Mechanical Engineering Series

Frederick F. Ling
Editor-in-Chief
Mechanical Engineering Series

J. Angeles, Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical Systems:

Theory, Methods, and Algorithms, 2nd ed.

P. Basu, C. Kefa, and L. Jestin, Boilers and Burners: Design and Theory

J.M. Berthelot, Composite Materials:

Mechanical Behavior and Structural Analysis

I.J. Busch-Vishniac, Electromechanical Sensors and Actuators

J. Chakrabarty, Applied Plasticity

K.K. Choi and N.H. Kim, Structural Sensitivity Analysis and Optimization 1:
Linear Systems

K.K. Choi and N.H. Kim, Structural Sensitivity Analysis and Optimization 2:
Nonlinear Systems and Applications

G. Chryssolouris, Laser Machining: Theory and Practice

V.N. Constantinescu, Laminar Viscous Flow

G.A. Costello, Theory of Wire Rope, 2nd Ed.

K. Czolczynski, Rotordynamics of Gas-Lubricated Journal Bearing Systems

M.S. Darlow, Balancing of High-Speed Machinery

W. R. DeVries, Analysis of Material Removal Processes

J.F. Doyle, Nonlinear Analysis of Thin-Walled Structures: Statics,

Dynamics, and Stability

J.F. Doyle, Wave Propagation in Structures:

Spectral Analysis Using Fast Discrete Fourier Transforms, 2nd ed.

P.A. Engel, Structural Analysis of Printed Circuit Board Systems

A.C. Fischer-Cripps, Introduction to Contact Mechanics

A.C. Fischer-Cripps, Nanoindentations, 2nd ed.

J. García de Jalón and E. Bayo, Kinematic and Dynamic Simulation of

Multibody Systems: The Real-Time Challenge

W.K. Gawronski, Advanced Structural Dynamics and Active Control of

Structures

W.K. Gawronski, Dynamics and Control of Structures: A Modal Approach

(continued after index)
Rajesh Rajamani

Vehicle Dynamics and

Control

a- Springer
Rajesh Rajamani
University of Minnesota, USA

Editor-in-Chief
Frederick F. Ling
Earnest F. Gloyna Regents Chair Emeritus in Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX 78712-1063, USA
and
Distinguished William Howard Hart
Professor Emeritus
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Aeronautical Engineering and Mechanics
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, NY 12180-3590, USA

Vehicle Dynamics and Control by Rajesh Rajamani

ISBN 0-387-26396-9 e-ISBN 0-387-28823-6 Printed on acid-free paper.

ISBN 9780387263960

O 2006 Rajesh Rajamani

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without
the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, Inc., 233 Spring
Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or
scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms,
even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to
whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

Printed in the United States of America.

SPIN 11012085
For Priya
Mechanical Engineering Series
Frederick F. Ling
Editor-in-Chief

The Mechanical Engineering Series features graduate texts and research monographs to
address the need for information in contemporary mechanical engineering, including
areas of concentration of applied mechanics, biomechanics, computational mechanics,
dynamical systems and control, energetics, mechanics of materials, processing, produc-
tion systems, thermal science, and tribology.

Advisory BoardBeries Editors

Applied Mechanics F.A. Leckie
University of California,
Santa Barbara
D. Gross
Technical University of Darmstadt
Biomechanics V.C. Mow
Columbia University
Computational Mechanics H.T. Yang
University of California,
Santa Barbara
Dynamic Systems and ControU D. Bryant
Mechatronics University of Texas at Austin
Energetics J.R. Welty
University of Oregon, Eugene
Mechanics of Materials I. Finnie
University of California, Berkeley
Processing K.K. Wang
Cornell University
Production Systems G.-A. Klutke
Texas A&M University
Thermal Science A.E. Bergles
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Tribology W.O. Winer
Georgia Institute of Technology
Series Preface
Mechanical engineering, and engineering discipline born of the needs of the indus-
trial revolution, is once again asked to do its substantial share in the call for indus-
trial renewal. The general call is urgent as we face profound issues of productivity
and competitiveness that require engineering solutions, among others. The Me-
chanical Engineering Series is a series featuring graduate texts and research mono-
graphs intended to address the need for information in contemporary areas of me-
chanical engineering.
The series is conceived as a comprehensive one that covers a broad range of
concentrations important to mechanical engineering graduate education and re-
search. We are fortunate to have a distinguished roster of consulting editors, each
an expert in one of the areas of concentration. The names of the consulting editors
are listed on page vi of this volume. The areas of concentration are applied me-
chanics, biomechanics, computational mechanics, dynamic systems and control,
energetics, mechanics of materials, processing, thermal science, and tribology.
 As a research advisor to graduate students working on automotive
projects, I have frequently felt the need for a textbook that summarizes
common vehicle control systems and the dynamic models used in the
development of these control systems. While a few different textbooks on
ground vehicle dynamics are already available in the market, they do not
satisfy all the needs of a control systems engineer. A controls engineer
needs models that are both simple enough to use for control system design
but at the same time rich enough to capture all the essential features of the
dynamics. This book attempts to present such models and actual automotive
control systems from literature developed using these models.
The control system topics covered in the book include cruise control,
adaptive cruise control, anti-lock brake systems, automated lane keeping,
automated highway systems, yaw stability control, engine control, passive,
active and semi-active suspensions, tire models and tire-road friction
estimation. A special effort has been made to explain the several different
tire models commonly used in literature and to interpret them physically.
As the worldwide use of automobiles increases rapidly, it has become
ever more important to develop vehicles that optimize the use of highway
and fuel resources, provide safe and comfortable transportation and at the
same time have minimal impact on the environment. To meet these diverse
and often conflicting requirements, automobiles are increasingly relying on
electromechanical systems that employ sensors, actuators and feedback
control. It is hoped that this textbook will serve as a useful resource to
researchers who work on the development of such control systems, both in
x

the automotive industry and at universities. The book can also serve as a
textbook for a graduate level course on Vehicle Dynamics and Control.
An up-to-date errata for typographic and other errors found in the book
after it has been published will be maintained at the following web-site:
[Link]
I will be grateful for reports of such errors from readers.

Rajesh Rajamani
Minneapolis, Minnesota
May 2005
Contents

...
Dedication v111
Preface xix
ix
Acknowledgments xxi
xxv
1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Driver Assistance Systems 2

1.2 Active Stability Control Systems 2

1.3 Ride Quality 4

1.4 Technologies for Addressing Traffic Congestion 5

1.4.1 Automated highway systems 6

1.4.2 Traffic friendly adaptive cruise control 6

1.4.3 Narrow tilt-controlled comuuter vehicles 7

1.5 Emissions and Fuel Economy 9

1.5.1 Hybrid electric vehicles 10

1.5.2 Fuel cell vehicles 11

xii VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

References 11

2. LATERAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS 15

2.1 Lateral Systems Under Commercial Development 15

2.1.1 Lane departure warning 16

2.1.2 Lane keeping systems 17

2.1.3 Yaw stability control systems 18

2.2 Kinematic Model of Lateral Vehicle Motion 20

2.3 Bicycle Model of Lateral Vehicle Dynamics 27

2.4 Motion of Particle Relative to a rotating Frame 33

2.5 Dynamic Model in Terms of Error with Respect to Road 35

2.6 Dynamic Model in Terms of Yaw Rate and Slip Angle 39

2.7 From Body-Fixed to Global Coordinates 41

2.8 Road Model 43

2.9 Chapter Summary 46

Nomenclature 47

References 48

3. STEERING CONTROL FOR AUTOMATED LANE KEEPING 51

3.1 State Feedback 51

3.2 Steady State Error from Dynamic Equations 55

3.3 Understanding Steady State Cornering 59

3.3.1 Steering angle for steady state cornering 59

3.3.2 Can the yaw angle error be zero? 64

 Contents xiii

3.3.3 Is non-zero yaw error a concern?

3.4 Consideration of Varying Longitudinal Velocity

3.5 Output Feedback

3.6 Unity feedback Loop System

3.7 Loop Analysis with a Proportional Controller

3.8 Loop Analysis with a Lead Compensator

3.9 Simulation of Performance with Lead Compensator

3.10 Analysis if Closed-Loop Performance

3.10.1 Performance variation with vehicle speed

3.10.2 Performance variation with sensor location 86

3.1 1 Compensator Design with Look-Ahead Sensor Measurement 88

3.12 Chapter Summary 90

Nomenclature 90

References 92

4. LONGITUDINAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS 95

4.1 Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics 95

4.1.1 Aerodynamic drag force 97

4.1.2 Longitudinal tire force 99

4.1.3 Why does longitudinal tire force depend on slip? 101

4.1.4 Rolling resistance 104

4.1.5 Calculation of normal tire forces 106

4.1.6 Calculation of effective tire radius 108

xiv VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

4.2 Driveline Dynamics 111

4.2.1 Torque converter 112

4.2.2 Transmission dynamics 114

4.2.3 Engine dynamics 116

4.2.4 Wheel dynamics 118

4.3 Chapter Summary 120

Nomenclature 120

References 122

5. INTRODUCTION TO LONGITUDINAL CONTROL 123

5.1 Introduction 123

5.1.1 Adaptive cruise control 124

5.1.2 Collision avoidance 125

5.1.3 Automated highway systems 125

5.2 Benefits of Longitudinal Automation 126

5.3 Cruise Control 128

5.4 Upper Level Controller for Cruise Control 130

5.5 Lower Level for Cruise Control 133

5.5.1 Engine torque calculation for desired acceleration 134

5.5.2 Engine control 137

5.6 Anti-Lock Brake Systems 137

5.6.1 Motivation 137

5.6.2 ABS functions 141

 Contents xv

5.6.3 Deceleration threshold based algorithms 142

5.6.4 Other logic based ABS control systems 146

5.6.5 Recent research publications on ABS 148

5.7 Chapter Summary 148

Nomenclature 149

References 150

6. ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL 153

6.1 Introduction 153

6.2 Vehicle Following Specifications 155

6.3 Control Architecture 156

6.4 String Stability 158

6.5 Autonomous Control with Constant Spacing 159

6.6 Autonomous Control with the Constant Time-Gap Policy 162

6.6.1 String stability of the CTG spacing policy 164

6.6.2 Typical delay values 167

6.7 Transitional Trajectories 169

6.7.1 The need for a transitional controller 169

6.7.2 Transitional controller design through R - R diagrams 172

6.8 Lower Level Controller 178

6.9 Chapter Summary 180

Nomenclature 180

References 181
xvi VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

Appendix 6.A 183

7. LONGITUDINAL CONTROL FOR VEHICLE PLATOONS 187

7.1 Automated Highway Systems 187

7.2 Vehicle Control on Automated Highway Systems 188

7.3 Longitudinal Control Architecture 189

7.4 Vehicle Following Specifications 191

7.5 Background on Norms of Signals and Systems 193

7.5.1 Norms of signals 193

7.5.2 System norms 194

7.5.3 Use of system norms to study signal amplification 195

7.6 Design Approach for Ensuring String Stability 198

7.7 Constant Spacing with Autonomous Control 200

7.8 Constant Spacing with Wireless Communication 203

7.9 Experimental Results 206

7.10 Lower Level Controller 208

7.1 1 Adaptive Controller for Unknown Vehicle Parameters 209

7.1 1.1 Redefined notation 209

7.1 1.2 Adaptive controller 21 1

7.12 Chapter Summary 214

Nomenclature 215

References 216

Appendix 7.A 218

xi Contents xvii

8. ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL 22 1

8.1 Introduction 22 1

8.1.1 The functioning of a stability control system 22 1

8.1.2 Systems developed by automotive manufacturers 223

8.1.3 Types of stability control systems 223

8.2 Differential Braking Systems 224

8.2.1 Vehicle model 224

8.2.2 Control architecture 229

8.2.3 Desired yaw rate 230

8.2.4 Desired side-slip angle 23 1

8.2.5 Upper bounded values of target yaw rate and slip angle 233

8.2.6 Upper controller design 235

8.2.7 Lower Controller design 238

8.3 Steer-By-Wire Systems 240

8.3.1 Introduction 240

8.3.2 Choice of output for decoupling 24 1

8.3.3 Controller design 244

8.4 Independent All Wheel Drive Torque Distribution 247

8.4.1 Traditional four wheel drive systems 247

8.4.2 Torque transfer between left and right wheels 248

8.4.3 Active control of torque transfer to all wheels 249

8.5 Chapter Summary 25 1

xviii VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

Nomeclature 252

References 255

9. MEAN VALUE MODELING OF SI AND DIESEL ENGINES 257

9.1 SI Engine Model Using Parametric Equations 25 8

9.1.1 Engine rotational dynamics 259

9.1.2 Indicated combustion torque 260

9.1.3 Friction and pumping losses 26 1

9.1.4 Manifold pressure equation 262

9.1.5 Outflow rate from intake manifold 263

9.1.6 Inflow rate into intake manifold 263

9.2 SI Engine Model Using Look-Up Maps 265

9.2.1 Introduction to engine maps 266

9.2.2 Second order engine model using engine maps 270

9.2.3 First order engine model using engine maps 27 1

9.3 Introduction to Turbocharged Diesel Engine Maps 27 3

9.4 Mean Value Modeling of Turbocharged Diesel Engines 274

9.4.1 Intake manifold dynamics 275

9.4.2 Exhaust manifold dynamics 275

9.4.3 Turbocharger dynamics 276

9.4.4 Engine crankshaft dynamics 277

9.4.5 Control system objectives 27 8

9.5 Lower Level Controller with SI Engines 279

 Contents xix

9.6 Chapter Summary

Nomenclature

References

10. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF PASSIVE AUTOMOTIVE

SUSPENSIONS

10.1 Introduction to Automotive Suspensions

10.1.1 Full, half and quarter car suspension models

10.1.2 Suspension functions

10.1.3 Dependent and independent suspensions

10.2 Modal Decoupling

10.3 Performance Variables for a Quarter Car Suspension

10.4 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes for the Quarter Car

10.5 Approximate Transfer Functions Using Decoupling

10.6 Analysis of Vibrations in the Sprung Mass Mode

10.7 Analysis of Vibrations in the Unsprung Mass Mode

10.8 Verification Using the Complete Quarter Model

10.8.1 Verification of the influence of suspension stiffness

10.8.2 Verification of the influence of suspension damping

10.8.3 Verification of the influence of tire stiffness

10.9 Half-Car and Full-Car Suspension Models

10.10 Chapter Summary

Nomenclature

References
xx VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

11. ACTIVE AUTOMOTIVE SUSPENSIONS 325

11.1 Introduction 325

11.2 Active Control: Trade-offs and Limitations 328

11.2.1 Transfer functions of interest 328

11.2.2 Use of the LQR Formulation and its relation to

H 2 Optimal Control 328

11.2.3 LQR formulation for active suspension design 330

11.2.4 Performance studies of the LQR controller 332

11.3 Active System Asymptotes 339

11.4 Invariant Points and Their Influence on the Suspension

Problem 34 1

1 1.5 Analysis of Trade-offs Using Invariant Points 343

11.5.1 Ride quality1 road holding trade-offs 344

11S . 2 Ride quality1 rattle space trade-offs 345

11.6 Conclusions on Achievable Active System Performance 346

11.7 Performanceof a Simple Velocity Feedback Controller 348

11.8 Hydraulic Actuators for Active Suspensions 350

11.9 Chapter Summary 352

Nomenclature 353

References 354

12. SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSIONS 357

12.1 Introduction 357

12.2 Semi-Active Suspension Model 359

 Contents xxi

12.3 Theoretical Results: Optimal Semi-Active Suspensions

12.3.1 Problem formulation

12.3.2 Problem definition

12.3.3 Optimal solution with no constraints on damping

12.3.4 Optimal solution in the presence of constraints

12.4 Interpretation of the Optimal Semi-Active Control Law

12.5 Simulation Results

12.6 Calculation of Transfer Function Plots with Semi-Active

Suspensions

12.7 Performance of Semi-Active Suspension Systems

12.7.1 Moderately weighted ride quality

12.7.2 Sky hook damping

12.8 Chapter Summary

Nomenclature

References

13. LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL TIRE FORCES

13.1 Tire Forces

13.2 Tire Structure

13.3 Longitudinal Tire Force at Small Slip Ratios

13.4 Lateral Tire Force at Small Slip Angles

13.5 Introduction to the Magic Formula Tire Model

13.6 Development of Lateral Tire Model for Uniform Normal

Force Distribution
xxii VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

13.6.1 Lateral forces at small slip angles 402

13.6.2 Lateral forces at large slip angles 405

13.7 Development of Lateral Tire Model for Parabolic Normal

Pressure Distribution 409

13.8 Combined Lateral and Longitudinal Tire Force Generation 4 17

13.9 The Magic Formula Tire Model 42 1

13.10 Dugoff's Tire Model 425

13.10.1 Introduction 425

13.10.2 Model equations 426

13.10.3 Friction Circle Interpretation of Dugoff's Model 427

13.11 Dynamic Tire Model 429

13.12 Chapter Summary 430

Nomenclature 430

References 432

14. TIRE-ROAD FRICTION MEASUREMENT ON HIGHWAY

VEHICLES 433

14.1 Introduction 433

14.1.1 Definition of tire-road friction coefficient 433

14.1.2 Benefits of tire-road friction estimation 434

14.1.3 Review of results on tire-road friction coefficient

estimation 435

14.1.4 Review of results on slip-slope based approach to friction

estimation 436

14.2 Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics and Tire Model for Friction

Estimation 438
 Contents xxiii

14.2.1 Vehicle longitudinal dynamics

14.2.2 Determination of the normal force

14.2.3 Tire model

14.2.4 Friction coefficient estimation for both traction

and braking

14.3 Summary of Longitudinal Friction identification Approach

14.4 Identification Algorithm Design

14.4.1 Recursive least-squares (RLS) identification

14.4.2 RLS with gain switching

14.4.3 Conditions for parameter updates

14.5 Estimation of Accelerometer Bias

14.6 Experimental Results

14.6.1 System hardware and software

14.6.2 Tests on dry concrete surface

14.6.3 Tests on concrete surface with loose snow covering

14.6.4 Tests on surface consisting of two different friction

levels

14.6.5 Hard braking test

14.7 Chapter Summary

Nomenclature

References

Index
Acknowledgments

I am deeply grateful to Professor Karl Hedrick for introducing me to the

field of Vehicle Dynamics and Control and for being my mentor when I
started working in this field. My initial research with him during my
doctoral studies has continued to influence my work. I am also grateful to
Professor Max Donath at the University of Minnesota for his immense
contribution in helping me establish a strong research program in this field.
I would also like to express my gratitude to my dear friend Professor
Darbha Swaroop. The chapters on longitudinal control in this book are
strongly influenced by his research results. I have had innumerable
discussions with him over the years and have benefited greatly from his
generosity and willingness to share his knowledge.
Several people have played a key role in making this book a reality. I am
grateful to Serdar Sezen for highly improving many of my earlier drawings
for this book and making them so much more clearer and professional. I
would also like to thank Vibhor Bageshwar, Jin-Oh Hahn and Neng
Piyabongkarn for reviewing several chapters of this book and offering their
comments. I am grateful to Lee Alexander who has worked with me on
several research projects in the field of vehicle dynamics and contributed to
my learning.
I would like to thank my parents Vanaja and Ramamurty Rajamani for
their love and confidence in me. Finally, I would like to thank my wife
Priya. But for her persistent encouragement and insistence, I might never
have returned from a job in industry to a life in academics and this book
would probably have never been written.

Rajesh Rajamani
Minneapolis, Minnesota
May 2005