CHAPTER - 01

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
 Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous organisms.

 Reproduction is ability to produce individuals of same species. The main events in reproduction
include.

Gametogenesis  Insemination  Fertilisation  Implantation  Gestation  Delivery/Parturition

a) Gametogenesis:-
It is the formation of gametes.
Male gametes are sperms
Female gametes are egg/ovum
Formation of sperm is called spermatogenesis
Formation of egg is called oogenesis
b) Insemination : -
It is the transfer of sperms into the female genital tract.
c) Fertilisation :-
It is the fusion of male and female gamete. It results in the formation of zygote.
d) Implantation :-
Attachment of Blastocyst on the inner wall of uterus (Endometrium) is called implantation.
e) Gestation :-
Embryonic development within the uterus of mother is called gestation.
Human gestation period is 9 month.
Or
The duration between fertilization and parturition is called gestation.
f) Parturition :-

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 Delivery of the baby is the parturition

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• These reproductive events occur after puberty
• There are remarkable differences between the reproductive events in the male and in the female,
for example, sperm formation continues even in old men, but formation of ovum ceases in women
around the age of fifty years.

The male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is located in the pelvic region. It consists of

a) A pair of testis
b) Accessory ducts
c) Accessory glands
d) External genitalia

a) A pair of Testis

• It is located in abdominal cavity with in a pouch called scrotum.

• Scrotum maintain the low temperature (between 2 - 2.5 C) of the testes.
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• Each testis is oval in shape.

• It’s length is 4 to 5 cm and a width of about 2 to 3 cm
• The testis is covered by a dense covering
• Each testis is divided into 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
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 • Each lobule contains 1-3 highly coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules.

• Each seminiferous tubule is lined internally by two types of cells

Male germ cells (Spermatogonia) undergo meiotic cell division to produce sperms.
Sertoli cells
They provide nutrition to the germ cells

• The regions out side the seminiferous tubules called interstitial space.
• It contains small blood vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells

• Leydig cells synthesise and secrete the male hormones, androgens (testosterone) which maintain
the male sex characteristics.
b) Accessory Duct :-
 The male sex accessory ducts include
 Rete testis,
 Vasa efferentia,
Epididymis and
 Vas deferens.
The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete testis (They
are irregular cavities present in testes).
The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis.
 The epididymis leads to vas deferens.
Vas deferens receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the ejaculatory
duct.

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These ducts store and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra.
 The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its external
opening called urethral meatus.

Seminiferous tubules  Rete testis  Vasa efferentia  Epididymis 

Vas deferens  Ejaculatory duct  Urethra  Urethral meatus

c) Accessory Glands :
• It include
i) Paired seminal vesicles.
ii) A prostate and
iii) Paired bulbourethral glands
(Cowper’s gland)

• Secretions of all these glands constitute the seminal plasma

• Seminal plasma is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes
 The secretions of bulbourethral glands also helps in the lubrication of the penis.
Seminal plasma along with sperm is called Semen.
Seminal Plasma +Sperm = Semen

d) External genitalia :
Penis
• Erectile copulatory organ in males.
• Both urine and semen are passed through the penis.
• The enlarged end of the penis is called glans penis, covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.
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 The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is located in pelvic region and

It consists of
a) A pair of ovaries,
b) Accessory ducts and
c) External genitalia
These parts of the system along with a pair of the mammary glands are integrated structurally
and functionally to support the processes of ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy, birth and child care.
a) A pair of ovaries:-

• Primary sex organ of female.

• Located on each side of the lower abdomen
• It is about 2-4 cm in length and is connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
• Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma
• The stroma is divided into two zones: a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.
b) Accessory ducts

• Accessory ducts include

 The oviducts (fallopian tubes)
 Uterus and
 Vagina

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c) Oviducts (fallopian tubes)

• The muscular tubes which carry the ovum from the ovary to the uterus are called oviducts or
fallopian tubes.

• Each fallopian tube is about 10 - 12 cm long

• Each oviduct has three parts:
I. Infundibulum
The opening of the fallopian tube is expanded into funnel-shaped infundibulum
II. Fimbriae
The edges of the infundibulum has finger like projections called fimbriae
III. Ampulla
The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla.
IV. Isthmus
It is the part of the oviduct having a narrow lumen which joins the uterus.
d) Uterus (Womb):

• The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear.

• The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix.
• The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal which along with vagina forms the birth canal.
The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue
i) Perimetrium :-

• It is the external thin layer membranous layer of uterus

ii) Myometrium :-

• It is the middle thick layer of uterus. It contains smooth muscle.

• The myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby.
iii) Endometrium:-

• It is the inner most layer of uterus and is a glandular layer.

• The Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle
e) Female external genitalia
It includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and clitoris.
i) Mons pubis
It is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubis hair.

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 ii) Labia majora
It is a large, fleshy, fatty and hairy outer folds.
It extends from mons pubis and surrounds the vaginal opening.
iii) Labia minora
They are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora
iv) Clitoris
A tiny finger like structure, lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora above the urethral opening.
v) Hymen
A thin mucous membrane that covers the vaginal opening either partially or entirely.
The hymen often breaks during the first intercourse or during sports like horse riding, cycling or
suddent fail or jolt, etc.
f) Mammary glands (breasts):-
• It is paired, contains glandular tissue and fatty tissues
• Each glandular tissue is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes with alveoli.
• The cells of alveoli secrete milk which is stored in the cavities (lumens) of alveoli.
• The alveoli open into mammary tubules
• The mammary tubules of each lobe open into small mammary duct
• Mammary ducts join to form a wider, mammary ampulla that is connected to lactiferous duct
through which milk is sucked out.

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Gametogenesis
• It is the process of formation and differentiation of haploid gametes (sperms and ova) from the
diploid primary germ cells.
• It includes
1. Spermatogenesis
2. Oogenesis.

Spermatogenesis

• The process of formation of sperm is called spermatogenesis

• It takes place at testis
• Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules
• Each testicular lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms
are produced

• Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called male germ cells
(spermatogonia/Sperm mother cells) and Sertoli cells

• Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes.

Steps in Spermatogenesis

• The spermatogonia (sing, spermatogonium) present the inside wall of seminiferous tubules multiply
by mitotic division and

• Increase in numbers
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 • Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis
• A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to formation
of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes, which have only 23 chromosomes
each.

• The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called spermiogenesis.
• ie, Spermiogenesis is the conversion of spermatid into sperm is called spermiogenesis.

• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells and are finally released
from the seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation.

• The release of sperm after spermatogenesis from seminiferous tubule is called spermiation.

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 Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis / Male reproductive system

• Spermiogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant increase in the secretion of
gonadrotropin releasing hormone (GnRH -GnRH is secreted by Hypothalamus).
• The increased levels of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary gland (Adenohypophysis) and
stimulates secretion of two gonadotropins- luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).
LH (luteinising hormone)
 LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens.
 Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis.
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors which help in the
process of spermiogenesis.

Structure of sperm
It is a microscopic structure composed of
A head
 Neck
A middle piece and
A tail

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 A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
The sperm head:
The head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of which is covered by a cap-
like structure, acrosome. The acrosome is filled with enzymes (Hyaluronidase) that help in fertilisation
of the ovum.
The middle piece
Middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce energy for the movement of tail that
facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilization.
Tail
It helps in sperm movement
The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during a coitus of which for
normal fertility, at least 60 percent sperms must have normal shape and size and at least 40
percent of them must show vigorous motility..
• The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen.

Oogenesis
• The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called Oogenesis.
• Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of million gamete
mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each foetal ovary, no more oogonia are formed and
added after birth.
• These cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division and get
temporarly arrested at that stage, called primary oocytes.

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• Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is called the primary
follicle.
• A large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore, at
puberty only 60,000 -80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
• The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca and are
called secondary follicles.

• The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by a fluid
filled cavity called antrum. The theca layer is organised into an inner theca interna and an outer theca
externa.
• First meiotic division an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large haploid secondary
oocyte and a tiny first polar body
• The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte
• The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle
• The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called zona pellucida surrounding it.
• The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary by the
process called ovulation.

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 Difference between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

It is the production of the sperms It is the production of the ovum

It take place in the ovary and

It takes place in the testis
last stage in oviduct

It takes place every day It takes place once per month

It is a discontinuous process. The early

It is a continuous process stages take place in the foetus and the rest
in later stages of life.

No polar body formation Polar body is formed

No temporary arrest stage in

Temporary arrest stage present
any phase of spermatogenesis
A single primary spermatocyte A single priamry oocyte produces
produces 4 sperms only one egg
Formation of ovum ceases in
Spermatogenesis continues In old men
women around the age of 50 years

Menstrual Cycle
The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g, monkeys, apes and human beings) is called
menstrual cycle.

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• The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche.
• Menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is formed as menopause.
• Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends between
menarche and menopause
• In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28-29 days, and the
cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle.
• The menstrual cycle may be said to be a combination of ovarian cycle and uterine cycle.
a) Bleeding phase/ Menstrual phase
• This phase lasts for 3-5 days
• The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and its blood
vessels which forms liquid that comes out through vagina.
• Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilised.
• Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also be caused due
to some other underlying causes like stress, poor health etc.
b) Follicular phase (Proliferative phase)
• It lasts for about 14 days
• The anterior pituitary produce gonadotropins (LH and FSH)
• FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) stimulates the growth of ovarian follicle.
• The follicular cells of Graafian follicle secretes the female hormones, estrogen.
• The hormone estrogen promotes the growth (proliferation) of endometrium.
c) Ovulatory phase
• This happens on the 14 day after menstruation
th

• Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH Surge.
• The LH stimulates the rupture of the Graafian follicle and release of the mature ovum this process
is called ovulation
• Ovum remains alive and functional for 24 hours
• LH also starts the change of empty Graafian follicle into corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone
from it.
d) Luteal phase (Secretory phase)
• It lasts for 12-14 fays after ovulation

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 • After the release of ovum the remaining parts of Graafian follicle cells from a yellow body called
corpus luteum.
• Corpus luteum secretes progesterone hormone which is essential for the maintenance of
endometrium for the implantation of the embryo.

• During pregnancy all events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation
• In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegration of the
endometrium leading to menstruation, making a new cycle.

Fertilisation & Implantation

• The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation
• It takes place in ampullary isthmic junction of the fallopian tube
• During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina (insemination).
• The motile sperms pass through the cervix, enter into the uterus.
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• The sperms finally reach the junction of isthmus and ampulla (ampullary isthmic junction).
• A sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer of the ovum.
• The enzymatic secretion of acrosome help the sperm to enter the cytoplasm of the ovum

• This induces the completion of the meiotic division of the secondary oocyte
• This results in a second polar body and a haploid ovum (ootid)
• The haploid sperm nuclei and that of the ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote.
Sex determination
• The sex of the child is determined by the father and not by mother
• The presence of ‘X’ or ‘Y’ chromosome in the sperm determines the sex of the embryo
• Sex chromosome pattern in human female is XX and in male is XY.

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 • When the egg get fertilised, the sex of the child will depend on the kind of sperm that fertilises the
ovum.

• The zygote carrying XX sex chromosomes would be female baby

• XY would be a male baby.
Clevage

• After fertilization zygote starts mitotic division.

• The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct called cleavage
towards the uterus and forms 2,4,8,16 daughter cells called blastomeres.

• The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula.

• The morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves further into the uterus.
• The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast and
an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.

Pregnancy and embryonic development

• After implantation, finger like projections appears on the trophoblast called chorionic villi.
• Chorionic villi and uterine tissue gets integrated with each other to form placenta.
• Placenta is a structural and functional unit between embryo and maternal body
• Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord. It transports substances to and from the
embryo.

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• Placenta also secretes relaxin. This helps in parturition by softening the connective tissue of the
pubic symphysis.
• During pregnancy, the level of some hormones like estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, prolactin,
thyroxine, etc. are increased several times in the mother’s blood.
• Increased production of these hormones is necessary for supporting the foetal growth, metabolic
changes in the mother and maintenance of pregnancy.
• hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women only during pregnancy.
Functions of placenta
1. The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo
2. It helps in the removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/ waste materials produced by the embryo.
3. Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.
• hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women only during pregnancy.
• In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
Formation of germ layers
• The inner cell mass of blastocyst develops into three layers.
i. outer layer called ectoderm
ii. inner layer called endoderm
iii. middle layer called mesoderm
• Inner cell mass contain certain cells called stem cells that have the potency to give rise all the
tissue and organs.
• The period of pregnancy is called gestation.
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 Gestation
• The duration between fertilization and parturition is called gestation.
• 1 month of pregnancy= Heart is formed
st

• 1 sign of growing foetus may be noticed by the listing to the heart sound
st

• By the end of second month- Limbs and digits formed

• By the end of 12 weeks (1 trimester) = major organs formed (Limbs and external genital
st

organs formed)
• 5 month= 1 movement of foetus, appearance of hair on head
th st

• By the end of 24 week (2 trimester)= Body covered with fine hairs, eye lids separate, eye
th nd

lashes formed
• By the end of 9 months of pregnancy, =the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.
Parturition
• The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months
• Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/ delivery of the foetus.
This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition.
• Parturition is induced by a complex neuro endocrine mechanism.
• The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta
which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex. This triggers release of
oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
• Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which in turn
stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory reflex between the uterine contraction and
oxytocin secretion continues resulting in stronger and stronger contractions. This leads to expulsion
of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal (Cervical canal along with vagina is called
birth canal) - parturition.
• Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.
Lactation
The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and starts producing
milk towards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation . This helps the mother in feeding
the newborn.
 The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which contains
several antibodies (IgA) absolutely essential to develop resistance for the new-born babies.
Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommened by doctors of bringing
up a healthy baby.
• Milk , synthesizing hormone is =PRL (Prolactin)
• Milk ejecting hormone is =OT(Oxytocin)
• Pregnancy hormone = Progesterone

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Objective Questions
1. Mitochondria of sperm is present in :
1) Neck 2) Tail 3) Middle piece 4) Head
2. Chromosomes in primary oocyte and secondary oocyte respectively is :
1) 23 and 46 2) 46 and 23 3) 46 and 46 4) 23 and 23
3. Paired male accessory sex glands are :
1) Prostate and Cowper’s gland 2) Prostate and Seminal vesicles
3) Seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands 4) Seminal vesicles and bulbovestibular glands
4. Which of the following develops a non-cellular protective membrane called zona pellucida?
1) Ootid 2) Oogonium 3) Secondary oocyte 4) Primary oocyte
5. Which hormone is secreted in a woman if pregnancy has occured?
1) Estrogen 2) Progesterone
3) LH 4) Human chorionic gonadotropin
6. Read the following statements.
a) The outer layer of blastomeres seen in the blastocyst is called trophoblast
b) The inner group of blastomeres seen attached to trophoblast is called inner cell mass.
c) The inner cell mass differentiated as the embryo
d) During implantation, the trophoblast layer gets attached to the endometrium.
Of the above statements ;
1) a, b, d are true e is false 2) a, b, c are true, d is false
3) a, c, d are true b is false 4) a, b, c, d are true
7. What happens during fertilization in humans after many sperms reach close to the ovum?
1) All sperms except the one nearest to the ovum lose their tails
2) Cells of corona rediata trap all the sperms except one
3) Secretion of acrosome helps one sperm to enter into the cytoplasm of ovum through zona pellucida
4) Only two sperms nearest to the ovum penetrate zona pellucida
8. Which of the following contains stem cells?
1) Prophoblast 2) Inner cell mass 3) Prophoectoderm 4) Endometrium
9. Lack of menstruation may be due to :
1) Pregnancy 2) Stress and poor hear
3) Imbalance of hormones 4) All of the above

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10. Select the incorrect statement :
1) Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism involving oxytocin.
2) The process of release of ovum from mature follicle is called ovulation
3) Colostrum is rich in antibodies and nutrients
4) By the end of the second month of pregnancy human foetus develops most of the major organ
systems.
Descriptive Questions
1. State the difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
2. Which are the major accessory reproductive ducts and glands of males?
3. What is menstrual cycle? Explain the role of various hormones in its regulation
4. Describe the hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
5. What is implantation?
6. Explain the role of placenta.
7. What are the various stages of formation of a human baby, starting from zygote?
8. Explain the process of fertilization.
9. What is meant by parturition?
10. Elaborate on mammary gland.

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