6 kJ/kg)
kg ℃
  ṁS = 124.06kg/hr
 Medium pressure separator

Fig. Energy flow across medium pressure separator

Heat input = 0.675975x106 kJ/hr
1) Liquid
Outlet stream
Material specific heat at [140℃ ] mol fractions (x) Flow rate (kmol/hr)
NH3 38.4 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.027 0.936
CO2 42.37 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.0127 0.444
Urea 123.84 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.476 16.667
Water 75.37 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.4815 16.861
Biuret 170.92 kJ/kmol℃ 0.0028 0.097
Total =35.005
Cp of mixture =∑ xiCpi
Cp= (0.027 x 38.4 + 0.0127 x 42.37 + 0.476 x 123.84 + 0.0028 x 170.92 + 0.4815 x75.37)kJ/kmol
℃
= 97.29kJ/kmol℃
Heat output = ṁCp∆ t
Heat output =35.005kmol/hr x97.29kJ/kmol℃ x140℃
= 0.476789×106kJ/hr
1) For gases escaping from the top
Material λ at 140Oc mol fractions (x) Flow rate (Kmol/hr)
NH3 22.777x103kJ/Kmol℃ 0.678 0.936
CO2 20.265x103kJ/kmol℃ 0.322 0.444
Total =1.38
λ of mixture = ∑ xiλi
 λ = (0.678 x 22.777 + 0.322 x 20.265) x 103 kJ/kmol℃
= 21.968x103kJ/kmol
Material specific heat at (140℃ ¿ mol fractions (x) Flow rate (Kmol/hr)
NH3 38.4kj/kmol℃ 0.678 0.936
CO2 42.37kj/kmol℃ 0.322 0.444
Total =1.38
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
 Cp = ( 0.678 x 38.4 + 0.322 x 42.37) kJ/kmol℃
= 39.678kJ/kmol℃
Heat escaping from the top = ṁ (CP∆ t +λ)
= 1.38(39.678x140+21.968x103)
= 0.037982x106 kJ/hr
Assumption: Cooling water enters at 25℃ and leaves at 50℃
So, heat gained by cooling water = Heat input – heat output
= (0.675975– 0.476789 – 0.037982) x106kJ/hr
= 0.1612×106kJ/hr
ṁCp∆ t = 0.1612x106 kJ/hr
ṁ = (0.1612x106kJ/hr)/ (4.187kJ/kg℃ x 25℃ )
ṁ = 1540kg/hr
Heat input = 0.476789×106kg/hr
1) Liquid
Outlet stream
Material specific heat at ⌊ 80 ℃ ⌋ mol fractions (x) Flow rate (Kmol/hr)
Urea 107.76 kJ/kmol℃ 0.496 16.667
Water 75.37 kJ/kmol℃ 0.501 16.861
Biuret 149 kJ/kmol℃ 0.003 0.097
Total = 33.625
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
 Cp= (0.496 x107.76+0.501x75.37 + 0.003x149) kJ/kmol℃
= 91.66kJ/kmol℃
Heat output = 33.625kmol/hrx91.66kJ/kmol℃ x80℃
= 0.246565x106kJ/hr
2) For gases escaping from the top
Material λ at 140Oc mol fractions (x) Flow rate (Kmol/hr)
NH3 18.51x103 kJ/kmol℃ 0.678 0.936
CO2 15.66x103 kJ/kmol℃ 0.322 0.444
Total = 1.38
λ of mixture = ∑ xiλi
= (0.678 x 18.51 + 0.322 x 15.66) x103kJ/kmol℃
= 17.6x103kJ/kmol℃
Material specific heat at (140℃ ¿ mol fractions (x) Flow rate (Kmol/hr)
NH3 37.013 kJ/kmol℃ 0.678 0.936
CO2 38.69 kJ/kmol℃ 0.322 0.444
Total = 1.38
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
 Cp =( 0.678 x 37.013 + 0.322 x 38.69) kJ/kmol℃
= 37.55kJ/kmol℃
Heat escaping from the top = ṁ (Cp∆ t +λ)
= 1.38 (37.55 x 80 + 17.6x103)
= 0.028434x106kJ/hr
Assumption: Cooling water enters at 25℃ and leaves at 50℃ .
So, heat gained by cooling water = Heat input – heat output
= (0.476789–0.028434–0.246565) x106 kJ/hr
= 0.20179×106kJ/hr
ṁCp∆ t =0.20179x106 kJ/hr
ṁ = (0.20179x106kJ/hr) / (4.187kJ/kg℃ x 25℃ )
ṁ= 1927.78kg/hr
EVAPORATOR

E1= 159.65kg/hr
E2 = 132.22kg/hr
80℃
1021.62kg/hr (Feed) 0.23atm 0.03atm
(76.13%) Urea 63.1℃ 23.77℃
Steam Steam
4.5atm 4.5atm
147.165℃ 147.165℃
85℃

(90.23% Urea) 27.25℃

P1 = 861.97kg/hr P2 = 1020.79kg/hr
Mass balance on evaporator 1: Feed*%Urea = P1*%Urea
1021.62kg/hr *0.7613 = P1*0.9023, P1 = 861.97kg/hr
 F = P1 +E1
1021.62 = 861.97+E1
E1 = 159.65kg/hr

 E = E1+E2
 291.87kg/hr = 159.65kg/hr + E2
 E2 = 132.22kg/hr
For feed coming into 1st evaporator:
Material specific heat at 80℃ mol fractions (x) Flow rate (kmol/hr)
Urea 107.76kJ/kmol℃ 0.496 16.667
Water 75.37kJ/kmol℃ 0.502 16.861
Biuret 149kJ/kmol℃ 0.003 0.0969
Total = 33.625
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
= (0.496*107.76+0.502*75.37+0.003*149)kJ/kmol℃
= 91.732kj/kmol℃
ṁCp∆ t = 33.625*91.732*80 = 0.246759*106kJ/hr
 For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator:
Urea = 1000kg/hr, Water = (303.50 – 159.65) kg/hr = 143.85kg/hr, Biuret = 9.99kg/hr
Material specific heat at (85℃ ¿ mol fractions (x) Flow rate (kmol/hr)
Urea 109.28 kJ/kmol℃ 0.673 16.666
Water 75.37 kJ/kmol℃ 0.323 7.992
Biuret 149 k/kmol℃ 0.004 0.097
Total = 24.755kmol/hr
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
 Cp = (0.673x109.28+0.323x75.37+0.004x149)kJ/kmol℃
= 98.49kJ/kmol℃
ṁCp∆ t = 24.755kmol/hrx98.49kJ/kmol℃ x85℃
= 0.20724x106kJ/hr
Heat balance
1st evaporator:
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour+energy of the bottom product
Heat input (Feed) +S1λs1 = E1HE1 +energy of the bottom product
0.246759 x106kJ/hr + S1x2123.2kJ/kg = 159.65kg/hr x2614.97kJ/kg +0.20724x106kJ/hr
S1 =178.015kg/hr
2nd evaporator:
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour + energy of the bottom product
Heat input (feed) + S2 λs2 = E2HE2 + energy of the bottom product
0.20724×106kJ/hr + S2 x 2123.2kJ/kg = 132.22kg/hr x 2545.7kJ/kg + 17.41kmol/hr x 96.84kJ/kmol ℃ x
27.25℃
S2 = 81.25kg/hr

Heat input = 17.41kmol/hr x 96.84kJ/kmol℃ x27℃ = 0.04521x106kJ/hr

Outlet stream
Material specific heat at (30℃ ¿ mol fractions (x) Flow rate (kmol/hr)
Urea 94.41 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.959 16.667
Water 75.37 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.035 0.6
Biuret 133.02 kJ/Kmol℃ 0.006 0.097
Total = 17.364

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
Cp = (0.959 x 94.41 + 0.035 x 75.37 + 0.006 x 133.02) kJ/kmol℃
 = 93.98kJ/kmol℃
Heat output = ṁCp ∆ t
Heat output = 17.364 x 93.98 x 25
= 0.0407967x106 kJ/hr
Assuming, humidity of air at 25℃ = 0.01
Heat carried away by air = heat input – heat output
(ṁCp∆ t) dry air = (0.04521 – 0.0407967) x 106
ṁ = 0.0044133 x 106 / (1.009x1)
ṁ = 0.0043739×106kg/hr
Chapter four
Equipment sizing and selection
4.1 Reactor
154atm (180℃ )

for NH3 to CO2 ratio of 2 corresponding yield of urea is 50 %.From table 4.1 for 50 % yield of urea the residence
time is 40 min.
t = 40 min
% Urea yield 0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6
Residence time(min) 0 20 30 40 120
Table 4.1 % Urea yield Vs Residence time
Now, t = V/F
Where, t = residence time
F = Volumetric flow rate into the reactor in m3/hr.
V = Volume of the reactor in m3.
Now,
Density of liquid NH3 = 618kg/m3
Density of CO2 gas at 40℃ = 277.38 Kg/m3 (density=PM/RT; P=162 atm=313 K)
Density of Carbamate = 1600 kg/m3
603.44 kg /hr
So, NH3 flowing into the reactor = = 0.976m3/hr
618 kg/m 3
780.92 kg /hr
CO2 flowing into the reactor = = 2.82m3/hr
277.38 kg/m 3
1556.82 kg/hr
Carbamate flowing into the reactor = = 0.973m3/hr
1600 kg /m3
Total flow rate into the reactor = (0.976+2.82+0.973)m3/hr
= 4.769m3/hr
Since, t = V/F
Therefore, V = t x F
1 hr
= (40min x 4.769m3/hr) ×
60 min
V = 3.179m3
For design purpose V = 4m3
Now, volume of the reactor = ( π D2 /4) L (Assume D = 2m)

4 m 3∗4
L= = 1.274m
4π

For design purpose L = 2m

Thickness of shell
Data available:
Temperature inside the reactor = 180℃
Pressure inside the reactor = 154 atm
Material of construction:
Low alloy carbon steel
Material specification:
Allowable stress (f) = 1.18x108 N/m2
Diameter of the reactor = 2m
J = 0.85 (double weld butt spot radiograph)
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
 PiDi
Thickness of the shell (ts) =
2 fJ−Pi
Where, ts = thickness of the shell
Di = internal diameter
J = joint efficiency
Pi = design pressure
f = permissible stress
Internal pressure = 154 atm = 1.56 x 107 N/m2
Design pressure Pi = (10% extra)
= 1.1x1.56x107 N/m2
= 1.716x107N/m2
Di = 2m
17160000 N /m 2× 2m
ts = = 0.187m
2× 118000000 N /m 2× 0.85−17160000 N /m 2
= 187mm
Therefore, ts = 187mm +2mm (corrosion allowance)
= 189mm (For design purpose ts = 190mm).
Head design
Thickness of top head: (at the top flat head)
e = CpDe√ Pi/ f , Cp = 0.4 for fully face gasket and De = Di
= 0.4×2m√ 17160000/118000000
= 0.305m = 305mm
e = 305mm +2mm (corrosion allowance)
= 307mm
Thickness of bottom head:
For major: minor axis = 2: 1 ellipsoidal dished head
PiDi
th =
2 fJ−0.2 Pi
17160000 N /m 2× 2 m
=
2× 118000000 N /m× 0.85−0.2× 17160000 N /m2
= 0.174m = 174mm
Therefore, th = 174mm +2mm (corrosion allowance)
= 176mm. (For design purpose th = 180mm).
4.2 Evaporator design
 Vapour space pressure = 0.23 atm
Vapour space temperature = 63.1℃
BPR = 21.9℃
Boiling point of liquid = 85℃
For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator:

Material specific heat at (85℃ ¿ mol fractions (x) Flow rate (kmol/hr)
Urea 109.28 kJ/kmol℃ 0.673 16.666
Water 75.37 kJ/kmol℃ 0.323 7.992
Biuret 149 k/kmol℃ 0.004 0.097
Total = 24.755
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
 Cp = (0.673x109.28+0.323x75.37+0.004x149)kJ/kmol℃
= 98.49kJ/kmol℃
ṁCp∆ t = 24.755kmol/hrx98.49kJ/kmol℃ x85℃
= 0.20724x106kJ/hr
Heat balance
1st evaporator:
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour+energy of the bottom product
Heat input (Feed) +S1λs1 = E1HE1 +energy of the bottom product
0.246759 x106kJ/hr + S1x2123.2kJ/kg = 159.65kg/hr x2614.97kJ/kg +0.20724x106kJ/hr
S1 =178.015kg/hr
159.65 kg/hr
Economy = E1/S1 = 0.897≅ 0.90
178.015 kg/hr
2nd evaporator:
Heat input (feed) + heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour + energy of the
bottom product
Heat input (feed) + s2 λs2 = e2he2 + energy of the bottom product
0.20724×106kj/hr + s2 x 2123.2kj/kg = 132.22kg/hr x 2545.7kj/kg + 17.41kmol/hr x
96.84kj/kmol℃ x 27.25℃
s2 = 81.25kg/hr
Prilling tower

heat input = 17.41kmol/hr x 96.84kj/kmol℃ x27℃ = 0.04521x106kj/hr

Outlet stream
Material specific heat at (30 ℃ ¿ mol fractions (x) flow rate
(kmol/hr)
 Urea 94.41 kJ/kmol℃ 0.959 16.667
Water 75.37 kJ/kmol℃ 0.035 0.6
Biuret 133.02 kJ/kmol℃ 0.006 0.097
Total = 17.364

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
cp = (0.959 x 94.41 + 0.035 x 75.37 + 0.006 x 133.02) kj/kmol℃
= 93.98kj/kmol℃
Heat output = ṁCp ∆ t
Heat output = 17.364 x 93.98 x 25
= 0.0407967x106 kj/hr
Assuming, humidity of air at 25℃ = 0.01
Heat carried away by air = heat input – heat output
(ṁcp∆ t) dry air = (0.04521 – 0.0407967) x 106
ṁ = 0.0044133 x 106 / (1.009x1)
ṁ = 0.0043739×106kg/hr
Chapter four
Equipment sizing and selection
4.1 Reactor
154atm (180℃ )

For nh3 to co2 ratio of 2 corresponding yield of urea is 50 %.from table 4.1 for 50 % yield of
urea the residence time is 40 min.
T = 40 min
% urea yield 0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6
Residence time(min) 0 20 30 40 120
Table 4.1 % urea yield vs residence time
Now, t = v/f
Where, t = residence time
F = volumetric flow rate into the reactor in m3/hr.
V = volume of the reactor in m3.
Now,
Density of liquid nh3 = 618kg/m3
Density of co2 gas at 40℃ = 277.38 kg/m3 (density=pm/rt; p=162 atm=313 k)
Density of carbamate = 1600 kg/m3
603.44 kg /hr
So, NH3 flowing into the reactor = = 0.976m3/hr
618 kg/m 3
780.92 kg /hr
CO2 flowing into the reactor = = 2.82m3/hr
277.38 kg/m 3
1556.82 kg/hr
Carbamate flowing into the reactor = = 0.973m3/hr
1600 kg /m3
Total flow rate into the reactor = (0.976+2.82+0.973)m3/hr
= 4.769m3/hr
Since, t = V/F
Therefore, V = t x F
1 hr
= (40min x 4.769m3/hr) ×
60 min
V = 3.179m3
For design purpose V = 4m3
Now, volume of the reactor = ( π d2 /4) L (assume d = 2m)

4 m 3∗4
L= = 1.274m
4π

for design purpose L = 2m

Thickness of shell
Data available:
Temperature inside the reactor = 180℃
Pressure inside the reactor = 154 atm
Material of construction:
Low alloy carbon steel
Material specification:
Allowable stress (f) = 1.18x108 N/m2
Diameter of the reactor = 2m
J = 0.85 (double weld butt spot radiograph)
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
PiDi
Thickness of the shell (ts) =
2 fJ−Pi
Where, ts = thickness of the shell
Di = internal diameter
J = joint efficiency
Pi = design pressure
F = permissible stress
Internal pressure = 154 atm = 1.56 x 107 n/m2
Design pressure pi = (10% extra)
= 1.1x1.56x107 n/m2
= 1.716x107n/m2
Di = 2m
17160000 N /m 2× 2m
Ts = = 0.187m
2× 118000000 N /m 2× 0.85−17160000 N /m 2
= 187mm
Therefore, ts = 187mm +2mm (corrosion allowance)
= 189mm
Head design
Thickness of top head: (at the top flat head)
e = cpde√ Pi/ f , cp = 0.4 for fully face gasket and de = di
= 0.4×2m√ 17160000/118000000
= 0.305m = 305mm
e = 305mm +2mm (corrosion allowance)
= 307mm
Thickness of bottom head:
For major: minor axis = 2: 1 ellipsoidal dished head
 PiDi
th =
2 fJ−0.2 Pi
17160000 N /m 2× 2 m
=
2× 118000000 N /m× 0.85−0.2× 17160000 N /m2
= 0.174m = 174mm
Therefore, th = 174mm +2mm (corrosion allowance)
= 176mm.
603.44 kg /hr
Pump size = ṁNH3/ ρ NH3 = = 0.976m3/hr
618 kg/m 3
4.2 Evaporator design

Vapour space pressure = 0.23 atm

Vapour space temperature = 63.1℃
BPR = 21.9℃
Boiling point of liquid = 85℃
For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator:
Material specific heat at (85℃ ¿ mol fractions (x) flow rate (kmol/hr)
Urea 109.28 kJ/kmol℃ 0.673 16.666
Water 75.37 kJ/kmol℃ 0.323 7.992
Biuret 149 k/kmol℃ 0.004 0.09
total = 24.755
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
Cp = (0.673x109.28+0.323x75.37+0.004x149)kJ/kmol℃
= 98.49kj/kmol℃
ṁcp∆ t = 24.755kmol/hrx98.49kj/kmol℃ x85℃
= 0.20724x106kj/hr
Heat balance
1st evaporator:
Heat input (feed) + heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour+energy of the bottom
product
Heat input (feed) +S1λs1 = E1HE1 +energy of the bottom product
0.246759 x106kJ/hr + S1x2123.2kJ/kg = 159.65kg/hr x2614.97kj/kg +0.20724x106kj/hr
S1 =178.015kg/hr
159.65 kg/hr
Economy = E1/S1 = 0.897≅ 0.90 now, u1 value is obtained from fig.4.2 at 63.1
178.015 kg/hr
℃ the value of U1 = 1513w/m2k = 5518.8kj/m2hrk
A1 =S1λ1/U1∆ T 1
∆ T 1 = ( ∆ T ) app – boiling point rise (BPR1)
= (147.165- 63.1-21.9)℃
= 62.165k
178.015 kg /hr ×2123.2 kJ /kg
A1 = = 69.266m2
5518.8 kJ /m2 hrK ×62.165 K
Approximate recommended safety or over design factor of evaporator = 15%
A1 = 69.266m2+15%
= 69.42m2
A2 = s2λs2/u2∆ T 2
∆ t2 = ¿)app – boiling point rise (bpr2)
= (147.165-23.77- 3.48)℃ = 119.915k
u2 = 738j/s.m2.k = 738*3600 =2656.8kj/hr.m2.k
s2 = 81.25kg/hr
λ s2 = 2123.2kj/kg
81.25 kg/hr ×2123.2 kJ /kg
So, A2 = = 0.542m2
119.915 K ×2656.8 kJ /hrm2 K
4.2.1 Design
Assuming: length = 4m
OD of tube = 25mm
OD of tube = 22mm
Minimum pitch = 1.25*OD
= 1.25*25mm
= 31.25mm
Let pitch = 32mm square pitch
Area = 69.42m2
Number of tubes (N):
A = π DLN
N =A/ π DL
69.42 m2
=
π × 4 m ×0.025 m
= 221
Let outer tube length = d
¿4) d2 = n*(minimum pitch) 2
d = √ (4 ×221 ×) /π *0.032m
= 0.54m
Did = d +2c, (c = 2mm)
= 0.54+0.004) m
= 0.544m
Did = 544mm
Wall thickness calculation
Material of construction: mild steel
f = 0.93 *108n/m2
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
j = 0.85
Safety factor = 15%
Pd × Di
t=
2 fJ−Pd
Where, t = thickness of the shell
Di = internal diameter
j = joint efficiency
 pd = design pressure
f = permissible stress
c=corrosion allowance
pd = 1.15ps
= 1.15×0.233bar
= 0.268bar = 0.268×105n/m2
26800 ×0.544
T=
2∗93000000∗0.85−26800
= 0.000092m
= 0.092mm +2mm (corrosion allowance)
= 2.1mm, (3mm for design purpose)
Checking this thickness for critical buckling pressure:
Pc = critical external buckling pressure
Pc = 2.42E/ (1- μ2)3/4× (t/Do) 5/2/ ((L/do-0.45*(t/Do) 1/2)
E = 2*106n/cm2, (mild steel)
μ = 0.3n.s/m = 0.003n.s/cm
L = 4m
D0 = Di + 2t
= 0.544m+2*0.003m
= 0.550m
Putting values in the above equation of Pc we get:
Pc = 1.469N/cm2
Pc ¿pd hence, our thickness is not acceptable.
Taking tstd = 6mm
We get, pc = 8.33n/cm2
Now, pc is greater than design pressure
Hence, the thickness is acceptable.
Chapter five
5. Financial and economical analysis
5.1 economics
The purchased cost of each piece of process equipment may now be estimated from published
cost data or from appropriate manufacturers’ bulletins.
Plant direct cost
Table 5.1 purchased equipment Cost
S.No Equipment name Unit cost $ Quantity Total cost $
.
1 Batch Reactor 34800 3 104400
2 Centrifugal pump 6100 3 18300
3 Evaporator 11500 2 23000
4 Separator 18170 3 54510
Total 11 200210
Total purchasing equipment cost = $20,0210
Purchasing equipment cost = 27% fixed capital investment (F.C.I)
$20, 0210 = 27%F.C.I,
F.C.I = $741518.5
Total capital investment (T.C.I) = fixed capital investment + working capital (W.C)
W.C = 15%T.C.I
So, T.C.I = F.C.I +15%T.C.I
T.C.I-15%T.C.I = $741518.5
T.C.I = $741518.5/0.85
= $872375
Working capital (W.C) = 15%T.C.I
= 15% × $872375
= $130856
Table 5.2 Direct cost
Components Average Range (%) Amount (%F.C.I)
Purchased equipment 27 $200210
Purchased equipment installation 10 $74152
Instrumentation &control 5 $37076
Electrical (Installed) 6 $44491
Building (including service) 12 $88982
Yard improvement 3 $22246
Service facilities 14 $103813
 Land 2 $14830
Piping (installed) 11 $81567
Total 90 $667367

Table 5.3 Indirect cost

Components Average (%) Amount (%F.C.I)
Engineering & Supervision 13 $ 96397
Construction Expense 10 $74152
Contractors fee 4 $29661
Contingency 10 $74152
Total 37 $274362

Total fixed capital investment = total direct cost + total indirect cost.
= $667367 + 274362
= $941729
Estimation of total product cost
Total production cost = manufacturing cost +general expense
Raw material cost = $0.25/Kg
The annual raw material requirement for coal is 1,686,722kg
Therefore the raw material cost is = $0.25/kg×1,686,722kg
= $421681
Assuming the cost of other ingredients and chemicals agents as 25%of raw material (coal) cost is
= $105420
Therefore total raw material cost = raw material (coal) cost + other raw material cost
=$ (421681 + 105420)
= $527101
Raw material cost = 20% Total product cost
 Total product cost = $527101/0.2
= $2,635,505
Fixed charge = 15% Total product cost
= 0.15×2,635,505
= $395,326
Plant overhead cost = 10% Total product cost
= (0.1×2,635,505) $ = $263,551
Profitability analysis
Gross and net profit
Gross profit = total income – total production cost – depreciation cost
Depreciation cost = 10%FCI
= 0.1×$741518.5
= $74152
Assume the selling price of urea at present time in market is = $0.89/kg
Income = selling price × production per day × working day per year
= $0.89/Kg × 24,000kg/day ×330 day/year
=$7048800
Gross profit = total income – total production cost – depreciation cost
= $7048800 –$2, 635505 –$74152
=$4339143
Net profit = Gross profit (1–income tax rate)
Taking tax rate as 30% income,
=$4339143 (1–0.30)
= $3037400
Annual cash flow = Net profit + depreciation
= $3037400+ $74152
= $3111552
NET PRESENT WORTH
NPW = P –TCI
P = R {¿ ¿
R = Annual cash flow = $3111552
Interest rate = 10%
Service life = 10 years
Recovery = working capital + salvage value
Assuming salvage value = 0
Recovery = working capital =$130856
Then, P= $3111552{¿¿
P = $19119128
NPW = P- TCI
= $19119128 - $872375
NPW = $18,246,753 (Which is positive and therefore, the project is feasible).

Chapter six
Environmental analysis
6.1 environmental impact assessment
An environment impact assessment is an assessment of the possible positive impact or
negative impact which the project may have on the natural environment. The purpose of the
assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider environmental impacts used to decide
whether to proceed with the project.
The international association for impact assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact
assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the
biophysical, social, and other relevant effects.
6.2 environmental risks of coal gasification
6.2.1 The coal gasification process and overview of environmental risks
The coal gasification process involves oxidizing subsurface coal seams, which generates a
combination of hydrogen and other gases, referred to as syngas (short for “synthesis gas”).
Air or oxygen is pumped into a subsurface coal seam through an injection well.
The syngas generated by the coal gasification process is primarily composed of hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, and smaller amounts of co 2 and methane. Based on a limited number of
some pilot projects and a small number of full-scale operations through worldwide, the main
environmental risk is the risk of groundwater contamination. Organic contaminants such as
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may be generated during combustion of coal, and
trace metals in the coal may be released through geochemical reactions induced by the coal
gasification process.
In addition, there are other potential adverse impacts to human health and the environment
associated with coal gasification. For example, uncontrolled migration and leakage of syngas
to the surface could result in adverse impacts to local ecosystems and human settlements.
Contaminants released from the coal and adjacent geologic units during the coal gasification
process could also be released at the surface, contaminating surface water and/or air. Finally,
because all of the combustion occurs in the subsurface where it is difficult to monitor, there is
the potential for the oxidation reaction to migrate beyond the target zone or become
uncontrolled. Evaluating risk requires characterization of potential subsurface and surface
receptors, such as groundwater and surface water resources, sensitive ecosystems or species,
and human health and infrastructure.
6.2.2 Groundwater contamination
One of the most important potential adverse environmental effects related to coal gasification
is groundwater contamination. Here we describe the potential sources of contamination, the
geologic factors that will influence the migration of any contaminants generated, and how
these risks can be mitigated.
6.2.2.1potential sources and types of contaminants
There are different sources and types of contaminants that may be associated with coal
gasification operations. Uncontrolled migration and leakage of the syngas itself could result
in contamination of overlying aquifers. Mercury, arsenic, and selenium are volatile
metals/metalloids, and they can be released as gases during the coal gasification process.
Their release could adversely affect water quality and air quality in the underground and on
the surface depending on the temperature of the reaction, the type of geochemical reactions
occurring during the gasification process, and the presence of pathways from the coal to the
surface.
6.2.2.2 Mitigating groundwater contamination risks
Recommendations for groundwater protection have included ensuring that drinking water
aquifers are at a distance of more than 25 times the seam height from the reactor.
In summary, groundwater contamination is likely to be one of the most significant
environmental concerns related to the coal gasification process. A combination of careful site
selection and proper engineering controls is essential to limiting groundwater contamination
from coal gasification sites.
6.3 impact of the urea plant on the environment
In the early part of previous decade ammonia consumption per ton of final product of 575kg
or even higher used to be acceptable. Presently ammonia consumptions of some 567 kg per
ton are released in the large single stream plants. Not only ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea
releases from process plants have a negative influence on the environment but also the
unnecessary use of energy is negative from an environmental point of view and from the
economic point of view as well.
6.3.1 Emissions to air
Air emissions may be categorized as either fugitive or point source emissions.
Fugitive emissions
These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Examples of fugitive
emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilization of vapour from vats, open vessels, or
spills and materials handling.
Point source emissions
These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a single point source
into the atmosphere.
6.3.2 Emissions to water
Emissions of substances to water can be categorized as discharges to:
Surface waters (e.g. Lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries);
Coastal or marine waters
Storm water
Because of the significant environmental hazards posed by emitting toxic substances to
water, most facilities emitting above listed substances to waterways are required by the
relevant environment authority to closely monitor and measure these emissions. The existing
sampling data can be used to calculate annual emissions. If no wastewater monitoring data
exists, emissions to process water can be calculated based on a mass balance or using
emission factors.
6.3.3 Emissions to land
Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, and sediments.
Emissions arising from spills, leaks, and storage and distribution of materials containing
listed substances may also occur to land. These emission sources can be broadly categorized
as: surface impoundments of liquids and slurries; and unintentional leaks and spills.
6.4 elimination methods
Presently plants are equipped with the following features to keep the effluent and emission at
extremely low levels:
Waste water treatment section
Absorbers
Special operational facilities
6.4.1 Urea plant waste water treatment section
The process water in urea plants contains ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea. The
concentrations of these components vary within a range depending on the operating
conditions, on average, the concentrations in the process water are about 6 wt.% ammonia, 4
wt.% carbon dioxide and 1 wt.% urea.
The purpose of the process water treatment is to remove ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea
from the process condensate.
6.4.2 Absorbers
Absorbers are used in urea plant to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere, can be classified
as follows:
I) the vent from the synthesis section of the plant
The purge from the urea synthesis section contains inert, ammonia and carbon dioxide. To
avoid ammonia emissions from this purge a low pressure absorber is installed in purge
stream. First the ammonia is washed out with a large flow of low concentrated and cooled
process water and secondly the remaining ammonia is absorbed in cooled condensate or clean
waste water.
The vent from the low pressure section of the plant
The ammonia and carbon dioxide present in the off gases of the recirculation section, the
process water treatment system and the evaporation section are washed out in an atmospheric
absorber where large amounts of cooled low concentrated process water are used to absorb all
the ammonia present in laid off gases.
6.4.3 Special start-up, shut-down and draining facilities
Because of the present low releases during steady state operation in urea manufacturing the
consideration regarding environmental issues has changed towards further reducing of
effluents and emissions from non-continuous sources during non-steady state conditions such
as start-up and shut-down situations. A change in the start-up procedure of the urea synthesis
section has reduced the impact on the environment considerably.
Chapter seven
Conclusion and recommendation
7.1 Conclusions
Coal gasification has a promising future in our country. Coal for urea plants offers an
economically attractive option for manufacturing of ammonia and carbon dioxide. The
process offers energy efficient design with several advantages. Now a day, urea is the most
needed fertilizer in Ethiopia. Therefore, for fulfilling of the population needs, this mini
project shows the way of sufficient producing urea to manufacturers and engineers.
7.2 Recommendations
Considering larger reserves of coal, Ethiopia must explore coal gasification route for
production of urea fertilizer. In view of gas price volatility it is better to have deterministic
price of feedstock. This can be done in the case of indigenous coal. For improving of lack of
urea in our country the government should be take responsibility with investors and
engineers.
References