CHAPTER 2
Energy, Energy Transfer, and
General Energy Analysis
Lecture 1
1
Introduction – Understanding
of the First Law
First Law: Energy is conserved
The entire room (including the air
and the fan) is a closed system
Heat cannot enter or leave the
room because it is well-insulated.
The only energy interaction
involved is the electrical energy
crossing the system boundary
and entering the room.
Total energy of the system will A fan running in a well-sealed and
increase with time. well-insulated room will raise the
temperature of air in the room
2
Introduction – Understanding
of the First Law
What if we replace the
fan with a refrigerator?
What if the refrigerator
door was closed?
A refrigerator operating with
its door open in a well-sealed
and well-insulated room
3
Forms of Energy
4
Internal Energy
Sum of all “microscopic” forms of energy
“Sensible” energy (translation, rotation and
vibration of molecules)
“Latent” energy (binding forces between
molecules -- phase change process)
“Chemical” energy (bonds between atoms in a
molecule)
“Nuclear” energy (bonds between nucleons
within the nucleus of the atom)
5
Forms of Energy
Total Energy of the system, E (kJ)
Extensive property
Energy per unit mass: e = E/m (kJ/kg)
E = U + KE + PE
U = Internal Energy (kJ)
KE = Kinetic energy = m V2/2 (kJ)
PE = Potential energy = m g z (kJ)
g = gravitational acceleration; z = elevation of center of
gravity with respect to an arbitrary reference point
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Total Energy Per Unit Mass
e = u + ke + pe (kJ/kg)
u = U/m = internal energy per unit mass
(specific internal energy)
ke = V2/2 = kinetic energy per unit mass
pe = g z = potential energy per unit mass
7
Questions
What is the difference between KE &
“sensible” internal energy?
KE is the kinetic energy of the entire system
as it moves from one place to another
“Sensible” internal energy is the kinetic
energy of the molecules with respect to the
system itself
8
Energy Interactions with
Surroundings
The total energy of a system is the energy
“contained” or “stored” in a system
How can we change the total energy of
the system?
Energy interactions with the surroundings
Those energy interactions happen at the system
boundary.
Energy transfer represents the energy gained or lost
by a system during a process.
9
Energy Interactions with
Surroundings
Forms of energy interactions between
system and surroundings
Heat Transfer (requires finite T)
Work (e.g. compressing a gas in a cylinder)
Mass crossing the boundary (open systems)
For closed system energy transfer occurs only
as heat and/or work
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CHAPTER 2
Lecture 2
11
Heat
HEAT: Energy transferred across a boundary of
a system because of a temperature difference
between the system and surroundings
Q12 (or simply “Q”) is amount of heat transfer during
process between state “1” and state “2” [kJ]
Note: Q12 is not a property -- does not have a
unique value at each equilibrium state -- associated
with a process rather than a state
Processes or systems that do not involve heat
transfer are called “adiabatic”
12
Energy Transfer as Heat
Energy can be called “heat” During an adiabatic process,
only as it crosses the system a system exchanges no heat
boundary. with its surroundings.
13
Energy Transfer as Heat
Amount of heat transferred
during a process is denoted by
(Q) [units?]
The rate of heat transfer is the
amount of heat transferred per .
unit time and is denoted by (Q)
[units?]
Temperature difference is the
driving potential for heat transfer
The larger the temperature 1 joule (J) = 1 (N.m) = 1 (kg m2/s2)
difference, the higher is the rate 1 (J/s) = 1 watt (W) = 1 N.m/s
of heat transfer.
Energy Transfer as Heat
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate is
constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time
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Work
Work: Energy transfer associated with a kind of
force acting through a distance
If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed
system is not heat, it must be work
W12 (or simply “W”) is amount of work done during
process between state “1” and state “2” [kJ]
Note: W12 is not a property -- does not have a
unique value at each equilibrium state -- associated
with a process rather than a state
16
Energy Transfer as Work
A moving piston, a rotating shaft, and an
electric wire crossing the system boundaries
are all associated with work interactions
Energy Transfer as Work
The work done is proportional to
the force applied (F ) and the
distance traveled (s). [1 J = 1 N.m]
In this textbook, we will usually use
kJ as the unit for energy
Power is the work done per unit
time [1 J/s = 1 W]
.
Power is denoted by W
In this textbook, we will usually use
kW as the unit for power
18
Formal Sign Convention
If the net heat transfer is an addition to the
system, it is considered positive
If the net heat transfer is a loss from the
system, it is considered negative
If the net work interaction is done by (leaving)
the system, it is considered positive
If the net work interaction is done on (entering)
the system, it is considered negative
Alternative to sign convention is to
use the subscripts in and out to
indicate direction of energy transfer
and assign a numerical value. This is
the approach used in this text.
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Heat & Work
Both heat & work are recognized
as they cross the boundaries of a
system; i.e. both are boundary
phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but they
do not possess heat or work.
Heat and work are associated with
a process, not a state.
Unlike properties, heat or work has
no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well
as the end states).
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“Point” vs. “Path” Functions
Properties are point Heat & Work are path
functions -- they have functions -- they have
exact differentials (d ) inexact differentials ( )
(V12)A = (V12)B (W12)A ≠ (W12)B
(P12)A = (P12)B (Q12)A ≠ (Q12)B
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CHAPTER 2
Lecture 3
22
Mechanical Forms of Work
There are two requirements for The work done is proportional
mechanical work interaction to the force applied (F) and the
between a system and its distance traveled (s).
surroundings to exist:
there must be a force Work = Force Distance
acting on the boundary.
the boundary must move.
When force is not constant
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Shaft Work
A force F acting through a moment
arm r generates a torque T
As shaft rotates, this force acts
through a distance, s.
Shaft Work:
The “Power” transmitted through the
shaft is the work done per unit time
24
Spring Work
When the length of a spring changes by a
differential amount dx under the influence of
a force F, the work done is:
For linear elastic springs, the displacement x
is proportional to the force applied
F = k x (N); k = spring constant (N/m)
Substituting & integrating yields:
(J)
x1 and x2 are the initial and final
displacements
25
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars
Elastic solid bars behave as
springs under the influence of
a force
26
Non-Mechanical Forms of Work
Electrical work: The generalized force is the voltage
(the electrical potential) and the generalized
displacement is the electrical charge.
Other Non-Mechanical Forms of Work
Magnetic work
Electrical polarization work
27
Electrical Work
Electrical Work (kJ)
V = Applied Voltage
N = Number of coulombs of electrons
moved through potential difference
Electrical Power
When V & I are constant
When Potential difference and current
change with time
28
The First Law of
Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics
(the conservation of energy
principle) provides a systematic
quantitative basis for studying the
relationships among the various
forms of energy for a system and
energy interactions between a
system and its surroundings. Energy cannot be created
or destroyed; it can only
change forms.
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The First Law of
Thermodynamics
The increase in the energy of a In the absence of any work
potato in an oven is equal to the interactions, the energy
amount of heat transferred to it. change of a closed system is
equal to the net heat transfer.
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The First Law of
Thermodynamics
The work (electrical) done on The work (shaft) done on an
an adiabatic system is equal adiabatic system is equal to
to the increase in the energy the increase in the energy of
of the system. the system.
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CHAPTER 2
Lecture 4
32
Energy Change of a
System ∆Esystem
(Energy Change) = (Energy at final state) -
(Energy at initial state)
Internal, Kinetic, and Potential Energy of the
system may change
33
Energy Change of a
System ∆Esystem
Internal, Kinetic, and
Potential energy changes
of a closed system:
34
Energy Balance
(The First Law)
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total
energy of the system during a process is equal to the
difference between the total energy entering and the
total energy leaving the system during that process.
35
Energy Balance
for Closed Systems
For a closed system,
energy exchange with the
surroundings occurs only as
either work or heat
= ∆Esystem
Heat Transfer Work Transfer
OR
(Qin + Win) – (Qout + Wout) = Esystem
36
Energy Transfer
for Open Systems
The energy content of an open
system (control volume) can be
changed by mass flow across
the boundary as well as heat
and work interactions.
Heat Transfer Work Transfer Mass Transfer
OR (Qin + Win + Emass,in) – (Qout + Wout + Emass,out) = Esystem
Energy Balance
(The First Law)
Energy balance can be applied on a per
unit time basis, i.e. as a rate equation
38
Energy Balance
Closed System Undergoing a Cycle
A cycle is a sequence of processes that
return the system to its initial state;
therefore: ∆ Esystem = zero
(Qin – Qout) + (Win – Wout) = zero
i.e. Wnet = Qnet
Wnet = (Wout - Win) and Q net = (Qin – Qout)
On a rate basis:
39
Energy Conversion
Efficiencies
Performance is measured by comparing the
desired output to the required input
Examples (processes):
Mechanical Power Output
Motor: ηmotor = _____________________________ (Units??)
Electric Power Input
mechanical energy increase of the fluid
Pump: ηpump = ____________________________________
mechanical energy input
mechanical energy output
Turbine: ηturbine = ____________________________________
mechanical energy decrease of the fluid
40
Energy Conversion
Efficiencies
Examples: Systems operating continuously
(in cycles)
Power Plants:
Net Electric Power Output
Overall Thermal Efficiency = _________________________
Thermal Power Input
(Units??)
Refrigerators:
heat removal rate from refrigerated space
Coefficient of Performance = ____________________________
Electric Power Input
41
Energy and the Environment
The conversion of energy
from one form to another
often affects the
environment and the air we
breathe in many ways
The study of energy is not
complete without
considering its impact on the
environment.
42
Energy and the Environment
Pollutants emitted during
the combustion of fossil
fuels are responsible for
smog, acid rain, and
global warming.
The environmental pollution
has reached such high
levels that it became a Motor vehicles are the largest source
serious threat to of air pollution.
vegetation, wild life, and
human health.
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Ozone and Smog
Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it
also contains numerous other chemicals, including carbon
monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene,
butane, and other hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence
of sunlight on hot calm days to form ground-level ozone.
Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs
where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged, causing
eventual hardening of this soft and spongy tissue.
It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue,
headaches, and nausea, and aggravates respiratory
problems such as asthma.
44
Ozone and Smog
The other serious pollutant in smog is
carbon monoxide, which is a
colorless, odorless, poisonous gas.
It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
It deprives the body’s organs from
getting enough oxygen by binding with
the red blood cells that would
otherwise carry oxygen. It is fatal at
high levels.
Suspended particulate matter such as
dust and soot are emitted by vehicles Ground-level ozone forms
and industrial facilities. Such particles when HC and NOx react in
irritate the eyes and the lungs. the presence of sunlight in
hot calm days.
45
Acid Rain
The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form
sulfur dioxide (SO2), which is an air pollutant.
The main source of SO2 is the electric power plants
that burn high-sulfur coal.
Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2 emissions
since gasoline and diesel fuel also contain small
amounts of sulfur.
46
Acid Rain
The sulfur oxides and nitric
oxides react with water vapor
and other chemicals high in the
atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight to form sulfuric and nitric
acids.
The acids formed usually
dissolve in the suspended water
droplets in clouds or fog.
These acid-laden droplets, which
can be as acidic as lemon juice,
are washed from the air on to
the soil by rain or snow. This is
known as acid rain.
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The Greenhouse Effect:
Global Warming
Greenhouse effect: Glass allows
the solar radiation to enter freely
but blocks the infrared radiation
emitted by the interior surfaces.
This causes a rise in the interior
temperature as a result of the
thermal energy buildup in a space
(i.e., car).
The surface of the earth, which
warms up during the day as a
result of the absorption of solar
energy, cools down at night by
radiating part of its energy into
deep space as infrared radiation. The greenhouse effect on earth.
48
The Greenhouse Effect:
Global Warming
Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and trace amounts of
some other gases such as methane and nitrogen oxides
act like a blanket and keep the earth warm at night by
blocking the heat radiated from the earth. The result is
global warming.
These gases are called “greenhouse gases,” with CO2
being the primary component.
CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil fuels such as
coal, oil, and natural gas.
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The Greenhouse Effect:
Global Warming
A 1995 report: The earth has
already warmed about 0.5°C
during the last century, and
they estimate that the earth’s
temperature will rise another
2°C by the year 2100.
A rise of this magnitude can
cause severe changes in
weather patterns.
The average car produces several times its
weight in CO2 every year (it is driven 20,000
km a year, consumes 2300 liters of gasoline,
and produces 2.5 kg of CO2 per liter).
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The Greenhouse Effect:
Global Warming
Improved energy efficiency,
energy conservation, and
using renewable energy
sources help minimize global
warming.
Renewable energies such as wind are
called “green energy” since they emit no
pollutants or greenhouse gases.
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