DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT BOND

SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON

Catenation Property
The ability of an atom to join with other atoms of the same elements to
form a bulkier structure is called catenation. Carbon is an element
which shows maximum catenation because of its tetravalency.

Multiple Bond Formation

Due to the presence of four unpaired electrons in the valence shell of a carbon atom , there is a possibility of
formation of a multiple bonds (double bond and triple bond) between carbon atoms. The ability to form
numerous bonds also gives rise to various types of carbon chains.

Isomerism
Isomerism is the phenomenon in which more than one compound has the same chemical formula but is
structurally different. Those compounds are called isomers. Due to the difference is structure, isomers have
different physical and chemical properties.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Though carbon forms millions of compounds, it combines only with a few elements chiefly with hydrogen.
• Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. The other elements forming a bond with
carbon are oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, sulphur, magnesium, etc.
• Based on structure, bonding, and chemical behavior, the hydrocarbons are classified into two main categories,
namely, aliphatic hydrocarbons and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
If in the carbon skeleton of the acyclic hydrocarbon molecules, there are one or more multiple bonds present between carbon
atoms, they are called unsaturated hydrocarbons. Double bonds and triple bonds are further called as alkenes and alkynes
respectively.
Alkenes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General formula of alkenes
is CnH2n . They are commonly called “olefins”.

Alkynes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond
are called alkynes. General formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2 They are
commonly called “acetylenes”.
Reaction of carbon with oxygen

Procedure: Ignite the coal. Hold the moist blue litmus paper over the
gas released on igniting the coal. Note the observation.

1. With which gas in the air does the coal react on igniting?

2. What is the substance formed?

3. What change takes place in the litmus paper?

4. Write down the chemical reaction taking place in the above

procedure.
Reaction of limewater with CO 2

Procedure : Take freshly prepared limewater in a test tube.

Blow for sometime into the limewater through the straw and
observe the limewater.
What did you see?
What might be the reason behind the change?
Carbon dioxide

Molecular formula: CO2 molecular mass: 44 melting point: - 56.6 0C

Occurrence: Carbon dioxide occurs in the air in the free state to the extent of about 0.03%.
Exhaled air contains about 4% of CO2.
CO2 is present as a salt in chalk and Shahabad tiles/ marble/ limestone.
CO2 is given out in the combustion of wood and the fossil fuel coal.

Preparation of carbon dioxide

PROPERTIES
• It is a colourless and odourless gas.
• It is a non-flammable gas.
• It is denser than air. It has a density of 1.977g/ml.
• It forms a weak carbonic acid when dissolved in water. It turns lime water milky.
• Equation which shows CO2 behaves as an acid:
• CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
(The reaction is reversible in nature).
3. chemical reaction taking place between water and carbon dioxide
• CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
(The reaction is reversible in nature).
4. chemical reaction taking place on putting limewater in the gas jar of CO2.
Regular fire extinguisher
• A fire extinguisher contains sodium bicarbonate powder. There is also dilute
Sulphuric acid placed in a glass capsule.
• The capsule breaks on pressing the knob, the sulphuric acid comes in contact with
the sodium bicarbonate and the two react chemically to release CO2 which comes
out.
• CO2 based fire extinguishers do not cause corrosion and are non conductors of
electricity.
• Therefore these are used when electrical and electronic equipment catches fire. CO2
based fire extinguishers are used to extinguish small-scale fire. It is beyond their
capacity to extinguish a big fire.

• In modern fire extinguishers liquid and solid CO2 is filled under pressure. On
reducing the pressure it becomes gaseous and comes out forcefully through the
horn-like hose pipe.
METHANE
BIOGAS PLANT
• Animal dung, dry leaves, and wet garbage get decomposed by anaerobic
microbes in a biogas plant. This produces methane gas also called biogas.
• Biogas is a very cheap fuel option that meets the demand for cooking gas.
• It is also used for the production of electricity.
• Biogas contains about 55% to 60% methane and the rest is carbon dioxide.
• Biogas is a fuel which is convenient to use and, in addition to this, a very good
manure is also produced as a side product of the process.
Biogas production process
• Production of biogas is an anaerobic process. It takes place in two stages.
1. Production of acids
• The microbes act on the biodegradable complex organic compound and produce organic acids.
2. Methane gas production
• The methanogenic bacteria act on the organic acids to produce methane gas.
SUBSTANCES IN COMMON USE
• The ionic compounds which do not contain H+ and OH- ions and contain only one kind of cation
and anion are called simple salts. For example, Na2SO4, K3PO4, CaCl2.
• Inorganic substances occur naturally in the form of salts rather than acids or bases.
• About 80 million tons of salts are added every year to seawater. Therefore, the sea is said to be a rich
source of salts.
Sodium chloride(Table salt- NaCl)
• Table salt, or common salt, which gives a salty taste to food, is the most used of all salts. Its chemical name is sodium
chloride.
• Sodium chloride is formed by a neutralization reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
• The 25% aqueous solution of salt is called saturated brine.
Properties and uses
1. Common salt is a colourless and crystalline ionic compound. There is no water of crystallization in its crystalline structure.
2. It is a neutral salt, salty in taste.
3. This compound is used for the production of salts like Na2CO3, and NaHCO3.
4. When an electric current is passed through a saturated solution of sodium chloride (brine) it is electrolyzed and hydrogen gas
is released at the cathode while chlorine gas is released at the anode. This method is used for the production of chlorine gas. In
this method, an important basic compound NaOH is formed in the cell.
5. When salt is heated to a high temperature (about 800 0C), it melts. This is called the fused state of the salt.
6. When fused salt is electrolyzed, chlorine gas is released at the anode and liquid sodium metal, at the cathode.
Sodium bicarbonate (Baking soda – NaHCO ) 3

Baking soda is a white noncrystalline powder. Its chemical name is sodium hydrogen
carbonate or sodium bicarbonate and its molecular formula is NaHCO3.
Properties and uses
1. NaHCO3 reacts with moist litmus paper and red litmus turns blue which means that it is
basic in nature.
2. It is used to make bread, cake, and dhokla.
3. Being basic in nature it is used to reduce acidity in the stomach.
4. NaHCO3 is used to make the active substance CO2 in the fire extinguisher.
5. Baking soda is used to clean an oven.
Bleaching powder (Calcium oxychloride CaOCl2)
Chlorine is inconvenient to handle because of its gaseous state. Instead, the solid bleaching powder which has
the same effect is more convenient to use.
Bleaching powder undergoes slow decomposition due to the carbon dioxide in air and chlorine gas is released.
Bleaching powder gets its property because of this release of chlorine gas.

Bleaching powder is obtained by the reaction of chlorine gas with slaked lime.
Washing soda Na CO .H O 2 3 2

The hard water from a well or a bore-well becomes soft on adding washing soda and we come to know this from the
lather formed on it. The hardness of water is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium
in it.
Na2CO3 is added to it to soften such water and make it suitable for use. The reaction with Na2CO3 causes the
formation of insoluble carbonate salts of magnesium and calcium.

Sodium carbonate is a water soluble salt of sodium. Crystalline sodium carbonate,on keeping, loses its water of
crystallization readily and a white powder is obtained. This powder is called washing soda.
SOAPS

When oil or animal fat is boiled with an aqueous solution of sodium or potassium
hydroxide, sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids (fatty acids) are formed. These
salts are called soap. When soap is mixed with hard water calcium and magnesium salts
of fatty acids are formed. These being water insoluble they form a precipitate and that is
why lather is not formed.
Radioactive substances
• Elements with a high atomic number such as uranium, thorium, radium have a property of
spontaneously emitting invisible, highly penetrating and high energy radiation. This property is
called radioactivity. A substance having this property is called a radioactive substance.

• The nucleus of radioactive elements is unstable. Radiation occurs from an unstable nucleus.
• Three types of radiation are given out by radioactive substances. These are alpha, beta and gamma
rays.
An introduction to scientists
• The French scientist Henry Becquerel was studying pitchblende, a compound of uranium. He had kept
some unused photographic plates in a cardboard box in a drawer. A key was lying on the box. He
happened to leave the uranium compounds on it.
• After a few days, he washed the plates only to find that the plates were cloudy and showed the shape of
the key. As this incidence occurred in the dark, Becquerel inferred that the uranium compounds might
be emitting from their interiors, rays like x-rays which penetrate substances. These rays were called
Becquerel rays.
• After a few days, Madame Curie discovered similar properties in compounds of thorium.
Nature of Radioactive Radiation

• In 1889 Rutherford discovered that the radiations emitted by radium were of two types. They are called
alpha and beta radiation.
• Willard discovered the third type namely gamma radiation.
Natural radioactivity: Generally, the elements with atomic numbers from 82 to 92 are found to radiate
spontaneously in nature. These are called natural radioactive elements.

Artificial radioactive elements – The couple Fredric Joliot Curie and Irene Joliot Curie first invented induced
radioactivity. The radioactive elements produced in the nuclear fission processes brought about in the
laboratory by the bombardment of particles are called artificial radioactive elements. They were awarded the
Nobel prize in 1935 for this invention.
• When these rays are allowed to pass through two oppositely charged plates they get
separated. This method was introduced by Rutherford in 1902. Rutherford and
Willard studied the radiation emitted by radioactive substances.

• The rays were allowed to pass through an electrical field and a photographic plate
was held in their path. It was found that the radiation was divided into three types.
One type of radiation deviated slightly toward the negatively charged plate, while the
second type of radiation deviated substantially toward the positively charged plate.
• However, the third type of radiation did not deviate at all in the electrical field.

• The rays which deviated slightly toward negatively charged plate are called alpha
rays, those which deviate substantially towards the positively charged plate are called
beta rays and those which do not deviate at all are called gamma rays.
Uses of Radioactive isotopes
1. Industrial field
Radiography – Internal cracks and voids in cast iron articles and iron solder can be detected with the help of gramma rays.
For this purpose, isotopes like cobalt-60, iridium-192 are used in the radiography camera. This technique is used for
detecting flaws in metalwork.
Luminescent paint and radio luminescence – The radioactive substances radium, promethium, tritium with some
phosphor are used to make certain objects visible in the dark, for example, the hands of a clock, and certain other objects.
Krypton-85 is used in HID (High-Intensity Discharge) lamps while promethium-147 is used in portable X-ray units as the
source of beta rays.

Uranium oxide was used in thee paints.

2. Field of agriculture
The radioactive isotope cobalt-60 is used for food preservation.
3. Onions, potatoes are irradiated with gamma rays from cobalt-60 to prevent their sprouting.
4. Strontium-90 is used as a tracer in the research on various crops.
Medical science
1. Polycythemia : The red blood cell count increases in the disease polycythemia. Phosphorus-
32 is used in its treatment.

2. Bone cancer : Strontium-89, strontium-90, samarium-153 and radium-223 are used in the
treatment of bone cancer.

3. Hyperthyroidism : Enlargement of thyroid gland, weight loss in spite of appetite, insomnia

are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism. It occurs due to overproduction of hormones by the
thyroid gland. Iodine-123 is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism .

4. Tumour detection : Boron-10, iodine-131, cobalt-60 are used in treatment of brain tumour,
while arsenic-74 is used in detection of small tumours in the body.
Food colours and essences
1. Food colours added to pickles, jam and sauce contain small quantities of lead and mercury. These can be
harmful for those who consume these products on a regular basis.
2. Diseases like ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) can affect children due to excessive
consumption of foods with added food colours.
3. Food colours are natural as well as artificial. The food colours prepared from seeds, beetroot, flowers and fruit
concentrate are natural. Tetrazene, sunset yellow are artificial food colours used extensively.
Dyes
Uses
1. They are used for colouring cloth and hair.
2. Fluorescent colours are used to make street boards that are visible at night.
3. Dyes are used to polish leather shoes, purses and chappals.
Adverse effects
1. Dyeing hair can have adverse effects like hair fall, damage to hair texture, burning of skin, adverse effect on
eyes, etc.
2. Lipstick contains a dye named carmine. It does not affect lips but causes stomach disorders.
3. Excessive use of plants for making natural dyes results in deterioration of the environment.
DEODORANTS
Deodorants contain parabens (methyl, ethyl, propyl, benzyl and butyl) and also alcohol in large
proportions. Aluminium compounds and silica are also used.
1. Ordinary deo – It contains a smaller proportion of aluminium. It decreases the odour of the sweat.
2. Antiperspirant Deo – This decreases the extent of sweating. It contains about 15% of aluminium
chlorohydrate. It clogs the sweat pores on the skin.
3. Clinical deo – Some people sweat heavily and it has harmful effects on the skin. Clinical deo is meant
for such people. It contains 20 to 25% aluminium. It is used during the night.

Harmful effects
1. Aluminium – Zirconium compounds are the most harmful chemicals in the deodorant. Disorders like
headaches, asthma, respiratory disorders, and heart disease are likely to occur without our knowledge.
2. There is a possibility of various skin disorders and also skin cancer due to the aluminium
chlorohydrates.
TEFLON
• Teflon is used for coating cooking utensils and industrial equipment to avoid sticking. It is the
polymer of tetrafluoroethylene.
• Roy J. Plunkett discovered it in 1938. Its chemical name is polytetrafluoroethene (C2F4)n .
POWDER COATING
• Powder coating is a method of applying a layer harder than paint on the surface of an iron object to
prevent rusting.
• In this method, a polymer resin, a pigment, and some other ingredients are melt mixed, cooled and
ground into a uniform powder.
• This powder is sprayed on the polished metal surface by electrostatic spray deposition (ESD).
• In this method, the particles of the powder are given an electrostatic charge due to which a uniform
layer of the powder sticks to the metal surface.
• Then the object is heated in the over along with the coating. A chemical reaction occurs in the layer,
resulting in the formation of long cross-linked polymeric chains.
• This powder coating is highly durable, hard and attractive.
• Powder coating can be done on plastic and medium-density fiber (MDF) board in day-to-day use as
well.
ANODIZING
• A protective layer is formed naturally on the surface of aluminium metal by reaction with oxygen in air.
• In the anodizing process, this layer can be made of the desired thickness.
• Anodizing is done by electrolysis.
• Dilute acid is taken in the electrolytic cell and the aluminium article is dipped in it as the anode.
• When an electric current is passed hydrogen gas is released at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.
• A reaction with oxygen occurs and a layer of hydrated aluminium oxide is formed on the anode, i.e. the
iron article.
• This layer can be made attractive by adding colour in the cell during electrolysis.
• We use anodized cooking utensils like griddles and cookers.
CERAMICS

• Ceramic is a heat resistant substance formed by kneading an inorganic substance in water and then shaping it
and hardening it by heating.
• Pots made by a potter, Mangalore roofing tiles, construction bricks, pottery, terracotta articles are some
examples of common ceramic articles.
• This is how a ceramic article is made
• When clay is kneaded in water, shaped and then fired in a kiln at a temperature of 1000 to 11500C , a porous
ceramic is formed.
• To overcome the porosity the fired object is covered with finely ground glass powder suspended in water
(glaze) and is then fired again. As a result, the surface of the ceramic becomes shiny and its porosity
disappears