Laboratory Manual

Electronic Circuits I Laboratory

EEE/ECE 206 (V1, V2)
EEE/ECE 205L (V3)

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering (EEE)

School of Engineering (SoE)
Brac University

Revision: August 2021

A. Course Objectives:
The objectives of this course are to:

a. Teach the students different methods to Analyze electronic circuits consisting of electronic devices: Diodes, BJTs
and MOSFETs for DC and AC signals.
b. Expose the students with the introductory design process of Amplifier circuits.
c. Provide the students with the skills to simulate electronic circuits and construct, troubleshoot/debug them, and finally,
extract experimental data with a view to solidifying the underlying knowledge of the devices
.

B. Course Outcomes, CO-PO-Taxonomy Domain & Level- Delivery-Assessment Tool:

Sl. CO Description POs Bloom’s Delivery Assessment
taxonomy methods and tools
domain/level activities
EEE 205 Electronic Circuit I
Construct large-signal equivalent circuit of
various electronic devices such as Diode,
BJT and MOSFET based on the Cognitive/ Lectures, Assignment,
CO1 a
understanding of the construction, operation Apply notes Quiz, Exam
mechanism and characteristics of the
devices.
Analyze electronic circuits consisting of
Cognitive/ Lectures, Assignment,
CO2 different electronic devices such as diodes, a
Analyze notes Quiz, Exam
BJT, MOSFTEs for both DC and AC signals.
Design various electronic circuits such as Assignment,
Cognitive/ Lectures,
CO3 Amplifier circuits and Voltage regulator c Exam,
Create notes
circuits Project
EEE 205L Electronic Circuit I Laboratory
Investigate the effect of different circuit
Cognitive/
parameters including load resistance on the Open-ended
Evaluate, Lectures,
CO4 Amplifier performances in terms of Gain, d Lab
Psychomotor/ notes
input/output impedance, faithful Experiment
Manipulation
reproducibility, stability in biasing etc.
Cognitive/
Lab Work,
Use simulation tool to construct electronic Apply
CO5 e Lab class Software
circuits and simulate in schematic level Psychomotor/
Exam
Manipulation

C. Mark Distribution
Assessment Tools Weightage
Attendance 10
Lab Work (Hardware) 10
Lab Work (Software) 10
Lab Report (Hardware, Software) 10
Project 20
Lab Exam (Hardware) 20
Lab Exam (Software) 20

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D. References
Sl Title Author(s) Publication Edition Publisher ISBN
. Year
1 Microelectronics Adel S. Sedra, 2014 7th ed. Oxford ISBN-13: 978-
circuits Kenneth C. University 0199339136
Smith Press
2 Microelectronics Donald A. 2010 4th ed. McGraw-Hill ISBN 978–0–07–
Circuit Analysis & Neaman 338064–3
Design

Lab Safety and Security Issues

1. Laboratory Safety Rules (General Guidelines):

The Department of EEE maintains general safety rules for laboratories. The guideline is attached in front of
the door in each of the laboratories. The written rules are as follows.

1. Closed shoes must be worn that will provide full coverage of the feet and appropriate personnel
clothing must be worn.
2. Always check if the power switch is off before plugging in to the outlet. Also, turn the instrument or
equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.
3. Before supplying power to the circuit, the connections and layouts must be checked by the teacher.
4. Voltage equal or above 50V are always dangerous. Therefore, extra precautions must be taken as
voltage level is increased.
5. Extension cords should be used only when necessary and only on a temporary basis.
6. Once the lab exercise is done, all equipment must be powered down and all probes, cords and other
instruments must be returned to their proper position.
7. In case of fire, disconnect the electrical mains power source if possible.
8. Students must be familiar with the locations and operations of safety and emergency equipment like
Emergency power off, Fire alarm switch and so on.
9. Eating, drinking, chewing gum inside electrical laboratories are strictly prohibited.
10. Do not use damaged cords or cords that become too hot or cords with exposed wiring and if
something like that is found, inform the teacher/LTO right away.
11. No laboratory equipment can be removed from their fixed places without the teacher/LTO’s
authorization.
12. No lab work must be performed without the laboratory teacher/lab technical officer being present.

2. Electrical Safety
To prevent electrical hazards, there are symbols in front of the Electrical Distribution Board, High voltage
three phase lines in the lab, Backup generator and substation. Symbols related to Arc Flash and Shock
Hazard, Danger: High Voltage, Authorized personnel Only, no smoking etc. are posted in required places.
Only authorized personnel are allowed to open the distribution boxes.

-ii-
3. Electrical Fire:
If an electrical fire occurs, try to disconnect the electrical power source, if possible. If the fire is small, you are
not in immediate danger, use any type of fire extinguisher except water to extinguish the fire. When in doubt,
push in the Emergency Power Off button.

4. IMPORTANT:
Do not use water on an electrical fire.

List of Experiments

Exp. Experiment Name Page Tentative Is this

No. schedule experiment
used for any
CO
assessment?

Yes No

1 Study of diode characteristics 1 2nd week ✓

Study of half-wave and full-wave diode rectifier 9 3rd week ✓

2
circuit

3 Study of clipper and clamper circuits 19 4th week ✓

Study of zener diode and its application in 24 5th week ✓

4
voltage regulation

Study of bipolar junction transistor 32 6th week ✓

5
characteristics

6 Study of bjt biasing circuits 38 7th week ✓

7 Study of common emitter amplifier 42 8th week ✓

Updated by:
• Sanjida Hossain Sabah
• Mehedi Hasan Shawon
• Aldrin Nippon Bobby

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Experiment No. 1
Study of diode characteristics

1. Objective: This experiment is intended to study the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of silicon p-n
junction diodes.

2. Theoretical Background: Diode is a semiconductor device that allows current flow only in one direction,
from p to n or anode to cathode. The schematic diagram, diode notation and circuit symbol are shown in
Figure 1. Diodes are usually marked with a dot or a bar appearing on the cathode side. This mark helps
identify the diode terminals.

Figure 1
Diode Structure

Packaged Diode
Anode Cathode

Circuit Symbol

Diodes have small impedance to current flow in one direction (forward-biased) and large impedance in the
reverse-biased mode. When diodes fail they either short-circuit (pass current in both directions – i.e. low
resistance in both directions) or open-circuit (do not pass current at all).

1
Ideal Diode Characteristics:

Figure 2

Real Diode Characteristics:

Figure 3
ID ≈ IS exp(VD/nVT), VD >> VT

VD < - VZK ID ≈ - IS , VD < 0

2
Constant Voltage Drop(CVD) model:

Piecewise Linear (PWL) model:

Diode Resistance:

As the diode I-V characteristic is not linear, it will have different resistances at different points on the curve.
A dynamic or AC resistance for the diode is defined as,
rd = dv/di ≈ nVT/ID
The static or DC resistance at any point is defined as, RD = VD/ID.

3
Diode Specifications:

There are many specifications for each type of diode, the most important two are: (1) PIV (Peak inverse
Voltage) maximum voltages the diode can tolerate in reverse direction. (2) IF, Maximum Forward Current the
diode can conduct in forward biased condition without exceeding the safe limit. Take a look at the data sheet
of a diode provided at the last page to get familiar with some of the diode specifications.

Diodes are widely used in applications such as mixers, detectors, protection circuits. In this experiment you
will investigate application of diodes as a switch in a logic gates (AND gate), and study its I-V characteristics.

3. Equipment:

• p-n junction diode(1N4003) one piece

• Resistor (1k, 10k) one piece each
• DC power suply one piece
• Chords and wire lot

4. Circuit Diagram:

+ VR -

1K

+
ID VD
Vdc -

Figure 4 Circuit diagram for

diode characteristics
5. Procedure:

i. Measure resistance accurately using multimeter.

ii. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.
iii. Vary input voltage (Vdc) from 0 to 10 V and measure VR and VD. Increase Vdc in steps of 0.1 V
for 0-1 V and in steps of 1 V for 1-10 V. (Note that ID=VR/ R).

4
6. Lab report directions:

• Plot diode I-V characteristics of the diode for different readings obtained.
• Using the I-V characteristics curve determine the built-in voltage (VD0) and dynamic resistance (rd)
of the diode.
• Using the I-V characteristics curve find diode ideality factor (n) and reverse saturation current (I s).
• Draw the equivalent circuit of figure-4 using CVD (Constant Voltage Drop) and PWL(Piecewise
Linear) model. [Use VD0 and rd obtained in Report 2]
• Determine current for each of the equivalent circuits mentioned above.[Use V dc=5V].

5
Experiment No.:01
Name of the Experiment: Study of diode characteristics
Group Number:

Circuit Diagram:

Figure: Circuit diagram for diode characteristics

Data Table:

R= kΩ

No. of Observation Vdc (V) VD (V) VR (V) ID = VR/R (mA)

1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8
9 0.9
10 1.0
11 2.0
12 3.0
13 4.0
14 5.0
15 6.0
16 8.0
17 9.0
18 10.0

Faculty Signature and Date

6
Software Simulation (Experiment No. 1 Cont’d)
1. Objective: This part is intended to illustrate the simulation procedures for Analyzing diode characteristics
by using Orcad-Pspice software.

2. Problem statement: Use Pspice software for Analyzing diode characteristics and compare it with hand
calculation.

3. Software and Device requirement:

Pspice AD,
Minimum PC specifications:
Windows/ Mac: Microsoft® Windows® 7 Professional, Enterprise, Ultimate or Home Premium (64-bit);
Windows 8 (64-bit) (All Service Packs); Windows 10 (64-bit); Windows 2008 R2 Server; Windows 2012
Server (All Service Packs).
Ram: 2 GB
Processor: Intel® Pentium® 4 or AMD Athlon XP 2000 with multi-core CPU
Display resolutions: 1,024 x 768 display resolution with true color (16-bit color)

4. Circuit Diagram:

5. Procedure:

i) The first thing that you have to do is get some or all of the parts you need to simulate your circuit.

ii) Changing the Name of the Part: To change the name, double click on the present

7
name (C1, or R1 or whatever your part is), then a box will pop up (Edit Reference Designator). In the top
window, you can type in the name you want the part to have. Please note that if you double click on the part
or its value, a different box will appear.

iii) Changing the Value of the Part: If you only want to change the value of the part, you can double click on
the present value and a box called “Set Attribute Value” will appear. Type in the new value and press OK

iv) Open the analysis menu. Enable the appropriate analysis options and the press close.

v) Set the DC sweep value as per following:

vi) Click on the Simulate button on the tool bar (or Analysis, Simulate, or F11). The results should be available
now. Here’s the output given below:

8
Experiment No. 2

Study of half-wave and full-wave diode rectifier circuit

1. Objective: To build half and full-wave diode rectifier circuit and understand its operation principle.

2. Theoretical Background:
The diode rectifier converts the input sinusoidal voltage Vs to a unipolar output Vo. There are
two types of rectifier circuits: (i) Half-wave rectifier and (ii) Full-wave rectifier.

TASK-01

Half-wave (HW) rectifier

The circuit of a half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 1.

D +
+

RL Ch-2
Ch-1 VS
10V peak
1KHz -
-

1 KHz
Figure-1
Assuming ideal diode model
For the period t = 0 → T/2, vs > 0, Diode is ON, and v0 = vs
For the period t = T/2 → T, vs < 0, Diode is OFF, and v0 = 0

9
As only positive half cycle appears at the output and the negative half is blocked, the AC input
voltage changes into a unidirectional DC voltage at the output. The process of removing half of
the input signal to establish a dc level is aptly called half-wave rectification. Due to diode voltage
drop, the actual output voltage will be approximately, v0 = vs – VD0.

For Vs = Vmsint, DC voltage and current of a half wave rectifier are as follows
VDC = Vm/ - VDO/2

where, VDO  0.7 V, for Si.

Figure. 2
Input and output wave shapes of
a HW rectifier circuit assuming
an ideal diode model.

Figure 3:
Input and output wave shapes of
a HW rectifier circuit assuming
constant voltage drop model.

HW rectifier with a Filter Capacitor

Although the rectification stage makes the sine wave voltage to be positive, the rectifier’s result
is not as “flat” a DC value as we would like to have from a reliable voltage source, as you will
measure in the lab. The capacitor is included to help smooth out the ripples that result in the
output from the rectification stage.
Recall that the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, but rather it requires a
certain amount of time before it is fully charged. Initially, as the input voltage rises, diode turns
on, and the capacitor starts charging. After the input voltage reaches its peak value, the capacitor
gets charged to the peak input voltage. As the input voltage now starts decreasing below the peak

10
value, the diode turns off, since the n-side is more positive than the p-side due to the voltage
across the capacitor which does not change instantaneously. The stored charges on the capacitor
will be released through RL.

For RLC >> T, it will take long time for the capacitor to discharge and the output terminal will
maintain almost a dc voltage. Thus, large capacitance values help suppress the quickly changing
voltage from the rectifier and result in a flatter DC value being supplied to the load. Typical power
supply designs use relatively large capacitor values (greater than 1000 μF).

D +
+

C
RL Ch-2
Ch-1
10V peak
1KHz
-
-

Figure. 4: Half wave rectifier with the filter

1 KHz

Figure. 5:
Vr is the ripple voltage. A small
ripple voltage is required in
most supply design.

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage): PIV is the maximum voltage that appears across the diode when it
is reverse-biased.
PIV = Vm

11
Ripple voltage and ripple factor
The output of a rectifier though unidirectional, contains periodically fluctuating components. The
theoretical value for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is given by,
Vr = Vp/(fCR) = (Vm – VD0)/fCR, for a HW rectifier circuit
Here f is the signal frequency, and R is the resistance connected in parallel with C.
A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor r, which is defined as

r rms value of alternating components of wave

average value of wave
= I’rms /Idc = Vr (rms) /Vdc
where, I’rms and V’rms denote the rms value of the ac components of the current and voltage,
respectively.

TASK-02

Full-wave (FW) Bridge Rectifier

Figure. 6 Circuit
diagram for the bridge
Vs RL Vo rectifier
C

Figure. 7 Input and output wave shapes of a FW rectifier circuit without the filter capacitor,
assuming an ideal diode model.

12
Fig. 8 shows the output voltage of a FW rectifier as a function of time assuming constant voltage
drop model.
DC Voltage, VDC = 2Vm/ - 2VDO

Figure. 8 Input and output wave shapes of a FW rectifier circuit assuming constant voltage
drop model.

Figure. 9 Output voltage wave shape of a FW rectifier circuit with the filter capacitor

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage): PIV is the maximum voltage that appears across the diode when it
is reverse-biased.
PIV = Vm - VD0

Ripple voltage and ripple factor

The output of a rectifier though unidirectional, contains periodically fluctuating components. The
theoretical value for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is given by,
Vr =Vp/(2fCR) = (Vm – 2VD0)/2fCR, for a FW rectifier circuit

13
Here f is the signal frequency, and R is the resistance connected in parallel with C.

A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor r, which is defined as
rms value of alternating components of wave (multimeter in AC mode)
r average value of wave (multimeter in dc mode)

= I’rms /IDC = V’rms/VDC

where, I’rms and V’rms denote the rms value of the ac components of the current and voltage,
respectively.

3. Components:

• One AC Power Supply

• One multimeter
• Three Resistors
• One DC power Supply
• Capacitor

4. Circuit Diagram:

Half-wave Rectifier:

+ D +

RL
Ch-1 C Ch-2
VS
10V peak
- 1KHz -

1 KHz

14
Full-wave Rectifier:

Vs RL Vo
C

5. Procedure:

I. Construct circuit of Fig. 1 without the capacitor [Use RL=1kΩ]. Observe Vs and Vo
simultaneously on the oscilloscope.
II. Sketch input and output waveforms. Note down the voltage levels. Also measure Vo with
a multimeter in dc mode.
III. Connect 1F capacitor across the load resistor, RL (BE CAREFUL about the polarity of
the capacitor).
IV. Measure the peak-to-peak ripple voltage Vr(pp) as shown in fig-5 (To measure the ripple
voltages, switch the oscilloscope to AC coupling. This slows you how to magnify the small
ac ripple voltage without including the much larger dc level).
V. Sketch input and output waveforms.
VI. Replace 1F Capacitor with 47F and repeat steps 4 and 5.
VII. Construct circuit of Fig. 6 without the capacitor [Use RL=1kΩ]. Observe Vs and Vo
separately on the oscilloscope.
VIII. Sketch input and output waveforms. Note down the voltage levels. Also measure Vo with
a multimeter in dc mode.
IX. Connect 1F capacitor across the load resistor, RL (BE CAREFUL about the polarity of
the capacitor).
X. Measure the peak-to-peak ripple voltage VR(p-p) as shown in the figure (To measure the
ripple voltages, switch the oscilloscope to AC coupling. This slows you how to magnify
the small ac ripple voltage without including the much larger dc level).
XI. Sketch input and output waveforms.
XII. Replace 1F Capacitor with 47F and repeat steps 4 and 5.

15
6. Lab report directions:

I. Calculate the average (dc) values of the load voltages in circuits of half wave and full wave
rectifier without capacitor. Compare these values with those obtained experimentally.

II. Calculate the ripple voltage for the HW and FW rectifier and complete the following table.
Compare your experimental results with the calculated values.

III. Which capacitor acts as a better filter? Explain your answer.

IV. Which of the two rectifiers is better? Explain why.

V. Why can’t you see the input and output using two channels of oscilloscope
simultaneously?

16
Experiment No.:02
Name of the Experiment: Study of half-wave and full-wave diode rectifier circuit
Group Number:

Half-wave Rectifier:

+ D +

RL
Ch-1 C Ch-2
VS
10V peak
- 1 KHz -

RL = kΩ

Without Capacitor:

Vp = V VDC = V

With Capacitor:

Capacitance (µF) Ripple Voltage, VR(p-p) (Volts)

1
47

17
Full-wave Rectifier:

Vs RL Vo
C

RL = kΩ

Without Capacitor:

Vp = V VDC = V

With Capacitor:

Capacitance (µF) Ripple Voltage, VR(p-p) (Volts)

1
47

Faculty Signature and Date

18
Experiment No. 3
Study of clipper and clamper circuits

1. Objective: This experiment is intended to study and observe the operation of clipper and clamper
circuits.

2. Theoretical Background:

Clipper Circuits:

• Clippers remove signal voltage above and below a specified level. In the last experiment,
half wave rectifier can also be called as a clipper circuit. Because it clipped off the negative
half cycle of the input signal.
• A diode connected in series with the load can clip off any half cycle of the input depending
on the orientation of the diode.
• A diode connected in parallel with the load can clip off the input signal above 0.7 v to any
one half-cycle depending on the connection of the diode. Using two diodes in parallel and
in opposite direction both the half cycle can be limited to a 0.7 v. [Figure-1]

Vs +

Load Vo

Figure-1
• Using a biased diode, it is possible to limit the output voltage to a specified level depending
on the attached battery voltage. Either the half cycles or both of them can be clipped off
above a specified level. [Figure-2]

19
 Vs +

Load Vo
V1 V2

Figure-2

In practical case for both the series and parallel clippers voltage source is not added. Required
voltage levels are maintained by adding more semiconductor diode.

Clamper Circuits:

A DC clamper circuit adds a dc voltage to the input signal. For instance, if the incoming signal
varies from -10v to +10v, a positive dc clamper will produce an output that ideally swings from 0v
to 20v and a negative clamper would produce an output between 0v to -20V. [Figure-3]

Figure 3

20
3. Components:

• One AC Voltage Supply

• One multimeter
• Resistors
• One DC power supply
• Diode
• Capacitor

4. Circuit Diagram:

+ +

VO VO

__ __

Figure 4: a) Positive Clipper b) Negative Clipper

+ +

VO VO

__ __

Figure 5: a) Positive Clamper b) Negative Clamper

21
5. Procedure:

I. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 4. Use a sinusoidal voltage source with 10 volts
peak (Vm) and a frequency of 1kHz.

II. Observe the wave shapes for various values of VS keeping Channel-1 of the oscilloscope
across Vi and Channel-2 across VO.

III. Draw the output voltage wave shape for VS = 5V for each circuit. Record the clipping
voltage levels.

IV. For the clamper circuits in figure 5, do the same as in above steps with a square wave
input of 5V amplitude and 1kHz frequency.

6. Lab report directions:

I. Sketch all the waveforms observed on the oscilloscope.

II. Compare the observed output wave shapes and voltage levels with your hand calculation.
Explain any discrepancy.
III. What role does the value of capacitor used in the clamping circuit play in order to obtain
proper clamping?

22
 Experiment No.:03
Name of the Experiment: Study of clipper and clamper circuits
Group Number:

Clipper Circuits:

+ +

VO VO

__ __

Clipping Voltage = V Clipping Voltage = V

Clamper Circuits:

+ +

VO VO

__ __

Peak Values = Peak Values =

Faculty Signature and Date

23
Experiment No. 4
Study of zener diode and its application in voltage regulation

1. Objective: This experiment is intended to study the I-V characteristics of a Zener diode and its
application as a voltage regulation in a DC power supply and determine the line and load regulations.

2. Theoretical Background:

The diodes we have studied before do not operate in the breakdown region because this may
damage them. A Zener diode is different it is a silicon diode that the manufacturer has optimized
for operation in the breakdown region. It is used to build voltage regulator circuits that hold the
load voltage almost constant despite large change in line voltage and load resistance. Figures
below show the symbol of Zener diode and its operating region.

Zener Diode Symbol Normal operating region of a Zener diode

The Zener diode may have a breakdown voltage from about 2 to 200 V. These diodes can
operate in any of the three regions: forward, leakage and breakdown.

24
 • In the forward region it works as an ordinary diode.
• In the leakage region (between zero and breakdown) it has only a small reverse saturation
current.
• In the breakdown region it has a sharp knee, followed by an almost vertical increase in
current without changing the voltage.
• The voltage is almost constant, approximately equal to Vz over most of the breakdown
region.

Model Approximations:
First approximation: When the voltage across the zener diode V ≥ VZ, the diode is ON, and it is
represented by a battery with constant voltage of VZ, otherwise the diode is OFF and it is
represented by an open circuit.

Second approximation: The Zener diode is modeled with a battery of voltage VZ0 in series with
resistance rz, called the Zener resistance, to account for the slight increase in the Zener voltage
VZ with the Zener current IZ.

VZ = VZ 0 + I Z rz

25
Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation, a measure of performance of voltage regulator circuits, is classified as two

types:

1. Line Regulation and

2. Load Regulation.

1. Line Regulation: line regulation is the variation in the output or the load voltage (VL) for
one volt variation in the input voltage (Vi), expressed mathematically as VL/Vi (mV/V).

2. Load Regulation: load regulation is the variation in the output or the load voltage (VL)
for one mA variation in the load current (IL), expressed mathematically as VL/IL
(mA/V).

3. Components:

• Resistor
• Zener Diode
• Potentiometer
• One DC power supply

4. Circuit Diagram:

Task-1: I-V Characteristics

̶ VD +

+
ID IR

VR

Circuit diagram-1

26
Task-2: Line Regulation

VL

Circuit diagram-2

Task-3: Load Regulation

+ IL
+ VR2
̶

VL

1kΩ POT
_

Circuit diagram-3

5. Procedure:

I. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 1.

II. Vary the supply voltage from 0 to 4 volt, in steps of 1 V; 4 to 6 Volt, in steps of 0.2 V; 6 to
10 Volt, in steps of 1 V and complete Table1.

III. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 2.

27
IV. Vary the supply voltage from 0 to 10 volt, in steps of 1 V and complete Table 2.

V. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 3.

VI. Keep the 1k POT at maximum position and then power up the circuit.

VII. Gradually decrease the POT resistance and complete Table-3 for 10 readings.

6. Lab report directions:

I. Plot the I-V characteristics (VZ vs. IZ) of the Zener diode. Estimate the Zener knee current
and voltage (IZK, VZK) from the plot. Also calculate the voltage VZ0 and the Zener resistance
rz using the data table.

II. Plot VL vs. VS for the data of Table 2. Determine the line regulation.

III. Plot VL vs. IL for the data of Table 3. Determine the load regulation.

28
Experiment No.:04
Name of the Experiment: Study of zener diode and its application in voltage regulation
Group Number:

Task-1: I-V Characteristics

̶ VD +

+
ID IR
VR

Circuit diagram-1

R= Ω

VS (v) VD (v) VR (v) IR = VR/R ID = -IR (mA)

(mA)

Table-1
Task-2: Line Regulation

29
 +

VL

Circuit diagram-2

VS (v) VL (v)

Table-2

30
Task-3: Load Regulation

+
VR2
IL
+
̶

VL

1kΩ POT
_

Circuit diagram-3

R2 = Ω

VL (v) VR2 (v) IL = VR2 / R2 (mA)

Table-3

Faculty Signature and Date

31
Experiment No. 5
Study of bipolar junction transistor characteristics

1. Objective:
• Measure and graph the collector characteristic curves for a BJT.
• Use the Characteristics curves to determine the βDC of the transistor at a given point.
• Study data sheet of BJT and get familiarized with its specifications.

2. Theoretical Background:

Figure-1
Introduction:
Unlike the diodes, transistors are three terminal device with three-doped regions called:

• Emitter
• Base
• Collector

These three-doped regions form two junctions: One between the emitter and the base and the other between
the collector and the base. Further, they come in two flavors NPN (On an NPN transistor arrow is pointed
outwards (See Figure-1) and PNP. The middle letter indicate the type of material used for the base, while
outer letters indicate the emitter and collector material. The sandwiched materials produce two p-n junctions.

The emitter is heavily doped, its job is to emit or inject free majority carrier (electron for NPN and hole for
PNP) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes the most of the emitter-injected electron
(For NPN) into the collector. The doping level of the collector is between emitter and base.

32
Amplification:
BJTs are current amplifiers. A small base current is amplfied to a larger current in the collector-emitter circuit.
Consider first the NPN transistor shown at the top. If the base is at higher ( ≈0.6 volt) potential than the
emitter then a current IB will flow into the base. The current into the collector is β times larger than the base
current. The quantity β (usually called hFE in transistor data sheets) is a characteristic of the individual
transistor and is typically in the range from 50-500 for the types of transistors we will be using.

Biasing:
For a transistor to amplify, power is required from dc sources. The dc voltages required for proper operation
are referred to as bias voltages. The purpose of bias is to establish and maintain the required operating
conditions despite variations between transistors or changes in the circuit parameters. For amplification, the
base emitter junction is forward-biased and base-collector junction reverse-biased. Since the base emitter
junction is forward-biased, it has characteristics of a forward-biased diode.

Characteristic Curves:

Input Characteristic Curve: Input characteristic is defined as the set of curves between Input current (IB)
vs. Input voltage (VBE) for constant output voltage (VCE). It is the same curve that is found for a forward biased
diode.

Output Characteristic Curve: Output characteristic is defined by the set of curves between Output current
(IC) vs. Output voltage (VCE) for constant Input current (IB). The curves have the following features:

• It has three regions: Saturation, Active and Cutoff.

• Saturation: The rising part of the curve, where VCE is between 0 and approximately 0.2V is called
saturation region. In this region, both the collector-base and emitter-base junctions are forward
biased.
• Active: When the collector-base junction becomes reverse biased the graph becomes horizontal. In
this region, the collector current remains almost constant and is equal to IB, where is the base-to-
collector current gain. The region is known as the active region. For amplification purposes,
transistors always have to be operated in the active region.
• Cutoff: When both the collector-base and emitter-base junctions are reverse biased, transistor
currents are zero, and the transistor is in cutoff. Transistors used as a switch, such as in logic circuits,
are operated in cutoff (OFF) and saturation (ON) region.
• For different values of IB, an individual curves can be obtained.

33
 Transistor Output Characteristics Transistor Input Characteristics

About βDC
The βDC commonly known as simply β is an important bipolar transistor parameter that we need to examine.
βDC varies with both collector current and temperature. Keeping the junction temperature constant, an
increase in IC causes βDC to increase to a maximum. A further increase in IC beyond this point causes βDC
to decrease. If IC is held constant and the temperature is increased, βDC changes increases with the
temperature.

A transistor data sheet usually specifies βDC (hFE) at specific IC values. Even at fixed values of IC and
temperature, βDC varies from device to device for a given transistor due to inconsistencies in the
manufacturing process that are unavoidable. The βDC specified at certain values of IC is usually the minimum
value, βDC(min), although the maximum and typical values are also sometimes specified. Figure below shows
the variation of βDC with IC and junction temperature (Tj) for a typical transistor.

DC

34
Maximum Transistor Ratings
A transistor like any other electronic device has limitations on its operation. These limitations are stated in
the form of maximum ratings and are normally specified on the manufacturer's data sheet. Typical maximum
ratings are given for collector-to-base voltage, collector-to-emitter voltage, collector current and power
dissipation. The product of VCE and IC must not exceed the maximum power dissipation (Ptot(max)). Both
VCE and IC cannot be maximum at the same time. Ptot(max) is usually specified at 25 °C. For Higher
temperature, Ptot(max) is less. Data sheets often give derating factors for determining Ptot(max) at any
temperature above 25 °C.
For example, a derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates that the maximum power dissipation is reduced 2 mW
for each centigrade degree increase in temperature.

3. Components:

• Transistor (C828)
• Resistors (10kΩ, 2.2kΩ ,470 KΩ, 470 Ω)
• Potentiometer (100 kΩ)

4. Experimental setup:

VCC = 10V

+
IC
VR4

+ VR3 -
+

VCE
+
IB VBE
-
V -
VBE
B

E V
-
B

- E

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5. Procedure:
i. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
VR 3
ii. Measure VR3 and calculate IB using I B = . We will assume that IB to be constant for a
RB
particular setup at input.
VR 4
iii. Measure the voltages VCE and VR4. Calculate IC using I C = .
R4
i. Take readings by varying the POT for VCE = 0V to 1V in steps of 0.1V and VCE = 1V to 10V
in steps of 1V.

6. Lab report directions:

• Plot the graph IC Vs.VCE with necessary details for the fixed value of IB.
• Show different regions of operation.
• Plot a hypothetical output characteristic using PNP transistor.

36
Experiment No.:05
Name of the Experiment: Study of bipolar junction transistor characteristics
Group Number:

Circuit Diagram:

Table-1:
R3 (kΩ) VR3 (V) IB = VR3 / R3 (µA)

Table-2:
R4 (kΩ) VCE (V) VR4 (mV) IC = VR4 / R4 (mA)

Faculty Signature and Date

37
Experiment No. 6
Study of bjt biasing circuits

1. Objective: This experiment is intended to study fixed-biasing and self-biasing of bipolar junction
transistors.

2. Theoretical Background: Biasing a BJT circuit means to provide appropriate direct potentials and
currents, using external sources, to establish an operating point or Q-point in the active region. Once the
Q-point is established, the time varying excursions of input signal should cause an output signal of same
waveform. If the output signal is not a faithful reproduction of the input signal, for example, if it is clipped
on one side, the operating point is unsatisfactory and should be relocated on the collector characteristics.
Therefore, the main objective of biasing a BJT circuit is to choose the proper Q-point for faithful
reproduction of the input signal. There are different types of biasing circuits. In the fixed bias circuit (Fig.
1), the base current IB is determined by the base resistance RB and it remains constant. The main
drawback of this circuit is the instability of Q-point with the variation of  of the transistor. In the
laboratory, we will test the stability using two transistors with different  . In the self bias circuit, shown in
figure 2, this problem is overcome by using a self biasing resistor RE to the emitter terminal.

3. Components:

• n-p-n Transistor (C828, BD135)

• 100k Potentiometer
• Resistors (470  , 560  , 10k  , 220k  )

38
4. Experimental setup:

a. Fixed Bias Circuit:

VCC = 10V

IC +

VRC

-
+

VCE

Figure. 1

b. Self-Bias Circuit:

VCC = 10V

IC +

VRC

+ -

VCE

Figure. 2

39
5. Procedure:

a. Fixed Bias Circuit:

ii. Arrange the circuit shown in Figure 1 by C828. Record RC and set Potentiometer to its maximum
value.
V
iii. Decrease POT gradually so that VCE = cc .
2
iv. Measure voltage across RC and VCE.
v. Record the Q-point (VCE, IC).
i. Replace the C828 transistor by BD135 and repeat step 3 & 4.

b. Self-Bias Circuit:

i. Arrange the circuit shown in figure 2 by C828. Record RC and set Potentiometer to its minimum
value.
V
VCE = cc
ii. Increase POT RB2 gradually so that 2 .
iii. Measure voltage across RC & VCE.
iv. Record the Q-point (VCE, IC).
v. Replace the C828 transistor by BD135 and repeat step 3 & 4.

6. Lab report directions:

• Which circuit shows better stability? Explain in the context of the results obtained in the
laboratory.
• Draw the dc load line for both the circuits and show the Q-point.

40
Experiment No.:06
Name of the Experiment: Study of bjt biasing circuits
Group Number:

Circuit Diagram:

Fixed Bias Circuit

RC = Ω

BJT VCE (V) VRC (mV) IC = VRC / RC (mA)

C828
BD135

Self-Bias Circuit

BJT VCE (V) VRC (mV) IC = VRC / RC (mA)

C828
BD135

Faculty Signature and Date

41
Experiment No. 7
Study of common emitter amplifier

1. Objective: This experiment is intended to study the common emitter amplifier and measure its gain,
input impedance and output impedance.

2. Theoretical Background: A bipolar transistor consists of two junctions: emitter- base and collector-base
junctions. At high frequency we cannot neglect the effect of capacitances on the performance of the
transistor. At low and mid band frequencies, their effects can be neglected.

3. Components:

• n-p-n transistor C828 One piece

• 100k potentiometer One piece
• resistors 1K, 2.2 K, 10K, 33K, 100k
• capacitors 1F, 10F, 47F

4. Circuit Diagram:

42
5. Procedure:
i. Construct the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for CE amplifier.
ii. Apply a signal voltage, VS with amplitude of 60 mV and frequency 1 kHz at the input terminals.
Connect Ch.1 at the input between base and ground and Ch.2 at the output terminals. Measure
amplitudes of both VI and VO.
iii. Set the oscilloscope in dual mode. Observe the phase relationship between input and output
voltage.
iv. Connect Ch.1 to VI and Ch.2 to VS and measure the amplitudes from the waveforms. Using the
𝑅
amplitudes of VI and VS, calculate the input impedance. [Use, 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑅+𝑅𝐼 𝑉𝑆 ]
𝐼

v. Connect Ch.1 to VO. Connect a 100k potentiometer at the output terminals. Adjust the
potentiometer until VO is half the open circuit value. Measure the output impedance Ro from
potentiometer.

6. Questions:

• What is the input impedance, output impedance and phase relationship between input and output
for CE amplifier for both with and without the bypass capacitor? Compare your results with hand
calculation. Make comments on them.
• Explain the functions of bypass capacitor and the coupling (or dc blocking) capacitors?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of common emitter amplifier?

43
Experiment No.:07
Name of the Experiment: Study of common emitter amplifier
Group Number:

Circuit Diagram:

1. Amplification :

VI = mV VO = mV

2. Input Impedance, RI :

VI = mV VS = mV

R = Ω RI = Ω

3. Output Impedance, RO :

RO = kΩ

Faculty Signature and Date

44