Monitoring and Managing

Fatigue in Baseball
Players
Timothy J. Suchomel, MS1 and Christopher A. Bailey, PhD1,2
1
Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences, East
Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee; and 2Department of Exercise Science, LaGrange College,
LaGrange, Georgia

ABSTRACT Baseball has one of the longest seasons a vastly popular sport, very little
in collegiate and professional sports. research has been published on moni-
CHRONIC FATIGUE AFFECTS
The length of the season may fluctuate toring and managing fatigue in baseball
ATHLETES’ ABILITIES TO MAINTAIN
depending on the level of competition players. As a result, it is difficult for sport
FORCE AND POWER CAPABILITIES
(i.e., professional, minor league, colle- scientists to find effective and feasible
OVER THE COURSE OF A SEASON. giate, etc.) and potential postseason play methods to monitor and manage base-
THE ABILITY FOR SPORT SCIEN- if a team is successful. A professional ball players’ fatigue levels throughout
TISTS AND COACHES TO MONI- major league baseball season consists a season. There are a number of both
TOR AND MANAGE FATIGUE IS of 162 games over 6 months, whereas field- and lab-based methods that
BENEFICIAL FOR ALL SPORTS, a full minor league season consists of appear to be promising when it comes
ESPECIALLY THOSE WITH 140 games for approximately 5 months. to monitoring and managing fatigue in
LENGTHY SEASONS. ALTHOUGH In addition, Division I collegiate baseball baseball players. Therefore, the purpose
METHODS OF MONITORING AND seasons can last approximately 5 of this article is to examine previous
MANAGING FATIGUE HAVE BEEN months with teams potentially playing literature that has investigated potential
SUGGESTED FOR VARIOUS around 70 games. indicators of fatigue in baseball players
SPORTS, THERE IS CURRENTLY Professional teams play spring training and to discuss prospective methods of
LIMITED RESEARCH EXAMINING games, whereas collegiate teams often monitoring and managing fatigue dur-
METHODS OF MONITORING play games during a fall season. These ing a professional or collegiate baseball
FATIGUE IN BASEBALL OVER THE additional games cannot be ignored season.
COURSE OF A SEASON. TO with regard to the total amount of
EFFECTIVELY MAINTAIN PEAK PER- games played during a season. It is pos- FIELD-BASED FATIGUE
FORMANCE, POTENTIAL METHODS sible that the overall performance of MONITORING
FOR MONITORING AND MANAGING players may suffer because of the accu- There are many different on-field
FATIGUE IN BASEBALL PLAYERS mulation of fatigue that results from the methods that can be used to monitor
NEED TO BE DISCUSSED. rigors of each game played, travel, and indicators of fatigue in baseball. Some
the training involved with maintaining of the field-based methods that may be
a high level of performance throughout most applicable to monitoring fatigue
the season. To manage the fatigue that in professional and collegiate baseball
INTRODUCTION
may result over the course of a pro- players are tracking throwing velocity,
hronic fatigue has been defined

C as chronic diminished perform-

ances, as determined by the
inability to maintain or repeat absolute
longed season, it is of paramount
importance that sport scientists and
coaches monitor the levels of fatigue
pitch counts, base to base running
times, session rating of perceived exer-
tion (RPE), players’ perceived recovery
status, and player responses on athlete
levels of force and power, that are the throughout the season to prevent de-
creases in on-field performance. tracking questionnaires. By monitoring
result of the inability of an athlete to
recover from training loads and/or the Baseball has been recognized as KEY WORDS:
accumulation of physical and emotional America’s National Pastime, and both athlete monitoring; recovery; pitch
stressors (49). Baseball players may dis- the globalization and popularity of the count; session RPE
play frequent signs of chronic fatigue. sport have increased (17). Despite being

Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | [Link] 39
Fatigue in Baseball Players

these variables throughout a season, it season (6). The results of this study is not publicly reported like the other
may be possible to reduce, and possibly indicated that fastball velocity data used in this study; so, it could not
prevent, some fatigue accumulation increased throughout the season. It be evaluated. Another study by Olsen
that may affect players’ on-field perfor- should be noted that the data from et al. (39) indicated that adolescent
mance. Furthermore, these methods the study by Crotin et al. (6) were col- pitchers were 4 times more likely to
provide an economical way to collect lected during a short season where require surgery if they averaged more
valuable information that may allow pitchers only averaged 45 pitches per than 80 pitches per appearance. It
sport scientists to identify potential in- game and a little over 3 innings pitched should be noted that this study exam-
dicators of fatigue so that he or she can per outing. In fact, the authors indi- ined adolescent pitchers between 14
adjust a player’s training program as cated that the pitchers simply did not and 20 years of age. Regardless, their
necessary. accumulate enough fatigue to see neg- findings provide valuable insight on
ative changes in fastball velocity. Thus, the effect of pitch counts on pitching
it is possible that pitchers who play performance and potential injury.
THROWING VELOCITY
a full season and average higher pitch Although the use of pitch counts
Much of the extant literature that has counts and more innings pitched may may be beneficial for monitoring start-
examined monitoring and managing produce different results. Furthermore, ing pitchers, their use may be limited
fatigue in baseball players has related it should be noted that the majority of with regard to relief pitchers and posi-
to pitch velocity and the number of short-season minor league teams con- tion players.
pitches thrown. Previous research has sist of newly drafted players who are
indicated that fatigued pitchers show adjusting to new coaching methods, al- RUNNING TIMES
a decrease in throwing velocity (10,36). terations in pitching mechanics, and dif- Monitoring pitching performance can
Thus, it appears that throwing velocity ferent pitch volumes, all of which could provide a large amount of data for
could be an important variable to mon- influence the results of the study (6). analysis as pitchers initiate every play
itor. Escamilla et al. (10) inferred that by throwing the ball. However, there
throwing velocity was statistically PITCH COUNT are 8 other players on the field and
decreased during the final 2 innings as At the professional and collegiate monitoring their fatigue throughout
compared with the initial 2 innings (P , baseball levels, regularly scheduled the season is equally as important. Bar-
0.01, from 37.7 6 1.8 to 33.7 6 1.5 m/s) games last 9 innings. Because of the ring sickness or injury, most of the
during a simulated baseball game in length of the game, it is possible for position players are on the field every-
which the pitchers threw between 105 a starting pitcher to throw in excess day, not just once every 5 days. Spe-
and 135 pitches for 7–9 innings. In addi- of 120 pitches. Thus, it makes sense cific indicators of fatigue for position
tion, the authors indicated that the that pitch counts in a single game, players within scientific literature have
pitchers’ trunk position became more and over a season, would be viewed yet to be determined. One area that
vertical (P , 0.01, from 348 6 128 to as a factor that will contribute to the may be promising is monitoring base
298 6 118), placing an increased reliance overall fatigue of a pitcher (11). A study running times throughout the season
on the throwing arm during pitching. In by Bradbury and Forman (2) analyzed (30). Baseball programs traditionally
addition, further changes in pitching the influence of pitch counts on pitch- evaluate baseline measures of perfor-
mechanics may increase the potential ing performance in major league base- mance at the start of a baseball season
for injury if a pitcher remains in ball players. Statistics from 20 seasons to distinguish performance differences
a fatigued state (10). Another study by and over 1,000 pitchers were used in between players (53). Timed runs from
Murray et al. (36) used high-speed video the study. Through a complex regres- home to first and from first to third
analysis to examine fastballs thrown dur- sion equation, the cumulative effect of may be among the battery of perfor-
ing the first inning of play and the final pitches thrown on future outings was mance tests (3). Unfortunately, these
inning of play in 7 major league baseball evaluated. A negative relationship was timed runs may not be evaluated beyond
pitchers. This study indicated that found between pitch counts and sub- the onset of a new season, and thus,
decreased ranges of motion at the shoul- sequent performances. Furthermore, performance changes cannot be evalu-
der and knee joints contributed to the authors attempted to evaluate the ated. Based on the authors’ observations
a decreased throwing velocity of about relationship between rest days and per- in both collegiate and professional base-
5 mi/h. Furthermore, the authors indi- formance, but a minimal effect was ball, many teams perform base running
cated that fatigue might have been a pos- observed. This could be because of drills on a weekly basis. Obtaining
sible mechanism of the kinematic and the fact that rest days are fairly stan- a weekly measure of 2 different base
kinetic changes that occurred. dardized in pitching rotations. For running skills (i.e., home to first and from
In contrast to the previous studies, example, a starting pitcher will gener- first to third) may provide a quantitative
another study evaluated changes in ally throw every 5 days regardless of measure of fatigue throughout a 5- or
fastball velocity of 12 pitchers over how many pitches were thrown pre- 6-month season, as decrements in run-
the course of a minor league short viously. Unfortunately, pitch velocity ning performance may be indicative of

40 VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2014

accumulated fatigue. Although data information regarding the difficulty of ATHLETE TRACKING
using timed running in baseball as an various training sessions throughout QUESTIONNAIRES
indicator of fatigue have not yet been the season. With this information, it Another field-based method of monitor-
published, sprint times have been used may be determined whether an athlete ing and managing fatigue in professional
as a performance measure in softball is showing signs of fatigue that may and collegiate baseball players may be
players (38). It is suggested that practi- lead to a decrement in future perform- the use of athlete tracking question-
tioners should be wary of a 10% decre- ances. Moreover, by using session RPE naires completed at a minimum of once
ment in sprint performance, similar to information, adjustments can be made per week. An athlete tracking question-
the suggestions from Tihanyi (51). to an athlete’s training program to naire should include topics, such as
counteract the effects of fatigue and weight, resting heart rate, general health,
SESSION RATING OF PERCEIVED prevent the possibility of overtraining. sleep duration, sleep disturbances, inju-
EXERTION This can be accomplished by decreas- ries or pain, training load, sickness, and
To manage fatigue, it is important to ing the volume and intensity of training perceived preparedness. Thorough ex-
quantify the training load placed on variables (i.e., resistance training, amples of athlete tracking forms are dis-
athletes. One issue that arises with sprints, etc.) as necessary to allow the played and discussed by Sands et al. (43)
quantifying training load is that the athlete to recover. and Stone et al. (49). Another example is
scale, units, and type differ across var- the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for
ious types of training. It is fairly easy to PERCEIVED RECOVERY STATUS Athletes (RESTQ-Sport) as detailed by
calculate the training load in a weight Another method that may be effective Kellman and Kallus (29).
room by getting the product of sets, in monitoring fatigue in baseball play-
The RESTQ-Sport has been shown to
repetitions, and load. However, com- ers is the use of a Perceived Recovery
display high test-retest reliability,
paring or adding that load with what Status Scale, as detailed by Laurent
which indicates that intraindividual
players do on the field is not as easy. et al. (32). Their scale monitors an ath-
recovery-stress states and functionary
Session RPE is a simple method that lete’s perceived recovery to predict the
fluctuations can be measured (26). Pre-
not only can be used to monitor an performance level of athletes in a sub-
vious studies by Coutts and Reaburn
athlete’s perceived exertion from sequent training session. Briefly, the
(4) and Kellmann and Gunther (28)
a training session (12–15) but also Perceived Recovery Status Scale ranges
indicated that the RESTQ-Sport posi-
can be used over the course of an entire from 0 to 10 where 0 represents “very
tively related to changes in training in
season (1,4). This method uses a mod- poorly recovered/extremely tired” and
ified Borg RPE scale ranging from zero 10 represents “very well recovered/ rugby players and elite rowers, respec-
to 10, with zero representing being at highly energetic.” Laurent et al. (32) tively. By using the players’ responses
rest and 10 representing maximal exer- also indicated that if athletes provide on athlete tracking questionnaires,
tion, to quantify exercise training load scores from 0 to 2, 4 to 6, or 8 to 10, sport scientists will be able to deter-
during many different types of exercise sport scientists should expect a declined mine potential causes of fatigue. For
(14). Furthermore, previous research performance, similar performance, or example, if a player provides a response
indicated that session RPE can be used improved performance, respectively. that indicates frequent sleep depriva-
to monitor resistance training sessions Although not as widely accepted as tion, conclusions about a potential
of different intensities (7,8). The session session RPE, a recent study by Sikorski cause of fatigue may be identified.
RPE value can be multiplied by the et al. (46) indicated that the Perceived From this point, sport scientists and
training duration to arrive at a session Recovery Status Scale is an effective players can discuss potential solutions
RPE training load. This is a subjective tool to monitor recovery after heavy that may reduce the amount of sleep
measure of internal training load but resistance training. By collecting infor- deprivation, which may then lead to
provides the ability to evaluate across mation about the perceived recovery a decreased level of fatigue. An athlete
different types of training. It should be status of the athlete, sport scientists will tracking questionnaire is a simple and
noted that before using session RPE, be able to determine the level of fatigue cost-effective method to monitor levels
athletes need to be familiarized with that the previous games, practices, or of fatigue and the training status of ath-
the scale used; otherwise, reliability workouts have caused the players. Fur- letes (27,43). Thus, it is suggested that
and validity may suffer. Furthermore, thermore, this information may not sport scientists for baseball use athlete
within 30 minutes of the completion only allow sport scientists to determine tracking questionnaires at a minimum
of the training session or event, the the readiness of players for particular of once per week throughout the sea-
sport scientist should collect each play- workouts (32) but also allow for adjust- son to monitor fatigue and the poten-
er’s session RPE value either verbally ments to be made based on the per- tial underlying causes of fatigue.
or on a written session RPE sheet (7,8). ceived recovery level of each player Although the use of session RPE, per-
Based on previous research, it seems (46), potentially preventing an accu- ceived recovery status, and athlete
that session RPE is an effective method mulation of fatigue that may lead to tracking questionnaires is recommen-
that will provide sport scientists with poor performance. ded, the authors would also like to

Strength and Conditioning Journal | [Link] 41

Fatigue in Baseball Players

recommend altering the athletes’ daily with the procedures, a measure of lean easily, and cheaply when using switch
routines as minimally as possible. body mass can be obtained by com- mats and jump and reach devices (33).
Therefore, it is suggested that the prac- pleting skinfolds with skinfold calipers.
titioners may only want to use one By using the sum of skinfolds, sport RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
of the previously mentioned methods, scientists will be able to monitor the RFD has previously been defined as the
as the incorporation of all 3 may dis- stability of a player’s lean body mass ability to accelerate objects or system
rupt the daily routines of their athletes (47). Sport scientists can then use this mass rapidly (44) and is considered to
to a greater extent. information to provide basic nutritional be an indicator of explosive strength
recommendations and updated train- (34,49). Like other performance varia-
LAB-BASED FATIGUE ing programs to each player so that bles, RFD can be very sensitive to both
MONITORING he can, at a minimum, maintain his acute and chronic fatigue (9,52). As
Although the above field-based fatigue lean body mass. Based on the number compared with jump height, Fowles
monitoring and management methods of athletes on a professional or colle- (16) suggested that measurements of
can be effective, more thorough meth- giate baseball team, it is recommended RFD and power may better reflect
ods that have received stronger sup- that practitioners should use a 3-site fatigue during vertical jumps. Based on
port within the scientific literature skinfold protocol to reduce the time the physical demands of a baseball sea-
can be used given the availability of needed for monitoring purposes (25). son, one could draw the conclusion that
specific equipment, such as skinfold It is suggested that sport scientists the RFD of professional and collegiate
calipers, accelerometers, linear position should use statistical process control to baseball players may be affected if a cer-
and force transducers, and/or force form acceptable ranges for each athlete tain amount of fatigue has accumulated
plates. Obviously, the availability of so that the athletes can more effectively throughout the season.
funds and facilities will determine if maintain their lean body mass (42).
these types of devices can be purchased Previous research has indicated that an
and used. However, if the resources are VERTICAL JUMP HEIGHT increased amount of volume load and
available, weekly measurements of Another lab-based method of monitor- work over an extended period of time
player’s body composition, jump height, ing fatigue for the whole baseball team can result in decreased levels of RFD
and rate of force development (RFD) that seems to be promising may be the (18,19,40,48). Because activities, such
during squat and countermovement inclusion of weekly jumping assess- as hitting, throwing, running, and
jumps can be used to monitor and man- ments using accelerometers, linear jumping, require baseball players to
age any fatigue that may exist. position and force transducers, and/ perform explosively, RFD seems to
or force plates. Vertical jumping evalu- be a vital component to the overall
BODY COMPOSITION ations have been indicated as a good performance of each player and thus
During a long season that includes measure for monitoring fatigue (16). should be monitored throughout the
a large of number of games, training ses- Specifically, jump height has been used season as an indicator of fatigue. To
sions, and the potential for the accumu- within the scientific literature to moni- monitor RFD, sport scientists would
lation of other physical and emotional tor fatigue (5,37,41). Ronglan et al. (41) need to purchase additional equip-
stressors, it is possible that baseball play- were able to observe a decrease in coun- ment, such as accelerometers, linear
ers may lose lean body mass, which may termovement jump height after several position and force transducers, and/
decrease the physiological cross- days of handball competition. Similarly, or force plates. The ability to do this
sectional area of muscles leading to Nimphius (37) indicated that jump may be dependent on the funds avail-
a decreased amount of maximal force height was a sensitive enough measure able to do so. However, if sport scien-
a muscle can produce (49). Previous to monitor declines in performance dur- tists have the means to purchase a force
research indicates that accumulated ing an 8-day baseball tournament. plate, the RFD during both squat and
fatigue that results from a chronic In contrast, Coutts et al. (5) indicated countermovement jumps may serve as
increase in volume load may significantly that jump height may not be sensitive indicators of fatigue if decreased values,
decrease the testosterone:cortisol ratio, enough to show alterations because of as compared with previous or baseline
putting the body in a state of catabolism fatigue. It is clear that further research measures, are frequently present.
(i.e., breakdown of proteins) (21,22,35). using jump height as an indicator of Although the cost of this equipment
This state of catabolism may affect fatigue is needed. It should be noted is usually higher than instruments that
a player’s lean body mass, fat mass, max- that vertical jump height can be as- only evaluate jump height, the authors
imum strength, RFD, and power sessed using several different methods, are not suggesting that professional
(20,23,24). including field-based devices such as baseball teams cannot afford them. In
Because monitoring the testosterone: switch mats and jump and reach devi- fact, some professional organizations
cortisol ratio may not be feasible ces. Although they may not derive as have several of these instruments (45).
throughout a season with a large num- many variables, field-based testing It is up to the sport scientist to dem-
ber of players, and the cost associated methods can be administered quickly, onstrate the value of the instruments

42 VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2014

and their possible reports to secure the have not been evaluated in baseball
Christopher A.
finances from their respective organiza- players but most have been supported
Bailey is an
tions. It is recommended that the RFD by research in other athletic popula-
assistant profes-
of both squat and countermovement tions. By implementing as many of
sor and the Sport
jumps should be monitored on a weekly these assessments as possible, valuable
Performance
basis. This is based on the fact that information on fatigue and general
Enhancement,
movements in baseball require both trends in baseball over the course of
Education, and
static squat starts (e.g., fielding ready a full season will become available.
Development
position) and stretch-shortening cycle The previous recommendations on
Center coordinator in the Department of
properties (e.g., jumping and diving) how to monitor fatigue in professional
Exercise Science at LaGrange College.
and that it may be important to moni- and collegiate baseball players dis-
tor neuromuscular fatigue via the cussed were based on the bodies of
stretch-shortening cycle (31,50). research that support each method REFERENCES
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