Transportation Engineering
Course Code –CE-422
Contact Hours -3+3
Dr Hassan Mujtaba
Problem
• A 6o curve branches off a 3o main curve in
opposite direction in the layout of a BG track.
If the speed on the branch track is restricted to
22 mph. Determine speed restriction on main
line. Assume deficiency in super elevation is 3
inches.
2
Formation
• Formation is a level surface on which the ballast is
laid.
• The formation has to take all the loads coming on the
track.
• The top surface of the formation is kept slightly
sloping towards the sides, inorder to facilitate
drainage.
• Level of the formation is the level prepared at its
centre.
• Formation may be in fill or in cut or partially in fill
and partially in cut. When the section is in cut the
drainage becomes must. 3
Function of Formation
• It distributes the load over wider area of the
natural ground.
• Provides a smooth level surface for the placing
of the ballast
• It facilitates the drainage
• It acts as foundation to the track and provides
stability to it.
4
Width of Formation
• Top width of the formation will depend upon
– Gauge of the track
– No of tracks
– Centre to centre distance between the tracks
– Width of the ballast layer
– Width of the drain on either side if the track is in
cutting
• Width of the formation for single lane BG track is 20
ft
• Width of the formation for double lane BG track is 35
ft.
5
6
Height of Formation
• Height of the formation depends upon the
– Soil conditions
– Highest flood level
– Topography
– Intensity of pressure transmitted to the ground.
7
Side Slopes
• Side slope of the formation must be flatter than
the angle of repose of the ground.
• Side slopes in case of embankment is 1 to 2
• Side slopes in case of cutting is 1 to 1.5 or
even steeper
• The side is vertical when solid rock exists.
8
Formation Width for Embankment
• Broad Gauge
– Single 20 ft (6.10 m)
– Double 35.5 ft (10.8 m)
• Meter Gauge
– Single 16 ft (4.9 m)
– Double 29 ft (8.8 m)
• Narrow Gauge
– Single 12 ft (3.7 m)
– Double 24 ft (7.3 m)
9
Formation Width for Cutting
• Broad Gauge
– Single 18 ft (5.5 m)
– Double 35.5 ft (10.2 m)
• Meter Gauge
– Single 14 ft (4.3 m)
– Double 27 ft (8.3 m)
• Narrow Gauge
– Single 11 ft (3.4 m)
– Double 23 ft (7.0 m)
– Note c/c distance for track is 15 ft for BG
10
Types of Formation
• Formation on Fill/ Embankment
– Formation in the shape of raised bank constructed
above the surface of natural ground is embankment
• Formation in Cutting
– Formation below the level of natural ground
11
Formation on Fill
Single Line
BG Track
Double Line
BG Track
12
Formation in Cutting
Single Line
BG Track
Double Line
BG Track
13
Type of soil for formation
• No skip grading is allowed
• Plastic fines in the proposed formation
material shall not exceed 5%
• Non-plastic can be allowed upto 12% in
formation material
• Uniformity coefficient in no case less than 4
preferably more than 7
• Co-efficient of curvature between 1-3
14
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
100
90
Curve B
80 Curve A
Gravel =2%
70
Gravel = 2%
60 Sand = 89%
50 Sand= 93%
Silt & Clay = 9%
40 .
30
Silt & Clay = 5%
20
P
10
GRAVEL
10 1
Particle size, mm
SAND
0.1 0.01
SILT & CLAY
0.001
15
Particle Size Distribution (cont’d)
• Sand
– Passing # 4 and Retained # 200
• Gravel
– Retained # 4
• Silt & Clay
– Passing # 200
16
Which Soil to select
• Curve A • Curve B
– gap grading – No gap grading
– Fines = 5% – Fines = 9%
– LL = - – LL = -
– PL= - – PL= -
– PI = NP – PI = NP
– Cu = 1.5 – Cu = 2.9
– Cc = 1.0 – Cc = 0.9
17
Earthwork For Formation
• To keep the permitted gradient and to avoid too
frequent changes of gradient it is usually necessary
for the level of formation to be below or above the
natural ground level in different places.
• The natural level must therefore be lowered by
cutting where it is high or raised by an embankment
where it is low.
• In extreme cases, where depth of cutting would be
excessive, tunnels are made through the ground.
• Where an embankment is not possible, the track is
supported on bridges.
18
Earthwork For Formation (cont’d)
Soil exploration and feasibility study include the
following
• Permanent Land
• Temporary Land
• Formation
• Slopes of cutting/ embankment
• Side drains
19
Permanent Land
• A certain strip of land on either side of the
centre line of the proposed track is acquired by
the railway department.
• The strip or land thus transferred to Railway
by the other department or acquired by the
personal possession is termed as the permanent
land.
20
Permanent Land
Width of the permanent land depends upon
• Gauge of the track
• Single line track or double line track
• Formation width
• Side slopes of the formations
• Side drains
• Side slopes of cutting or embankment
• Possibilities of further extension of track.
21
Temporary Land
• In every rail project, the preparation of formation is
the first stage of the execution work. An ideal
condition is that the amount of material excavated
from cutting is sufficient for embankment.
• However, when excavation and embankment do not
balance it is better to temporarily acquire a strip of
land adjoining the permanent land from where earth
may be borrowed.
• It may be utilized as the spoil bank for the excavated
earth.
22
Permanent Land in Embankment
23
Permanent Land in Cutting
24
Guide lines for Execution of Earth Work
Control of water along with the type of sub-grade plays
an important role in the construction of formation
• Non cohesive soils – Gravels and Sands
• Cohesive soils – Silt/ Clay
• Organic Soils- Peat/ organic clay/ silt
• Cemented sedimentary rocks- sand stone, limestone
• Metamorphic rocks-slate
• Igneous rocks- granite, basalt
25
Soil Exploration and Surveys
• Geotechnical investigations are carried out for
identification and classification of soil.
• Boring and soil sampling is carried out from
the areas where borrow pits are to be located,
at intervals of about 0.5 km or where change of
strata occurs.
• In case sub soil problems are likely to be
encountered, the spacing of bore holes should
be reduced
26
Soil Exploration and Surveys
• On doubling sampling should be done at
locations known to be trouble-some in the
existing track.
• Organic clays, silts and peat shall not be used
for making of embankment. Cutting in these
types of soils should be avoided.
27
Design of Rail Formation
• Design should be such that the track is able to sustain
track geometry under anticipated traffic densities and axle
loads during service under most adverse conditions of
weather. It necessitates that
– Bank/ cutting is structurally stable
– Settlement in the sub-grade supporting soil masses are
within permissible limits
– There is no bearing capacity failure.
– Embankment soil shall attain moisture density
equilibrium during weather cycles.
28
Compaction of Earth Work
• It should be economical and efficient
Compaction cannot guarantee the stability of
formation particularly in the following cases
– Excessive creep or slipping of slopes, because long term
shear strength and water contents are not governed by the
compaction at the time of construction.
– Swelling and shrinkage of soils during wet and dry seasons
respectively, because physiochemical properties of soil do not get
altered by compaction
– Mud pumping at ballast soil interface
– Settlement due to consolidation of bank and sub-soil which can occur
even for a few years after construction of bank. 29
Methods of Compaction
• Cohesive soils (sheep foot rollers)
• Cohesionless soils (vibratory rollers)
30
Compaction of cohesive soils/ non-cohesive Soils
• Sheep foot rollers are most effective in breaking the
chunks and filling the large spaces. Rollers will sink
into the soil at high moisture content while chunks
will not yield to rolling by rollers if moisture content
is low.
• Poorly graded sands and gravels with uniformity co-
efficient less than 2 should not be used in earth work
for banks, to safeguard against liquefaction under
moving loads or due to an earthquake.
31
Causes of Formation Troubles
• Following are the most common causes
– Instability problems due to railway cutting
or embankment not being stable, resulting in
excessive deformation.
– Excessive swelling and shrinking of bank
soil causing large volumetric changes and
thus unequal settlement and heaving of the
formation, disrupting the track levels and
alignment
32
Causes of Formation Troubles
• Bearing capacity failure due to
– Inadequate formation width or bank slopes
– Inadequate thickness of the ballast and the
blanket
• Other causes such as loss of formation soil
caused by porcupines, ants, rats, seepage
33
Formation Failures
• Failure of the natural ground under the
formation
• Failure of the fill material in the formation
• Failure of the top of formation
34
Failure of Natural Ground (causes)
• The failure of the natural ground takes place due to
excessive settlement or the shear failure.
• The failure due to excessive settlement is generally
associated with the upheaval of the ground beyond
the toe of embankment.
• The shear failure normally takes place during the
construction or immediately after the construction.
35
Failure of Natural Ground
b) Remedial Measures
– Use of sand piles by the wooden logs
– Counter weight at the toe
– By providing sand drains which help in
quicker consolidation
36
Failure of Fill Material (causes)
– Excessive loading which produces excessive
shear stresses in soil
– Steepness of the slopes
– Percolation of rain water
37
Percolation of rain water
• Percolation of rainwater in the embankment
increases the weight of the soil on one hand
and reduces its bearing capacity and resistance
to shear on the other hand.
• Shear failures of the existing embankment are
quite common and occur by slips.
• The forces causing the failure are weight of the
embankment and weight of the rolling stock.
38
Percolation of rain water (cont’d)
• The forces which resist this failure are internal
friction and cohesion of soil.
• Failure are
– Toe failure
– Base failure
– Slope failure
39
Slope Failure- occurs in special cases in Toe Failure- in
which hard strata limits the extent of failure steep slopes, and
plane. The slip circle passes above the toe.
in soils having high
friction angle
This type of failure occurs in soft ground
and seems. In this failure top of the slope
drop leaving a vertical sharp scrap and the
Base Failure
level ground beyond the toe of the slope
bulges out 40
Slope Failure Toe Failure
Base Failure
Balancing
Embankment 41
Failure of Fill Material (Remedial )
– By flattening the slopes
– By providing steps in the foundations
– By providing stone pitching on the sides
– Providing proper surface and sub-surface
drainage.
– Height of the embankment may be reduced
42
Causes of Failure of Top of
Formation
• Low bearing capacity of the soil
• Pumping action
• Weather effects
43
Remedial Measures to avoid Failure of
Top of Formation
Remedial Measures
• Use good blanket material or sub-ballast at the
top of formation
• Use of geotextile fabrics.
– It will act as a separator between the top layer and
the ballast. Secondly, it will act as reinforcement to
the soil and will help better drainage.
44
Formation treatment methods
Various methods are used to stabilize soil embankments
• Stabilization by driving piles, poles or scrap rails into
the embankment of medium height
• By driving sand piles in the embankment
• Stabilization by pressure grouting
• Stabilization of the embankment soil by chemicals
• Stabilization by use of geo-textiles
• Providing an inverted filter
45
Coning of Wheels and SE of Rails
• If the distance between the inside flanges is kept
equal to the gauge distance, the flanges of the
wheel would rub against the inside face of the
rail.
• To prevent this, the distance between the inside
edge of the flanges is kept less than the gauge
distance
46
Coning of Wheel and Canting of Rails
47
Coning of Wheel and Canting of Rails
48
CONING OF WHEEL AND CANTING OF RAILS 49
CONING OF WHEEL AND CANTING OF RAILS 50
Coning of Wheels and SE of Rails
• The wheels of the railway vehicle are not made flat
but sloped like a cone in order to facilitate the wheel
to move smoothly over the curve and also on the
straight path.
• On straight track coning of the wheels keeps them
central, thereby reducing the wear of flanges.
• If the wheels goes out of their central position they
have to cover unequal distances, thus one wheel start
sliding and they retreat to the central position
• This helps in smooth riding
51
CONING OF WHEEL AND CANTING OF RAILS 52
Curves and Coning of Wheels
• On curves, outer wheel has to cover more
distance as compared to inner wheel.
• Due to centrifugal force the vehicle tends to
move outwards
• To avoid this circumference of the outer wheel
is made great with respect to the inner wheel
by providing coning.
• Coning of the wheels causes wear and tear due
to slipping action
53
Coning
• Coning is useful
– Helps the vehicle to negotiate curve smoothly
– It provides smooth rides
– Reduces wear and tear of wheel flanges
54
Coning (cont’d)
• If the rails are laid flat, due to coning of wheel
they will be subjected to eccentric loading.
• This would create problem both in rail design
and maintenance
• This will also cause unequal loading of
sleepers
• To avoid wear and tear, slope of 1 in 20 is
provided.
55
