Date

PART B

1. DEFINE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI). EXPLAIN THE

TECHNIQUES OF AI AND DESCRIBE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AI.

**DEFINITION OF AI:**

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) IS THE BRANCH OF COMPUTER

SCIENCE FOCUSED ON CREATING SYSTEMS THAT CAN PERFORM
TASKS THAT TYPICALLY REQUIRE HUMAN INTELLIGENCE. THIS
INCLUDES REASONING, LEARNING, PROBLEM-SOLVING,
PERCEPTION, AND LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING.

**TECHNIQUES OF AI:**

- **MACHINE LEARNING:** ALGORITHMS THAT ALLOW

COMPUTERS TO LEARN FROM AND MAKE PREDICTIONS BASED
ON DATA.

- **NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING (NLP):** TECHNIQUES

THAT ENABLE MACHINES TO UNDERSTAND AND RESPOND TO
HUMAN LANGUAGE.

- **COMPUTER VISION:** METHODS THAT ALLOW COMPUTERS TO

INTERPRET AND MAKE DECISIONS BASED ON VISUAL DATA.
- **EXPERT SYSTEMS:** AI PROGRAMS THAT MIMIC THE
DECISION-MAKING ABILITIES OF A HUMAN EXPERT.

- **ROBOTICS:** THE DESIGN AND USE OF ROBOTS TO PERFORM

TASKS AUTONOMOUSLY.

**CHARACTERISTICS OF AI:**

- **AUTONOMY:** THE ABILITY TO OPERATE WITHOUT HUMAN

INTERVENTION.

- **ADAPTABILITY:** THE CAPACITY TO LEARN FROM

EXPERIENCES AND IMPROVE PERFORMANCE OVER TIME.

- **PERCEPTION:** THE ABILITY TO INTERPRET SENSORY

INFORMATION FROM THE ENVIRONMENT.

- **REASONING:** THE CAPABILITY TO SOLVE PROBLEMS AND

MAKE DECISIONS BASED ON AVAILABLE INFORMATION.

### 2. WRITE IN DETAIL ABOUT INTELLIGENT AGENTS.

**INTELLIGENT AGENTS:**

2
AN INTELLIGENT AGENT IS A SYSTEM THAT PERCEIVES ITS
ENVIRONMENT THROUGH SENSORS AND ACTS UPON THAT
ENVIRONMENT THROUGH ACTUATORS. THE KEY COMPONENTS
OF INTELLIGENT AGENTS INCLUDE:

- **PERCEPTION:** GATHERING INFORMATION FROM THE

ENVIRONMENT.

- **ACTION:** TAKING ACTIONS BASED ON PERCEPTIONS TO

ACHIEVE SPECIFIC GOALS.

- **LEARNING:** IMPROVING PERFORMANCE OVER TIME

THROUGH EXPERIENCE.

- **RATIONALITY:** MAKING DECISIONS THAT MAXIMIZE THE

EXPECTED PERFORMANCE BASED ON THE CURRENT STATE AND
GOALS.

INTELLIGENT AGENTS CAN BE CATEGORIZED INTO SIMPLE

REFLEX AGENTS, MODEL-BASED REFLEX AGENTS, GOAL-BASED
AGENTS, AND UTILITY-BASED AGENTS, EACH WITH INCREASING
COMPLEXITY AND CAPABILITY.

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### 3. SOLVE THE GIVEN PROBLEM. DESCRIBE THE OPERATORS
INVOLVED IN IT. (WATER JUG PROBLEM)

**PROBLEM STATEMENT:** YOU HAVE A 4-GALLON JUG AND A 3-

GALLON JUG, AND YOU NEED TO MEASURE EXACTLY 2 GALLONS
IN THE 4-GALLON JUG.

**SOLUTION STEPS:**

1. FILL THE 3-GALLON JUG FROM THE PUMP.

2. POUR THE WATER FROM THE 3-GALLON JUG INTO THE 4-

GALLON JUG.

3. FILL THE 3-GALLON JUG AGAIN FROM THE PUMP.

4. POUR WATER FROM THE 3-GALLON JUG INTO THE 4-GALLON

JUG UNTIL THE 4-GALLON JUG IS FULL. THIS WILL LEAVE YOU
WITH EXACTLY 1 GALLON IN THE 3-GALLON JUG.

5. EMPTY THE 4-GALLON JUG.

6. POUR THE REMAINING 1 GALLON FROM THE 3-GALLON JUG

INTO THE 4-GALLON JUG.

7. FILL THE 3-GALLON JUG AGAIN FROM THE PUMP.

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8. POUR FROM THE 3-GALLON JUG INTO THE 4-GALLON JUG
UNTIL IT CONTAINS EXACTLY 2 GALLONS.

**OPERATORS INVOLVED:**

- **FILL JUG:** FILL A JUG COMPLETELY FROM THE PUMP.

- **EMPTY JUG:** POUR OUT ALL THE WATER FROM A JUG.

- **POUR WATER:** TRANSFER WATER FROM ONE JUG TO

ANOTHER UNTIL ONE JUG IS EITHER FULL OR EMPTY.

### 4. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE CHARACTERISTICS AND

APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING AGENTS.

**CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING AGENTS:**

- **FEEDBACK MECHANISM:** LEARNING AGENTS RECEIVE

FEEDBACK FROM THEIR ENVIRONMENT TO IMPROVE THEIR
PERFORMANCE.

- **EXPLORATION VS. EXPLOITATION:** THEY BALANCE

BETWEEN EXPLORING NEW ACTIONS AND EXPLOITING KNOWN
ACTIONS THAT YIELD HIGH REWARDS.

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- **ADAPTABILITY:** THEY CAN ADJUST THEIR STRATEGIES
BASED ON NEW INFORMATION AND EXPERIENCES.

**APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING AGENTS:**

- **RECOMMENDATION SYSTEMS:** USED IN E-COMMERCE TO

SUGGEST PRODUCTS BASED ON USER BEHAVIOR.

- **AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES:** LEARNING AGENTS HELP IN

NAVIGATION AND DECISION-MAKING IN DYNAMIC
ENVIRONMENTS.

- **HEALTHCARE:** AI SYSTEMS THAT LEARN FROM PATIENT

DATA TO ASSIST IN DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT PLANNING.

### 5. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE LEARNING AGENT.

**LEARNING AGENT:**

A LEARNING AGENT CONSISTS OF FOUR MAIN COMPONENTS:

1. **PERFORMANCE ELEMENT:** THIS COMPONENT SELECTS

ACTIONS BASED ON THE CURRENT STATE AND GOALS.

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2. **LEARNING ELEMENT:** IT IMPROVES THE PERFORMANCE
ELEMENT BY LEARNING FROM PAST EXPERIENCES AND
FEEDBACK.

3. **CRITIC:** PROVIDES FEEDBACK ON THE PERFORMANCE OF

THE AGENT, INDICATING HOW WELL IT IS ACHIEVING ITS GOALS.

4. **PROBLEM GENERATOR:** SUGGESTS NEW ACTIONS THAT

COULD LEAD TO BETTER OUTCOMES, ENCOURAGING
EXPLORATION.

THE LEARNING AGENT CONTINUOUSLY UPDATES ITS

KNOWLEDGE AND STRATEGIES TO ADAPT TO CHANGES IN THE
ENVIRONMENT, MAKING IT MORE EFFECTIVE OVER TIME.

### 6. DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF THE TASK

ENVIRONMENT IN AI.

**PROPERTIES OF TASK ENVIRONMENT:**

- **OBSERVABLE VS. PARTIALLY OBSERVABLE:** WHETHER THE

AGENT CAN SEE THE ENTIRE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT OR
ONLY PART OF IT.

- **DETERMINISTIC VS. STOCHASTIC:** WHETHER THE OUTCOME

OF ACTIONS IS PREDICTABLE OR INVOLVES RANDOMNESS.

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- **STATIC VS. DYNAMIC:** WHETHER THE ENVIRONMENT
CHANGES WHILE THE AGENT IS DELIBERATING.

- **DISCRETE VS. CONTINUOUS:** THE NATURE OF THE STATE

SPACE AND THE ACTIONS AVAILABLE TO THE AGENT.

- **SINGLE-AGENT VS. MULTI-AGENT:** WHETHER THE

ENVIRONMENT INVOLVES ONE AGENT OR MULTIPLE AGENTS
INTERACTING.

### 7. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ANY OF THE FOUR AGENT

STRUCTURES.

**AGENT STRUCTURES:**

1. **SIMPLE REFLEX AGENTS:** ACT ONLY ON THE CURRENT

PERCEPT, USING CONDITION-ACTION RULES.

2. **MODEL-BASED REFLEX AGENTS:** MAINTAIN AN INTERNAL

STATE TO KEEP TRACK OF THE WORLD AND MAKE DECISIONS
BASED ON THAT STATE.

3. **GOAL-BASED AGENTS:** USE GOALS TO GUIDE THEIR

ACTIONS, CONSIDERING FUTURE STATES AND OUTCOMES.

4. **UTILITY-BASED AGENTS:** EVALUATE ACTIONS BASED ON A

UTILITY FUNCTION, AIMING TO MAXIMIZE THEIR EXPECTED
UTILITY.

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### 8. DESCRIBE BRIEFLY THE VARIOUS PROBLEM
CHARACTERISTICS.

**PROBLEM CHARACTERISTICS:**

- **WELL-DEFINED VS. ILL-DEFINED:** CLEAR GOALS AND

CONSTRAINTS VERSUS AMBIGUOUS SITUATIONS.

- **STATIC VS. DYNAMIC:** PROBLEMS THAT CHANGE OVER TIME

VERSUS THOSE THAT REMAIN CONSTANT.

- **DETERMINISTIC VS. STOCHASTIC:** PREDICTABLE OUTCOMES

VERSUS THOSE INFLUENCED BY CHANCE.

- **DISCRETE VS. CONTINUOUS:** FINITE VERSUS INFINITE

STATE SPACES.

### 9. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT THE MEAN-END ANALYSIS

PROCEDURE WITH AN EXAMPLE.

**MEAN-END ANALYSIS:**

THIS IS A PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE THAT INVOLVES

COMPARING THE CURRENT STATE WITH THE GOAL STATE AND
IDENTIFYING THE DIFFERENCES. THE AGENT THEN SELECTS
ACTIONS TO REDUCE THESE DIFFERENCES.
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**EXAMPLE:**

IN THE WATER JUG PROBLEM, THE CURRENT STATE IS THE

AMOUNT OF WATER IN EACH JUG, AND THE GOAL STATE IS
HAVING EXACTLY 2 GALLONS IN THE 4-GALLON JUG. THE AGENT
IDENTIFIES THE ACTIONS NEEDED TO ACHIEVE THIS GOAL BY
FILLING, POURING, AND EMPTYING THE JUGS.

### 10. EVALUATE A PROBLEM AS A STATE SPACE SEARCH WITH

AN EXAMPLE.

**STATE SPACE SEARCH:**

A PROBLEM CAN BE REPRESENTED AS A STATE SPACE WHERE

EACH STATE CORRESPONDS TO A POSSIBLE CONFIGURATION OF
THE PROBLEM.

**EXAMPLE:**

IN THE 8-PUZZLE PROBLEM, EACH STATE REPRESENTS A

CONFIGURATION OF THE TILES. THE INITIAL STATE IS THE
STARTING CONFIGURATION, AND THE GOAL STATE IS THE
DESIRED CONFIGURATION. THE SEARCH INVOLVES EXPLORING

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THE STATE SPACE TO FIND A SEQUENCE OF MOVES THAT LEADS
TO THE GOAL STATE.

### 11. EXEMPLIFY THE NECESSARY COMPONENTS TO DEFINE

AN AI PROBLEM WITH AN EXAMPLE.

**COMPONENTS OF AN AI PROBLEM:**

- **INITIAL STATE:** THE STARTING CONFIGURATION OF THE

PROBLEM.

- **ACTIONS:** THE POSSIBLE MOVES OR OPERATIONS THAT CAN

BE PERFORMED.

- **TRANSITION MODEL:** DESCRIBES HOW ACTIONS CHANGE

THE STATE.

- **GOAL STATE:** THE DESIRED CONFIGURATION OR OUTCOME.

- **PATH COST:** A FUNCTION THAT ASSIGNS A COST TO EACH

PATH.

**EXAMPLE:**

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IN THE TRAVELING SALESMAN PROBLEM, THE INITIAL STATE IS
THE STARTING CITY, ACTIONS ARE THE ROUTES TAKEN, THE
TRANSITION MODEL DESCRIBES THE DISTANCE BETWEEN
CITIES, THE GOAL STATE IS VISITING ALL CITIES, AND THE PATH
COST IS THE TOTAL DISTANCE TRAVELED.

### 12. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT AI PROBLEMS WITH A REAL-

TIME EXAMPLE.

**AI PROBLEMS:**

AI PROBLEMS OFTEN INVOLVE DECISION-MAKING, LEARNING,

AND OPTIMIZATION. THEY CAN BE CATEGORIZED INTO VARIOUS
TYPES, SUCH AS CLASSIFICATION, REGRESSION, CLUSTERING,
AND PATHFINDING.

**REAL-TIME EXAMPLE:**

IN AUTONOMOUS DRIVING, THE AI MUST MAKE REAL-TIME

DECISIONS BASED ON SENSOR DATA, SUCH AS DETECTING
OBSTACLES, PREDICTING THE BEHAVIOR OF OTHER VEHICLES,
AND NAVIGATING TO A DESTINATION WHILE ADHERING TO
TRAFFIC RULES.

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### 13. ANALYZE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS WITH RESPECT
TO THE SEVEN PROBLEM CHARACTERISTICS.

1. **TRAVELING SALESMAN PROBLEM:**

- **WELL-DEFINED:** YES

- **STATIC:** YES

- **DETERMINISTIC:** YES

- **DISCRETE:** YES

- **SINGLE-AGENT:** YES

- **OPTIMAL SOLUTION:** YES

- **COMPLEXITY:** NP-HARD

2. **8-PUZZLE PROBLEM:**

- **WELL-DEFINED:** YES

- **STATIC:** YES

- **DETERMINISTIC:** YES
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 - **DISCRETE:** YES

- **SINGLE-AGENT:** YES

- **OPTIMAL SOLUTION:** YES

- **COMPLEXITY:** NP-COMPLETE

3. **TOWERS OF HANOI:**

- **WELL-DEFINED:** YES

- **STATIC:** YES

- **DETERMINISTIC:** YES

- **DISCRETE:** YES

- **SINGLE-AGENT:** YES

- **OPTIMAL SOLUTION:** YES

- **COMPLEXITY:** EXPONENTIAL

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4. **CHESS:**

- **WELL-DEFINED:** YES

- **DYNAMIC:** YES

- **DETERMINISTIC:** YES

- **DISCRETE:** YES

- **MULTI-AGENT:** YES

- **OPTIMAL SOLUTION:** NO

- **COMPLEXITY:** NP-COMPLETE

### 14.### PRODUCTION SYSTEM FOR SHARING 12 LITRES OF

APPLE JUICE

TO SHARE 12 LITRES OF APPLE JUICE USING A 12-LITRE BUCKET,

AN 8-LITRE BOTTLE, AND A 5-LITRE BOTTLE, WE CAN DESIGN A
PRODUCTION SYSTEM THAT INVOLVES A SERIES OF ACTIONS TO
MEASURE AND TRANSFER THE JUICE. HERE’S HOW THE
PRODUCTION SYSTEM CAN BE STRUCTURED:

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#### COMPONENTS OF THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

1. **INITIAL STATE**:

- 12-LITRE BUCKET: 12 LITRES OF APPLE JUICE

- 8-LITRE BOTTLE: 0 LITRES

- 5-LITRE BOTTLE: 0 LITRES

2. **ACTIONS**:

- **FILL 8-LITRE BOTTLE FROM THE 12-LITRE BUCKET**:

TRANSFER 8 LITRES OF JUICE TO THE 8-LITRE BOTTLE.

- **FILL 5-LITRE BOTTLE FROM THE 12-LITRE BUCKET**:

TRANSFER 5 LITRES OF JUICE TO THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE.

- **POUR FROM 8-LITRE BOTTLE TO 5-LITRE BOTTLE**:

TRANSFER JUICE FROM THE 8-LITRE BOTTLE TO THE 5-LITRE
BOTTLE UNTIL THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE IS FULL OR THE 8-LITRE
BOTTLE IS EMPTY.

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 - **EMPTY THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE**: POUR OUT THE JUICE FROM
THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE.

- **POUR FROM 5-LITRE BOTTLE BACK TO THE 12-LITRE

BUCKET**: TRANSFER JUICE FROM THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE BACK
TO THE 12-LITRE BUCKET.

3. **GOAL STATE**:

- EACH PERSON (YOU AND YOUR FRIEND) SHOULD HAVE 6

LITRES OF APPLE JUICE.

#### STEPS TO ACHIEVE THE GOAL

1. **FILL THE 8-LITRE BOTTLE FROM THE 12-LITRE BUCKET**:

- 12-LITRE BUCKET: 4 LITRES

- 8-LITRE BOTTLE: 8 LITRES

- 5-LITRE BOTTLE: 0 LITRES

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2. **FILL THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE FROM THE 8-LITRE BOTTLE**:

- 12-LITRE BUCKET: 4 LITRES

- 8-LITRE BOTTLE: 3 LITRES (8 – 5)

- 5-LITRE BOTTLE: 5 LITRES

3. **EMPTY THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE**:

- 12-LITRE BUCKET: 4 LITRES

- 8-LITRE BOTTLE: 3 LITRES

- 5-LITRE BOTTLE: 0 LITRES

4. **POUR FROM THE 8-LITRE BOTTLE TO THE 5-LITRE

BOTTLE**:

- 12-LITRE BUCKET: 4 LITRES

- 8-LITRE BOTTLE: 1 LITRE (3 – 2)

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 - 5-LITRE BOTTLE: 2 LITRES (0 + 2)

5. **FILL THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE FROM THE 12-LITRE BUCKET**:

- 12-LITRE BUCKET: 0 LITRES (4 – 4)

- 8-LITRE BOTTLE: 1 LITRE

- 5-LITRE BOTTLE: 5 LITRES

6. **POUR FROM THE 5-LITRE BOTTLE TO THE 8-LITRE

BOTTLE**:

- 12-LITRE BUCKET: 0 LITRES

- 8-LITRE BOTTLE: 6 LITRES (1 + 5)

- 5-LITRE BOTTLE: 0 LITRES

NOW, YOU HAVE 6 LITRES IN THE 8-LITRE BOTTLE, WHICH YOU

CAN SHARE WITH YOUR FRIEND.

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15. ### DEFINITION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) IS A BRANCH OF COMPUTER

SCIENCE THAT FOCUSES ON CREATING SYSTEMS CAPABLE OF
PERFORMING TASKS THAT TYPICALLY REQUIRE HUMAN
INTELLIGENCE. THESE TASKS INCLUDE REASONING, LEARNING,
PROBLEM-SOLVING, PERCEPTION, LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING,
AND DECISION-MAKING. AI AIMS TO DEVELOP ALGORITHMS AND
MODELS THAT ENABLE MACHINES TO MIMIC COGNITIVE
FUNCTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HUMAN MINDS.

### TECHNIQUES OF AI

1. **MACHINE LEARNING**: A SUBSET OF AI THAT INVOLVES

TRAINING ALGORITHMS TO LEARN FROM AND MAKE
PREDICTIONS BASED ON DATA. TECHNIQUES INCLUDE
SUPERVISED LEARNING, UNSUPERVISED LEARNING, AND
REINFORCEMENT LEARNING.

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2. **NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING (NLP)**: TECHNIQUES
THAT ENABLE MACHINES TO UNDERSTAND, INTERPRET, AND
RESPOND TO HUMAN LANGUAGE IN A MEANINGFUL WAY.
APPLICATIONS INCLUDE CHATBOTS, TRANSLATION SERVICES,
AND SENTIMENT ANALYSIS.

3. **COMPUTER VISION**: TECHNIQUES THAT ALLOW MACHINES

TO INTERPRET AND UNDERSTAND VISUAL INFORMATION
FROM THE WORLD, SUCH AS IMAGES AND VIDEOS.
APPLICATIONS INCLUDE FACIAL RECOGNITION, OBJECT
DETECTION, AND AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES.

4. **EXPERT SYSTEMS**: AI PROGRAMS THAT MIMIC THE

DECISION-MAKING ABILITY OF A HUMAN EXPERT. THEY USE A
KNOWLEDGE BASE AND INFERENCE RULES TO SOLVE
SPECIFIC PROBLEMS IN FIELDS LIKE MEDICINE, FINANCE, AND
ENGINEERING.

5. **ROBOTICS**: THE DESIGN AND USE OF ROBOTS TO PERFORM

TASKS AUTONOMOUSLY OR SEMI-AUTONOMOUSLY. AI
TECHNIQUES ARE USED TO ENHANCE ROBOT PERCEPTION,
NAVIGATION, AND INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT.

21
6. **SEARCH ALGORITHMS**: TECHNIQUES USED TO EXPLORE
PROBLEM SPACES AND FIND SOLUTIONS. EXAMPLES INCLUDE
A* SEARCH, DEPTH-FIRST SEARCH, AND BREADTH-FIRST
SEARCH.

### CHARACTERISTICS OF AI

1. **AUTONOMY**: AI SYSTEMS CAN OPERATE INDEPENDENTLY

WITHOUT HUMAN INTERVENTION, MAKING DECISIONS BASED
ON THEIR PROGRAMMING AND LEARNED EXPERIENCES.

2. **ADAPTABILITY**: AI SYSTEMS CAN LEARN FROM THEIR

ENVIRONMENT AND EXPERIENCES, ALLOWING THEM TO
IMPROVE THEIR PERFORMANCE OVER TIME.

3. **REASONING**: AI CAN ANALYZE INFORMATION, DRAW

CONCLUSIONS, AND MAKE DECISIONS BASED ON LOGICAL
REASONING.

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4. **PERCEPTION**: AI SYSTEMS CAN INTERPRET SENSORY DATA
(VISUAL, AUDITORY, ETC.) TO UNDERSTAND THEIR
ENVIRONMENT.

5. **INTERACTION**: AI CAN COMMUNICATE AND INTERACT

WITH HUMANS IN NATURAL LANGUAGE, MAKING IT EASIER
FOR USERS TO ENGAGE WITH TECHNOLOGY.

6. **PROBLEM-SOLVING**: AI CAN IDENTIFY PROBLEMS,

GENERATE SOLUTIONS, AND IMPLEMENT THEM EFFECTIVELY.

7. **LEARNING**: AI SYSTEMS CAN LEARN FROM DATA AND

EXPERIENCES, ALLOWING THEM TO ADAPT TO NEW
SITUATIONS AND IMPROVE THEIR PERFORMANCE.

IN SUMMARY, AI ENCOMPASSES A WIDE RANGE OF TECHNIQUES

AND CHARACTERISTICS THAT ENABLE MACHINES TO PERFORM
TASKS THAT REQUIRE HUMAN-LIKE INTELLIGENCE, MAKING IT A
VITAL FIELD IN TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION.

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16.### I) PERFORMANCE MEASURE OF VARIOUS SEARCH
ALGORITHMS

THE PERFORMANCE MEASURE OF SEARCH ALGORITHMS CAN BE

EVALUATED BASED ON SEVERAL CRITERIA, INCLUDING:

1. **COMPLETENESS**: WHETHER THE ALGORITHM GUARANTEES

FINDING A SOLUTION IF ONE EXISTS.

2. **OPTIMALITY**: WHETHER THE ALGORITHM GUARANTEES

FINDING THE BEST SOLUTION (MINIMUM COST).

3. **TIME COMPLEXITY**: THE AMOUNT OF TIME TAKEN TO FIND

A SOLUTION, OFTEN EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER OF
NODES GENERATED OR EXPANDED.

4. **SPACE COMPLEXITY**: THE AMOUNT OF MEMORY REQUIRED

TO PERFORM THE SEARCH, OFTEN EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THE
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF NODES STORED IN MEMORY.

5. **EFFICIENCY**: A COMBINATION OF TIME AND SPACE

COMPLEXITY, INDICATING HOW WELL THE ALGORITHM
PERFORMS RELATIVE TO OTHERS.

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FOR EXAMPLE:

- **BREADTH-FIRST SEARCH (BFS)**:

- COMPLETENESS: YES

- OPTIMALITY: YES (IF ALL STEP COSTS ARE EQUAL)

- TIME COMPLEXITY: O(B^D) WHERE B IS THE BRANCHING

FACTOR AND D IS THE DEPTH OF THE SHALLOWEST SOLUTION.

- SPACE COMPLEXITY: O(B^D)

- **DEPTH-FIRST SEARCH (DFS)**:

- COMPLETENESS: NO (IF THE SEARCH SPACE IS INFINITE)

- OPTIMALITY: NO

- TIME COMPLEXITY: O(B^M) WHERE M IS THE MAXIMUM

DEPTH OF THE SEARCH TREE.

- SPACE COMPLEXITY: O(B*M)

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- **A* SEARCH**:

- COMPLETENESS: YES (IF THE HEURISTIC IS ADMISSIBLE)

- OPTIMALITY: YES (IF THE HEURISTIC IS ADMISSIBLE)

- TIME COMPLEXITY: O(B^D) IN THE WORST CASE.

- SPACE COMPLEXITY: O(B^D)

### II) NECESSARY COMPONENTS TO DEFINE AN AI PROBLEM

TO DEFINE AN AI PROBLEM, THE FOLLOWING COMPONENTS ARE

NECESSARY:

1. **INITIAL STATE**: THE STARTING POINT OF THE PROBLEM.

2. **ACTIONS**: THE SET OF ALL POSSIBLE ACTIONS THAT CAN

BE TAKEN FROM A GIVEN STATE.

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3. **TRANSITION MODEL**: A DESCRIPTION OF WHAT EACH
ACTION DOES, I.E., HOW IT TRANSFORMS THE CURRENT STATE
INTO A NEW STATE.

4. **GOAL STATE**: THE CONDITION THAT NEEDS TO BE

SATISFIED TO CONSIDER THE PROBLEM SOLVED.

5. **PATH COST**: A FUNCTION THAT ASSIGNS A NUMERIC COST

TO EACH PATH, WHICH CAN BE USED TO EVALUATE THE
EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS.

**EXAMPLE**: CONSIDER THE PROBLEM OF NAVIGATING A MAZE.

- **INITIAL STATE**: THE STARTING POSITION IN THE MAZE.

- **ACTIONS**: MOVE UP, DOWN, LEFT, OR RIGHT.

- **TRANSITION MODEL**: MOVING IN A DIRECTION CHANGES

THE CURRENT POSITION IN THE MAZE.

- **GOAL STATE**: REACHING THE EXIT OF THE MAZE.

- **PATH COST**: THE NUMBER OF MOVES TAKEN TO REACH THE

EXIT.

27
### CRYPTARITHMETIC PROBLEM: SEND + MORE = MONEY

IN A CRYPTARITHMETIC PROBLEM, EACH LETTER REPRESENTS A

UNIQUE DIGIT, AND THE GOAL IS TO FIND THE DIGIT VALUES
THAT SATISFY THE EQUATION.

FOR THE PROBLEM SEND + MORE = MONEY, WE CAN ASSIGN THE

FOLLOWING VALUES:

- S, E, N, D, M, O, R, Y ARE DISTINCT DIGITS FROM 0 TO 9.

THE EQUATION CAN BE REPRESENTED AS:

```

SEND

+MORE

MONEY

```

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TO SOLVE THIS, WE NEED TO ENSURE:

1. EACH LETTER CORRESPONDS TO A UNIQUE DIGIT.

2. THE SUM MUST HOLD TRUE WHEN THE DIGITS ARE

SUBSTITUTED BACK INTO THE EQUATION.

### IMPORTANCE OF AN AGENT AND INTELLIGENT AGENTS

AN AGENT IS IMPORTANT IN AI BECAUSE IT ACTS

AUTONOMOUSLY IN AN ENVIRONMENT TO ACHIEVE SPECIFIC
GOALS. INTELLIGENT AGENTS ARE SYSTEMS THAT PERCEIVE
THEIR ENVIRONMENT AND TAKE ACTIONS TO MAXIMIZE THEIR
CHANCES OF SUCCESS.

**KEY FEATURES OF INTELLIGENT AGENTS**:

1. **PERCEPTION**: AGENTS GATHER INFORMATION FROM

THEIR ENVIRONMENT THROUGH SENSORS.

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2. **ACTION**: THEY ACT UPON THE ENVIRONMENT USING
ACTUATORS.

3. **AUTONOMY**: THEY OPERATE WITHOUT HUMAN

INTERVENTION, MAKING DECISIONS BASED ON THEIR
PERCEPTIONS AND INTERNAL STATE.

4. **LEARNING**: THEY CAN IMPROVE THEIR PERFORMANCE

OVER TIME THROUGH LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCES.

5. **RATIONALITY**: THEY CHOOSE ACTIONS THAT MAXIMIZE

THEIR EXPECTED PERFORMANCE BASED ON THEIR GOALS.

**EXAMPLE**: A SELF-DRIVING CAR IS AN INTELLIGENT AGENT

THAT PERCEIVES ITS SURROUNDINGS (OTHER VEHICLES,
PEDESTRIANS, TRAFFIC SIGNALS) AND MAKES DRIVING
DECISIONS (ACCELERATING, BRAKING, TURNING) TO NAVIGATE
SAFELY AND EFFICIENTLY.

IN SUMMARY, INTELLIGENT AGENTS ARE CRUCIAL FOR

AUTOMATING TASKS, SOLVING COMPLEX PROBLEMS, AND
ENHANCING DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES IN VARIOUS
APPLICATIONS, FROM ROBOTICS TO SOFTWARE SYSTEMS.

30