13 Data representation

13 Data representation

In this chapter, you will learn about

★ user-defined data types
★ the definition and use of non-composite and composite data types
★ the choice and design of an appropriate user-defined data type for a
given problem
★ methods of file organisation, such as serial, sequential and random
★ methods of file access, such as sequential and direct access
★ hashing algorithms
★ binary floating-point real numbers
★ converting binary floating-point real numbers into denary numbers
★ converting denary numbers into binary floating-point real numbers
★ the normalisation of binary floating-point numbers
★ how underflow and overflow can occur
★ how binary representation can lead to rounding errors.

13.1 User-defined data types

WHAT YOU SHOULD ALREADY KNOW
Try these two questions before you read the first part of this chapter.
1 Select an appropriate data type for each of the following.
a) A name
b) A student’s mark
c) A recorded temperature
d) The start date for a job
e) Whether an item is sold or not
2 Write pseudocode to define a record structure to store the following
data for an animal in a zoo.
n Name
n Species
n Date of birth
n Location
n Whether the animal was born in the zoo or not
n Notes

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 Programmers use specific data types that exactly match a program’s
Key terms
13
requirements. They define their own data types based on primitive data types
User-defined data type provided by a programming language, or data types that they have defined
– a data type based on previously in a program. These are called user-defined data types.
an existing data type or User-defined data types can be divided into non-composite and composite
other data types that data types.
have been defined by a
programmer.
13.1.1 Non-composite data types
Non-composite data
type – a data type that A non-composite data type can be defined without referencing another data

13.1 User-defined data types

does not reference any type. It can be a primitive type available in a programming language or a
other data types. user-defined data type. Non-composite user-defined data types are usually
Enumerated data used for a special purpose.
type – a non-composite
data type defined by a We will consider enumerated data types for lists of items and pointers to data
given list of all possible in a computer’s memory.
values that has an
implied order. Enumerated data type
Pointer data type – a An enumerated data type contains no references to other data types when it is
non-composite data defined. In pseudocode, the type definition for an enumerated data type has
type that uses the this structure:
memory address of
where the data is
TYPE <identifier> = (value1, value2, value3, ... )
stored.
Set – a given list of
unordered elements For example, a data type for months of the year could be defined as:
that can use set theory
operations such as
intersection and union. Type names usually begin with T to aid the programmer

TYPE Tmonth = (January, February, March,

April, May, June, July, August, September,
October, November, December)

The values are not strings so are not enclosed in quotation marks

Then the variables thisMonth and nextMonth of type Tmonth could be

defined as:

DECLARE thisMonth : Tmonth

DECLARE nextMonth : Tmonth
nextMonth is now set to February
thisMonth ← January
nextMonth ← thisMonth + 1

ACTIVITY 13A
Using pseudocode, declare an enumerated data type for the days of the
week. Then declare two variables today and yesterday, assign a value
of Wednesday to today, and write a suitable assignment statement for
tomorrow.

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 Pointer data type

13 A pointer data type is used to reference a memory location. This data type
needs to have information about the type of data that will be stored in
the memory location. In pseudocode the type definition has the following
structure, in which ^ shows that the type being declared is a pointer and
<Typename> is the type of data to be found in the memory location, for
example INTEGER or REAL, or any user-defined data type.

TYPE <pointer> = ^<Typename>

13 Data representation

For example, a pointer for months of the year could be defined as follows:

TYPE TmonthPointer = ^Tmonth Tmonth is

DECLARE monthPointer : TmonthPointer the data type
in the memory
location that
this pointer
can be used to
point to

It could then be used as follows:

monthPointer ← ^thisMonth

If the contents of the memory location are required rather than the address
of the memory location, then the pointer can be dereferenced. For example,
myMonth can be set to the value stored at the address monthPointer is
pointing to:
DECLARE myMonth : Tmonth
myMonth ← monthPointer^ monthPointer has been dereferenced

ACTIVITY 13B
Using pseudocode for the enumerated data type for days of the week,
declare a suitable pointer to use. Set your pointer to point at today.
Remember, you will need to set up the pointer data type and the pointer
variable.

13.1.2 Composite data types

A data type that refers to any other data type in its type definition is a
composite data type. In Chapter 10, the data type for record was introduced as
a composite data type because it refers to other data types.

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 TYPE
TbookRecord
DECLARE title : STRING 13
DECLARE author : STRING
DECLARE publisher : STRING
DECLARE noPages : STRING
DECLARE fiction : STRING Other data types

13.1 User-defined data types

ENDTYPE

Other composite data types include sets and classes.

Sets
A set is a given list of unordered elements that can use set theory operations
such as intersection and union. A set data type includes the type of data in the
set. In pseudocode, the type definition has this structure:
TYPE <set-identifier> = SET OF <Basetype>

The variable definition for a set includes the elements of the set.
DEFINE <identifier> (value1, value2, value3, ... ) :
<set-identifier>

A set of vowels could be declared as follows:

TYPE Sletter = SET OF CHAR
DEFINE vowel ('a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u') : letters

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 13A

Many programming languages offer a set data type. Find out about how set
operations are implemented in the programming language you are using.

Classes
A class is a composite data type that includes variables of given data types and
methods (code routines that can be run by an object in that class). An object is
defined from a given class; several objects can be defined from the same class.
Classes and objects will be considered in more depth in Chapter 20.

ACTIVITY 13C
1 Explain, using examples, the difference between composite and
non-composite data types.
2 Explain why programmers need to define user-defined data types.
Use examples to illustrate your answers.
3 Choose an appropriate data type for the following situations.
Give the reason for your choice in each case.
a) A fixed number of colours to choose from.
b) Data about each house that an estate agent has for sale.
c) The addresses of integer data held in main memory.
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 13.2 File organisation and access
13 WHAT YOU SHOULD ALREADY KNOW
Try these three questions before you read the a) Create a text file.
second part of this chapter. b) Write several lines of text to the file.
1 Describe three different modes that files can c) Read the text that you have written to the
be opened in. file.
13 Data representation

2 Write pseudocode to carry out the following d) Append a line of text at the end of the file.
operations on a text file.
3 Write a program to test your pseudocode.

Key terms
Serial file organisation – a method of file organisation in of the record; the result of the calculation gives the
which records of data are physically stored in a file, one address where the record should be found.
after another, in the order they were added to the file. File access – the method used to physically find a
Sequential file organisation – a method of file record in the file.
organisation in which records of data are physically Sequential access – a method of file access in which
stored in a file, one after another, in a given order. records are searched one after another from the
Random file organisation – a method of file physical start of the file until the required record is
organisation in which records of data are physically found.
stored in a file in any available position; the location Direct access – a method of file access in which
of any record in the file is found by using a hashing a record can be physically found in a file without
algorithm on the key field of a record. physically reading other records.
Hashing algorithm (file access) – a mathematical
formula used to perform a calculation on the key field

13.2.1 File organisation and file access

File organisation
Computers are used to access vast amounts of data and to present it as useful
information. Millions of people expect to be able to retrieve the information
they need in a useful form when they ask for it. This information is all stored
as data in files, everything from bank statements to movie collections. In order
to be able to find data efficiently it needs to be organised. Data of all types is
stored as records in files. These files can be organised using different methods.
Serial file organisation
The serial file organisation method physically stores records of data in a file,
one after another, in the order they were added to the file.

First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth and so on

record record record record record record
Start of file
▲ Figure 13.1

New records are appended to the end of the file. Serial file organisation is often
used for temporary files storing transactions to be made to more permanent files.
For example, storing customer meter readings for gas or electricity before they
are used to send the bills to all customers. As each transaction is added to the
file in the order of arrival, these records will be in chronological order.
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 Sequential file organisation
The sequential file organisation method physically stores records of data in
a file, one after another, in a given order. The order is usually based on the
key field of the records as this is a unique identifier. For example, a file could
13
be used by a supplier to store customer records for gas or electricity in order
to send regular bills to each customer. All records are stored in ascending
customer number order, where the customer number is the key field that
uniquely identifies each record.

13.2 File organisation and access

Customer 1 Customer 2 Customer 3 Customer 4 Customer 7 Customer 8 and so on
record record record record record record
Start of file
▲ Figure 13.2

New records must be added to the file in the correct place; for example, if
Customer 5 is added to the file, the structure becomes:

Customer 1 Customer 2 Customer 3 Customer 4 Customer 5 Customer 7 Customer 8 and so on

record record record record record record record
Start of file
▲ Figure 13.3

Random file organisation

The random file organisation method physically stores records of data in a
file in any available position. The location of any record in the file is found by
using a hashing algorithm (see Section 13.2.2) on the key field of a record.

Customer 8 Customer 2 Customer 4 Customer 7 Customer 3 Customer 1 and so on

record record record record record record
Start of file
▲ Figure 13.4

Records can be added at any empty position.

File access
There are different methods of file access (the method used to physically
find a record in the file). We will consider two of them: sequential access and
direct access.
Sequential access
The sequential access method searches for records one after another from the
physical start of the file until the required record is found, or a new record can
be added to the file. This method is used for serial and sequential files.
For a serial file, if a particular record is being searched for, every record needs
to be checked until that record is found or the whole file has been searched
and that record has not been found. Any new records are appended to the end
of the file.
For a sequential file, if a particular record is being searched for, every record
needs to be checked until the record is found or the key field of the current
record being checked is greater than the key field of the record being searched

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 for. The rest of the file does not need to be searched as the records are sorted

13
on ascending key field values. Any new records to be stored are inserted in the
correct place in the file. For example, if the record for Customer 6 was requested,
each record would be read from the file until Customer 7 was reached. Then it
would be assumed that the record for Customer 6 was not stored in the file.

Customer 1 Customer 2 Customer 3 Customer 4 Customer 5 Customer 7 Customer 8 and so on

record record record record record record record
↑
13 Data representation

Customer 6 record not found

▲ Figure 13.5

Sequential access is efficient when every record in the file needs to be

processed, for example, a monthly billing or payroll system. These files have
a high hit rate during the processing as nearly every record is used when the
program is run.
Direct access
The direct access method can physically find a record in a file without other
records being physically read. Both sequential and random files can use direct
access. This allows specific records to be found more quickly than using
sequential access.
Direct access is required when an individual record from a file needs to be
processed. For example, when a single customer record needs to be updated
when the customer’s phone number is changed. Here, the file being processed
has a low hit rate as only one of the records in the file is used.
For a sequential file, an index of all the key fields is kept and used to look up
the address of the file location where a given record is stored. For large files,
searching the index takes less time than searching the whole file.
For a random access file, a hashing algorithm is used on the key field to
calculate the address of the file location where a given record is stored.

13.2.2 Hashing algorithms

In the context of storing and accessing data in a file, a hashing algorithm is
a mathematical formula used to perform a calculation on the key field of the
record. The result of the calculation gives the address where the record should
be found. More complex hashing algorithms are used in the encryption of data.
Here is an example of a simple hashing algorithm:
If a file has space for 2000 records and the key field can take any values
between 1 and 9999, then the hashing algorithm could use the remainder when
the value of key field is divided by 2000, together with the start address of the
file and the size of the space allocated to each record.
In the simplest case, where the start address is 0 and each record is stored in
one location.
To store a record identified by a key field with value 3024, the hashing
algorithm would give address 1024 as the location to store the record.

Key field Remainder Address

3024 1024 1024 = 0 + 1 * 1024
▲ Table 13.1
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 Unfortunately, storing another record with a key field 5024 would result in

13
trying to use the same file location and a collision would occur.

Key field Same remainder Same address

5024 1024 1024 = 0 + 1 * 1024
▲ Table 13.2

This often happens with hashing algorithms for direct access to records in a file.
There are two ways of dealing with this:

13.2 File organisation and access

1 An open hash where the record is stored in the next free space.
2 A closed hash where an overflow area is set up and the record is stored in
the next free space in the overflow area.

When reading a record from a file using direct access, the address of the location
ACTIVITY 13E to read from is calculated using the hashing algorithm and the key field of the
record stored there is read. But, before using that record, the key field must be
1 Explain, using checked against the original key field to ensure that they match. If the key fields
examples,
do not match, then the following records need to be read until a match is found
the difference
between serial (open hash) or the overflow area needs to be searched for a match (closed hash).
and sequential
files.
2 Explain the
ACTIVITY 13D
process of direct
access to a A file of records is stored at address 500. Each record takes up five locations
record in a file and there is space for 1000 records. The key field for each record can take
using a hashing the value 1 to 9999.
algorithm. The hashing algorithm used to calculate the address of each record is the
3 Choose an remainder when the value of key field is divided by 1000 together with the
appropriate start address of the file and the size of the space allocated to each record.
file type for
the following Calculate the address to store the record with key field 9354.
situations. If this location has already been used to store a record and an open hash is
Give the reason used, what is the address of the next location to be checked?
for your choice in
each case.
a) Borrowing Hashing algorithms can also be used to calculate addresses from names. For
books from a example, adding up the ASCII values for every character in a name and dividing
library. this by the number of locations in the file could be used as the basis for a
b) Providing an hashing algorithm.
annual tax
statement for
employees at EXTENSION ACTIVITY 13B
the end of the
year. Write a program to
n find the ASCII value for each character in a name of up to 10 characters
c) Recording
daily rainfall n add the values together
readings at n divide by 1000 and find the remainder
a remote n multiply this value by 20 and add it to 2000
weather
n display the result.
station to
be collected If this program simulates a hashing algorithm for a file, what is the start
every month. address of the file and the size of each record?

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 13.3 Floating-point numbers,
13 representation and manipulation
WHAT YOU SHOULD ALREADY KNOW
Try these six questions before you c) –1200
read the third part of this chapter. d) 0.000000002341
1 Convert these denary numbers e) −0.0000124005
13 Data representation

into binary.
6 a) Standard form is sometimes
a) +48
used to put denary improper
b) +122 fractions into proper
c) −100 14
fractions. For example,
5
d) −55 1.4
can be written as × 101,
e) −2 112
5
and can be written as
2 Convert these binary numbers 3
into denary. 1.12
× 10 2.
3
a) 00110011
b) 01111110 Change the following
improper fractions into
c) 10110011
proper fractions using this
d) 11110010 format:
e) 11111111 21
i)
3 Use two’s complement to find 5
the negative values of these 117
binary numbers. ii)
4
a) 00110100 558
iii)
b) 00011101 20
c) 01001100 b) When using binary, we
d) 00111111 can convert improper
e) 01111110 binary fractions into
4 Carry out these binary additions, proper fractions. For
7
showing all your working. example, 2 can be written
a) 00110001 + 00011110 77
as ××44(where 4 ≡422≡) 22 ),
(where
8
8 23
b) 01000001 + 00111111
and can be written as
c) 00111100 + 01000101 2
23
23
) 2 ).
4
×16(where16
× 16(where16≡ 24≡
d) 01111101 + 01011100 32
32
e) 11101100 + 01100000 Change the following
f) 10001111 + 10011111 improper binary fractions into
g) 01000101 + 10111100 proper binary fractions using
h) 01111110 + 01111110 this format.
i) 11111100 + 11100011 i)
11
2
j) 11001100 + 00011111
5 Write the following numbers in 41
ii)
standard form 4

a) 123 000 000 iii)

52
4
b) 2 505 000 000 000 000

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 Key terms
Mantissa – the fractional part of a floating point
number.
numbers should be in the format 0.1 and negative
numbers in the format 1.0.
13
Exponent – the power of 2 that the mantissa (fractional Overflow – the result of carrying out a calculation
part) is raised to in a floating-point number. which produces a value too large for the computer’s
Binary floating-point number – a binary number allocated word size.
written in the form M × 2E (where M is the mantissa and Underflow – the result of carrying out a calculation
E is the exponent). which produces a value too small for the computer’s

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

Normalisation (floating-point) – a method to improve allocated word size.
the precision of binary floating-point numbers; positive

13.3.1 Floating-point number representation

In Chapter 1, we learnt about how binary numbers can be stored in a fixed-
point representation. The magnitude of the numbers stored depends on the
number of bits used. For example, 8 bits allowed a range of −128 to +127 (using
two’s complement representation) whereas 16 bits increased this range to
−16 384 to +16 383.
However, this type of representation limits the range of numbers and does not
allow for fractional values. To increase the range, and to allow for fractions, we
can look to the method used in the denary number system.
For example, 312 110 000 000 000 000 000 000 can be written as 3.1211 × 1023
using scientific notation. If we adopt this system in binary, we get:
M × 2E
M is the mantissa and E is the exponent.
This is known as binary floating-point representation.
In our examples, we will assume a computer is using 8 bits to represent the
mantissa and 8 bits to store the exponent (a binary point is assumed to exist
between the first and second bits of the mantissa). Again, using denary as our
example, a number such as 0.31211 × 1024 means:

1 1 1 1 1
10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
10 1

• 3 1 2 1 1 × 2 4
mantissa values exponent
▲ Figure 13.6

We thus get the binary floating-point equivalent (using 8 bits for the mantissa
1
and 8 bits for the exponent with the assumed binary point between –1 and in
2
the mantissa):

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 • 2 4 16
−128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
8 32 64 128

▲ Figure 13.7

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 Converting binary floating-point numbers into denary

13 Example 13.1 Convert this binary f loating-point number into denary.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 • 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
−128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
13 Data representation

Solution
Method 1
Add up the mantissa values where a 1 bit appears:
1 1 1 1 32 8 4 1 45
M= + + + ≡ + + + =
2 8 16 64 64 64 64 64 64

Add up the exponent values where a 1 bit appears:

E=4
Use M × 2E:
45
45 45 4 4 4 4545
45
××2×2 2= == × 16
××1616
64
64 64 6464
64
== = 0.703125
0.703125
0.703125× 16
× 16
× 16
= 11.25
= 11.25
(the
(the
denary
denary
value)
value)
= 11.25 (the denary value)

Method 2
Write the mantissa as 0.1011010.
The exponent is 4, so move the binary point four places to the right (to match the
exponent value). This gives 01011.010.

whole number part fraction part

1 1 1
−16 8 4 2 1 • 2 4 8

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
This gives 11.25 (the same result as method 1).

Example 13.2 Convert this binary f loating-point number into denary.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 • 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
−128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

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 Solution
Method 1
Add up the mantissa values where a 1 bit appears:
13
111111 1111111 1 444441414 111111111555455455 1 1 5 5
M
M
MM=
M
M===M==+=++++ +M≡≡M ≡≡≡=≡=+++++++ ===≡=≡
≡ === + + = =
444444 16
416
1616
16161616 16
16
16416
16
16 41616
16
16
16
16
16161616
16 16
16
16
16
1616161616 16
16
Add up the exponent values where a 1 bit appears:
E=2+1=3

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

Use M × 2E:
5555 × 23 333 =5 5555 × 38 5
××
×222 === 16 × 8××
×288 = × 8
16
16
16
16 1616
16
16 16
== × 8=×0.3125
0.3125
==0.3125
0.3125
0.3125 ×× 888 × 8
= 2.5 (the denary
= 2.5 value)
(the denary value)
= 2.5
== 2.5 (the
2.5 (the
(the denary
denary
denary value)
value)
value)
Method 2
Write the mantissa as 0.0101000.
The exponent is 3, so move the binary point three places to the right (to match
the exponent value). This gives 0010.1000.
whole number part fraction part
1 1 1 1
−8 4 2 1 • 2 4 8 16

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

This gives 2.5 (the same result as method 1).

Now we shall consider negative values.

Example 13.3 Convert this binary f loating-point number into denary.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 • 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
−128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

Solution
Method 1
Add up the mantissa values where a 1 bit appears:
1 1 1 16 2 1 19 32 19 13
M = −1 + + + ≡ −1 + + + ≡ −1 + ≡− + =−
2 16 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32

Add up the exponent values where a 1 bit appears:

E = 8 + 4 = 12
Use M × 2E:
13 13
− × 212 =− × 4096
32 32
= −0.40625 × 4096
= −1664 (the denary value)

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 Method 2

13 Since the mantissa is negative, first convert the value using two’s complement.
So, write the mantissa as 00110011 + 1 = 00110100.
This gives −0.0110100.
The exponent is 12, so move the binary point 12 places to the right (to match the
exponent value). This gives −0011010000000.0.
13 Data representation

fraction
whole number part
part
1
−4096 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 6 8 4 2 1 • 2

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

This gives −(1024 + 512 + 128) = −1664 (the same result as method 1).

Example 13.4 Convert this binary f loating-point number into denary.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 • 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
−128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

Solution
Method 1
Add up the mantissa values where a 1 bit appears:
1 1 1 16 2 1 19 32 19 13
M = −1 + + + ≡ −1 + + + ≡ −1 + ≡− + =−
2 16 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32

Add up the exponent values where a 1 bit appears:

E = −128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 = −4
Use M × 2E:
13 13
− × 2−4 = − × 0.0625
32 32
= −0.40625 × 0.0625
= −0.025390625 (the denary value)

Method 2
Since the mantissa is negative, first convert the value using two’s complement.
So, write the mantissa as 00110011 + 1 = 00110100.
This gives −0.0110100.
The exponent is −4, so move the binary point four places to the left (to match the
negative exponent value). This gives −0.00000110100.

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 whole
number
part
fraction part
13
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 • 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

This gives − ( 1
+
1
+
1
)=− 13

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

64 128 512 512
= −0.025390625 (the same result as method 1).

ACTIVITY 13F
Convert these binary floating-point numbers into denary numbers (the
mantissa is 8 bits and the exponent is 8 bits in all cases).
a) 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

b) 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

c) 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

d) 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

e) 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

f) 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

g) 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

h) 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

i) 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

j) 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

Converting denary numbers into binary floating-point numbers

Example 13.5 Convert +4.5 into a binary f loating-point number.

Solution
Method 1
Turn the number into an improper fraction:
9
4.5 =
2
The fraction needs to be < 1, which means the numerator < denominator; we can
do this by dividing successively by 2 until the denominator > numerator.
9 9 9 9
→ → → The numerator (9) is now < denominator (16).
2 4 8 16

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 9 9
So, 9 can be written as
13
×8 ≡ × 23 and the original fraction is now written
2 16 16
in the correct format, M × 2E.
9 1 1
= + , which gives the mantissa as 0.1001.
16 2 16

And the exponent is 23, which is represented as 11 in our binary f loating point
format.
13 Data representation

Filling in the gaps with 0s gives:

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

Method 2
4 = 0100 and .5 = .1 which gives: 0100.1
Now move the binary point as far as possible until 0.1 can be formed:
0100.1 becomes 0.1001 by moving the binary point three places left.
So, the exponent must increase by three:
0.1001 × 11
Filling in the gaps with 0s gives:

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

This is the same result as method 1.

Example 13.6 Convert +0.171875 into a binary f loating-point number.

Solution
Method 1
Remember, the fraction needs to be < 1, which means the numerator <
denominator.
171875 11
0.171875 ≡ ≡ , so this fraction is already in the correct form.
1000 000 64

11 1 1 1
= + + , which gives the mantissa as 0.0010110 and exponent as 0.
64 8 32 64

Filling in the gaps with 0s gives:

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Method 2
0 = 0 and .171875 = .001011 ( 1
+
8 32
1
+
1
64 ), which gives: 0.001011.
Now move the binary point as far as possible until 0.1 can be formed:
0.001011 becomes 0.1011 by moving the binary point two places right.
So, the exponent must increase by two (in other words, −2).
The number 2, using eight bits is 00000010.

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 Applying two’s complement gives us 11111101 + 1 = 11111110
Thus, we have:
0.1011 × 11111110
13
Filling in the gaps with 0s gives:

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

This is exactly the same result as method 1.

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 13C
Show why:

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

is the same as:

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Example 13.7 Convert −10.375 into a binary f loating-point number.

Solution
Method 1
Turn the number into an improper fraction:
3 83
0.375 ≡ , so − 10.375 = −
8 8
Now make the fraction < 1.
83 83 83
− ≡− × 16 ≡− × 24
8 128 128

83 45
− = −1 + , which gives the mantissa as 1.0101101
128 128

( 45
128
= +
1
4
1
+
16 32
1
+
1
128 ).
And the exponent is 24, which is represented as 100 in our binary f loating point
format.
Filling in the gaps with 0s gives:

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Method 2
1 1
−10 = −01010 and + ≡.375 = .011, which gives: −01010.011.
4 8
Using two’s complement (on 01010011) we get: 10101100 + 1 = 10101101
(= 10101.101).
Now move the binary point as far as possible until 1.0 can be formed:

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 10101.101 becomes 1.0101101 by moving the binary point four places left.

13 So, the exponent must increase by four.

1.0101101 × 100
Filling in the gaps with 0s gives:

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

This is the same result as method 1.

13 Data representation

ACTIVITY 13G
1 Write these into binary floating-point format using an 8-bit mantissa and
8-bit exponent.
11 11
a) × 27 f) − × 24
32 64
19 9
b) × 23 g) − × 2−1
64 16
21 5
c) × 2−5 h) − × 25
128 16
15 1
d) × 2−3 i) − × 2−6
16 4
21 5
e) × 23 j) − × 2−2
8 8
2 Convert these denary numbers into binary floating-point numbers using
an 8-bit mantissa and 8-bit exponent.
15
a) +3.5 f) −
32
b) 0.3125 g) −3.5
c) 15.375 h) −10.25
41  3
d) i) −1.046875 ≡ −1 
64  64 
11
e) 9.125 j) −3
32

Potential rounding errors and approximations

All the problems up to this point have involved fractions which are linked
15
somehow to the number 2 (such as ). We will now consider numbers which
64
can only be represented as an approximate value (the accuracy of which will
depend on the number of bits that make up the mantissa).
The representation of the following example (denary number 5.88), using an
8-bit mantissa and 8-bit exponent, will lead to an inevitable rounding error
since it is impossible to convert the denary number into an exact binary
equivalent.
This error could be reduced by increasing the size of the mantissa; for example,
a 16-bit mantissa would allow the number 5.88 to be represented as 5.875,
which is a better approximation.

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 We will consider how to represent the denary number 5.88 using an 8-bit

13
mantissa and 8-bit exponent.
To convert this into binary, we will use a method similar to that used in Chapter 1.
.88 × 2 = 1.76 so we will use the 1 value to give 0.1
.76 × 2 = 1.52 so we will use the 1 value to give 0.11
.52 × 2 = 1.04 so we will use the 1 value to give 0.111
.04 × 2 = 0.08 so we will use the 0 value to give 0.1110

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

.08 × 2 = 0.16 so we will use the 0 value to give 0.11100
.16 × 2 = 0.32 so we will use the 0 value to give 0.111000
.32 × 2 = 0.64 so we will use the 0 value to give 0.1110000
.64 × 2 = 1.28 so we will use the 1 value to give 0.11100001
We have to stop here since our system uses a maximum of 8 bits. Now the value
of 5 (in binary) is 0101; this gives:
5.88 ≡ 0101.11100001
Moving the binary point as far to the left as possible gives:
0.1011100 × 23 (23 since the binary point was moved three places).
Thus, we get 0.1011100 00000011
(mantissa) (exponent)
23 23
= × 23 = = 5.75
32 4

So, 5.88 is stored as 5.75 in our floating-point system.

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 13D

Using 8-bit mantissa and exponent, show how the following numbers would
be approximated
a) 1.63
b) 8.13
c) 12.32
d) 5.90
e) 7.40.

Now consider this set of numbers.

1
0.1000000 00000010 ≡ × 22 =2
2

1
0.0100000 00000011 ≡ × 23 =2
4

1
0.0010000 00000100 ≡ × 24 =2
8

1 =2
0.0001000 00000101 ≡ × 25
16

▲ Figure 13.8

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 As shown, there are several ways of representing the number 2. Using this

13
sequence, if we kept shifting to the right, we would end up with:

0.0000000 00001001 =2
▲ Figure 13.9

This could lead to problems. To overcome this, we use a method called

normalisation.
With this method, for a positive number, the mantissa must start with
13 Data representation

0.1 (as in our first representation of 2 above). The bits in the mantissa are
shifted to the left until we arrive at 0.1; for each shift left, the exponent is
reduced by 1. Look at the examples above to see how this works (starting with
0.0001000 we shift the bits 3 places to the left to get to 0.100000 and we
reduce the exponent by 3 to now give 00000010, so we end up with the first
representation!).
For a negative number the mantissa must start with 1.0. The bits in the
mantissa are shifted until we arrive at 1.0; again, the exponent must be
changed to reflect the number of shifts.

Example 13.8
Normalise 0.0011100 00000101 ≡ ( 7
32
× 25 )
=7 .

Solution
Shift the bits left to get 0.1110000.
Since the bits were shifted two places left, the exponent must reduce by two to
give 00000011.
This gives 0.1110000 00000011, which is now normalised.
7
Note: 0.1110000 00000011 ≡ × 2 3 = 7, so the normalised form still represents
8
the correct value.

Example 13.9
Normalise 1.1101100 00001010 ≡ − ( 5
32
× 210 = −160 )
Solution
Shift the bits left until to get 1.0110000.
Since the bits were shifted two places left, the exponent must reduce by two to
give 00001000.
This gives 1.011000 00001000, which is now normalised.
Note: 1.011000 00001000 ≡ − 5 × 28 = −5 × 32 = −160 , so the normalised form
8
still represents the same value.

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 ACTIVITY 13H
Normalise these binary floating-point numbers. 13
a) 0. 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 00000110
b) 0. 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 00001001
c) 0. 0 0 0 0 1 1 1  0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
d) 0. 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 00000011

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

e) 0. 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 00001000
f) 1. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 00001000
g) 1. 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 00001100
h) 1. 1 1 1 0 1 1 0  00000011
i) 0. 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 11111000
j) 1. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 11110100

Precision versus range

The following values relate to an 8-bit mantissa and an 8-bit exponent (using
two’s complement):
The maximum positive number which can be stored is:

127
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ≡ × 2127
128

▲ Figure 13.10

The smallest positive number which can be stored is:

1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ≡ × 2−128
2

▲ Figure 13.11

The smallest magnitude negative number which can be stored is:

65
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ≡− × 2−128
128

▲ Figure 13.12

The largest magnitude negative number which can be stored is:

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ≡ −1 × 2127
▲ Figure 13.13

» The accuracy of a number can be increased by increasing the number of bits

used in the mantissa.
» The range of numbers can be increased by increasing the number of bits
used in the exponent.
» Accuracy and range will always be a trade-off between mantissa and
exponent size.
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 Consider the following three cases.

13 1 0
▲ Figure 13.14
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

The mantissa is 12 bits and the exponent is 4 bits.

2047
This gives a largest positive value of × 27 ; which gives high accuracy but
2048
small range.
13 Data representation

2 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
▲ Figure 13.15

The mantissa is 8 bits and the exponent is 8 bits.

127
This gives a largest positive value of × 2127, which gives reduced accuracy
128
but increased range.

3 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
▲ Figure 13.16

The mantissa is 4 bits and the exponent is 12 bits.

7
This gives a largest possible value of × 22047, which gives poor accuracy but
8
extremely high range.

Floating-point problems
The storage of certain numbers is an approximation, due to limitations in the
size of the mantissa. This problem can be minimised when using programming
languages that allow for double precision and quadruple precision.

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 13E

Look at this coding, written in pseudocode.
number ← 0.0
FOR loop ← 0 TO 50
number ← number + 0.1
OUTPUT number
ENDFOR
a) When running this program the expected output would be 0.1, 0.2,
0.3, … , 5.0.
Explain why the output from this program gave values such as 0.399999
rather than 0.4.
b) Run the program on your own computer using a language such as Pascal.
Does it confirm the above statement?
c) Discuss ways of overcoming the error(s) described in your answer to
part a).

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 There are additional problems:
» If a calculation produces a number which exceeds the maximum possible
value that can be stored in the mantissa and exponent, an overflow error
will be produced. This could occur when trying to divide by a very small
13
number or even 0.
» When dividing by a very large number this can lead to a result which is
less than the smallest number that can be stored. This would lead to an
underflow error.
» One of the issues of using normalised binary floating-point numbers is the

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

inability to store the number zero. This is because the mantissa must be 0.1
or 1.0 which does not allow for a zero value.

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 13I

ACTIVITY 13F
1 What is the largest positive and smallest magnitude number which can be
Find out how stored in a computer using 10-bit mantissa and 6-bit exponent.
computer systems 2 A computer uses 32 bits to store the mantissa and exponent.
deal with the value Discuss the precision and range of numbers which can be stored in this
0 when using computer.
normalised binary
3 a) A calculation carried out on a computer produced the result
floating-point
1.21 × 10100
numbers.
The computer’s largest possible value which can be stored is 1099.
Discuss the problems this result would cause.
x
b) A calculation involving is being carried out on a computer.
y
One of the potential values of y is 0.
Discuss the problems this might cause for the computer.
4 A computer uses a 10-bit mantissa and a 6-bit exponent.
What approximate values would be stored for the following numbers?
a) 2.88 b) −5.38

End of chapter 1 A computer holds binary f loating-point numbers in two’s complement form with
questions the binary point immediately after the left-most bit.
A 24-bit word is used as follows:

mantissa exponent

a) Three words are held in f loating-point representations:

Ⓐ 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Ⓑ 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

Ⓒ 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

i) State the values being represented by A, B and C. [3]

ii) Identify the value that is not normalised. [1]
iii)Explain why it is normal for f loating-point numbers to be normalised. [1]
➔
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 b) Comment on the accuracy and range of numbers stored in this computer. [3]

13
c) Discuss the problems of representing the number zero in normalised
f loating-point format. [2]
2 A computer uses 12 bits for the mantissa and 6 bits for the exponent.
a) Convert these binary f loating-point numbers into denary.
i) 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 [3]

ii) 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 [3]
13 Data representation

b) Convert these denary numbers into binary f loating-point numbers.

i) +4.75 [3]
ii) −8.375 [3]
3 In a particular computer system, real numbers are stored using f loating-point
representation with:
– 8 bits for the mantissa
– 8 bits for the exponent
– two’s complement form for both mantissa and exponent.
a) Calculate the f loating-point representation of +3.5 in this system.
Show your working. [3]

mantissa exponent

b) Calculate the f loating-point representation of −3.5 in this system.

Show your working. [3]

mantissa exponent

Cambridge International AS & A Level Computer Science 9608

Paper 32 Q1 parts (a) and (b) November 2016
4 a) Using the pseudocode declarations below, identify
i) an enumerated data type [1]
ii) a composite data type [1]
iii)a non-composite data type [1]
iv) a user-defined data type. [1]
TYPE Tseason = (Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter)
TYPE
TJournalRecord
DECLARE title : STRING
DECLARE author : STRING
DECLARE publisher : STRING
DECLARE noPages : INTEGER
DECLARE season : Tseason
ENDTYPE

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 b) Write pseudocode to declare a variable Journal of type TJournalRecord

13
and assign the following values to the variable. [3]
Title – Spring Flowers
Author – H Williams
Publisher – XYZ Press
Number of pages – 40
Season – Spring
5 a) Three file organisation methods and two file access methods are shown

13.3 Floating-point numbers, representation and manipulation

below. Copy the diagram below and connect each file organisation method to
its appropriate file access method(s).  [4]

File organisation File access

method method

random
sequential
serial
direct
sequential

b) An energy company supplies electricity to a large number of customers. Each

customer has a meter that records the amount of electricity used. Customers
submit meter readings using their online account.
The company’s computer system stores data about its customers.
This data includes:
– account number
– personal data (name, address, telephone number)
– meter readings
– username and encrypted password.
The computer system uses three files:

File Content Use

A Account number and meter Each time a customer submits their
readings for the current month. reading, a new record is added to the file.
B Customer’s personal data. At the end of the month to create a
statement that shows the electricity
supplied and the total cost.
C Usernames and encrypted When customers log in to their accounts
passwords. to submit meter readings.

For each of the files A, B and C, state an appropriate file organisation method
for the use given in the table.
All three file organisation methods must be different.
Justify your choice. [9]
Cambridge International AS & A Level Computer Science 9608
Paper 32 Q4 June 2017

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