Topic-1.

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ikigaithinker

Metodología y Nuevas Tecnologías

3º Grado en Maestro/a de Educación Primaria

Facultad de Educación. Campus de Cuenca

Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha

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Topic 1 | Overview of the different approaches and

methods in language teaching
The history of language teaching evolution: From grammar translation to language teaching
new trends.

1 Introduction
As teachers of English in primary education our ambition should be to be as effective as
possible. This will inevitably lead us to look for the best approaches and methods in
reaching this goal.

To do this, we can look at the different theories in the teaching of foreign languages. An
investigation of these will help us to discover the history of our subject area (English as a
foreign language).

We will be able to have more resources from which to draw some conclusions about the
methods we will want to use in our own teaching.

In the long search for the best way of teaching a foreign language hundreds of different
methods have been designed. Each method is based on a particular approach of viewpoint
of language and usually suggests the usage of a specific set of language teaching
techniques.

None of these methods has been proved as intrinsically superior although from time to
time someone tries to prove the effectiveness of a certain one. The contemporary attitude
is flexible and utilitarian: different methods reach the goal of communicative competence
and what teachers need is to be aware of a range of methods to find the most appropriate
to the learners’ needs and interests.

As we can see, it is necessary to introduce an eclectic approach in which different aspects

from different methods are selected depending on the particular teaching situation. On the
other hand, some methods have played a very important role in the evolution of Foreign
Language Teaching evolution. These main methods are:

1. Grammar translation. 6. Humanistic approach.

2. Natural method. 7. Communicative approach.
3. Direct method. 8. Communicative new trends.
4. Audiolingual-method.
5. The oral approach and situational language teaching Humanistic approach.

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1 Foundations of foreign language teaching: methods

Several classifications of teaching methods have been made in an attempt to order
different aspects and ideas on the field of F.L.T. All of the methods involve one or more of
the following characteristics:

→ Translation.
→ Situational context participation.
→ Linguistic analysis.
→ Learning psychology.

Other characteristics which can possess some of these methods are:

→ Sort of skills emphasized.

→ Use of spontaneous language.
→ Special features.

2 From Grammar-Translation to the Communicative approach

2.1 Grammar-Translation

This method derives from the traditional approach to the teaching of Latin and Greek and
although considered old-fashioned is still practiced in some places.

The Grammar Translation of Traditional Method is based on two components:

→ Explicit explication of rules and study of vocabulary (emphasis on grammar).

→ Translation.

The goal is to be able to read literature in the foreign language and to learn grammar rules
and vocabulary.

The teacher has the authority and the students follow instructions.

The Grammar-Translation method involves students being taught all about English in their
own language with lots of texts to study, grammar rules, vocabulary lists to memorize and
sentences to translate to and from the mother tongue. Oral fluency is not emphasized. This
approach does not cover the actual communicative purpose of modern languages.

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2.2 Natural method

This method was developed as a reaction against Grammar-Translation mainly in France

in the early 19TH century. It has got inspiration from the work of Rousseau Comenious and
Pestalozzi. Its name comes from what was considered to be the natural way to learn a
language: exposure to the language in everyday communicative situations. This method is
similar to first language acquisition. Grammar was not taught and translation was
irrelevant. Books were not used and listening and speaking skills were emphasized.

2.3 Direct method

It became established towards the end of the 19th century.

It was based on the natural method, no translation was allowed, but it meant and
improvement: natural use of language in context. Didactically speaking, it added, some
other improvements.

→ Less use of spontaneous language.

→ Pre-selected and graded materials.
→ Oral pattern drills for memorization.
→ Translation.
→ Reading and writing after speech.

2.4 The oral approach and situational language teaching

Situational language teaching is a term not commonly used today, but it is an approach
developed by British applied linguists in the 1930s to the 1960s, and which had an impact
on language courses which survive in some still being used today. Speech was viewed as
the basis of language and structure as being the heart of speaking ability; I mean,
structures must be presented in situations in which they could be used. The main
objectives were:

→ A practical command of the four basic skills of a language, through structure.

→ Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar.
→ Ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations.
→ Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns.

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2.5 Audio-lingual method

This method is the direct successor to the direct method. It adds the structurally linguistic
theory (eg. Bloomfield) and the behaviouristic psychology (Skinner).

The audiolingual method differs from the direct method only in emphasis:

Drills are preferred to spontaneous language use in context.

This method derives from the intensive training in spoken languages even to American
military personnel during the Second World War, which resulted in a high degree of
listening and speaking skill being achieved in a relative short time-span.

The target language is used exclusively, with lots of repetition, regular controlled drilling,
avoidance of error and emphasis on oral skills. A popular progression included
PRESENTATION-DRILL-PRACTICE. Most teachers still use some of the techniques, such as
repetition, drills, acting out, dialogues, etc, but they tend to form only a small part of their
repertoire.

2.6 Humanistic approaches

Humanistic approaches focus on the importance of the learner and are inspired on the
following principles:

→ Development of human values.

→ Growth in self awareness.
→ Understanding of others.
→ Active student involvement.
→ Student-centred learning/teaching.
→ Sensitivity to human feelings and emotions.

2.6.1 Suggestopedia (Lozanov)

Suggestopedia is based on the suggestology: learning through the power of suggestion.

(The power of the mind) This method aims to harness (use) the unconscious mind to
language learning. Students learn in a relaxing environment. Decoration and music are
used to encourage the language learning. The students are often seated comfortably; they
listen to music and hear dialogues accompanied by translations and notes in the native
language and culture. They are given huge bilingual vocabulary lists to learn quite rapidly

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and courses are intensive, giving rise to so-called “accelerated learning”. Students learn in
a state of complete relaxation and comfort bordering on hypnoses.

The human mind is capable of prodigious acts of memory if learning takes place in the
right conditions.

2.6.2 The Silent way (Gattegno)

This method provides an environment which keeps the amount of teaching to a minimum.
The silent way is based on the principle that “teaching is subordinate to learning”. The
learner’s task is to work at learning the language and the teacher helps the pronunciation,
which is usually seen as mechanical. The teacher speaks as little as possible and uses some
colour charts representing sounds/spellings and coloured rods to represent anything
imaginable. The teacher remains on the sidelines and uses a pointer and gestures.

The goal of the silent way is to prepare students so they can freely express their own
thoughts, perceptions and feelings. Students develop quickly their independence from the
teacher.

2.6.3 Community Language Learning (Charles A. Curran)

This method is similar to counsel therapy: the teacher is seen as a counsellor and the
pupils as clients. In fact, Charles A. Curran was a famous counsellor therapist who applied
small group dynamic techniques to Foreign Language Teaching and aimed to reduce
learner anxiety. A bilingual teacher adopts the role of counsellor and sits in a circle with
student, translating anything they want to say into the target language. Everything is
recorded on tape then reviewed.

There is no prepared material. The teacher does not correct errors overtly.

Instead, s/he works to correct errors in a non-threatening way. The most important skills
are understanding and speaking.

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2.6.4 Natural Approach (Tracy D. Terrel)

It emphasizes the role of natural language acquisition and underlines the importance of
emotional rather than cognitive factors in learning. The aim is to establish an ability to
understand the basic content of a communication in an informal setting. Learners use their
mother tongue while foreign language comprehension is developing.

2.6.5 Language From Within (Beverly Galyean)

It is based on the student’s needs and interests. Students are encouraged to be

introspective about their own needs, interests, values and favourite activities and to talk
about these emotional responses to others. All materials come from the students, as they
become more self-aware, and build up a close relationship with each other.

2.6.6 Delayed Oral Practice (Postovsky)

This method is based on the principle that comprehension is established before

production; in other words, it is far easier for learners to achieve competence in
recognizing language than in producing it. A basic receptive competence is established.

2.6.7 Total Physical Response (Asher)

The name derives from the emphasis on the actions that learners have to make, as they are
given simple commands such as sit, stop, stand. It is based on the coordination of speech
and actions. Children are able to respond physically before they are able to produce verbal
responses: comprehension is established before production.

It is excellent to encourage students to participate in a class and still used in primary

schools.

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2.7 Communicative approaches

Communicative approach draws on Chomsky’s reaction to Structural methods which did

not believe in the creative part of language. Traditional F.L. Teaching concentrated on
items of language in isolation. The focus was not on communication but on pieces of
language. Since the 70s, there has been a great reaction against F.L methods which focused
the teaching on grammar instead of the way language is used in everyday situations. A
concern developed to make FLT communicative or in other words, to make the English
Class more communicative.

In this sense, Wilkins (1971) showed the Council of Europe that language could be
organized not around a grammar syllabus but around two systems of meanings based on a
Communicative Approach:

→ Communicative Functions: The purpose for which an utterance is used

(identifying, asking and giving information, requesting….).
→ Notions: The concepts and meanings the learners need to communicate (time,
location, duration, quantity….).

This was the first step towards New Communicative Trends in FLT. The Communicative
Approach aims:

→ To produce students who are communicative competent. It involves to use the

language appropriate to a given social context.
→ To develop procedures for the teaching of the four skills (listening, speaking,
reading and writing).

2.7.1 Theory of Language

The Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as

communication. The goal of language is to develop what Hymes referred to as
Communicative Competence. The communicative competence is the capacity or ability to
communicate effectively in a language. The main aim of all our teaching is to make our
pupils acquire a communicative competence in a foreign language.

For a better understanding of the concept of communicative competence we need to adapt

from the definition that Chomsky gave for the language in 1957.

In fact, Chomsky defined language as a set of sentences each finite in length and formed by
a finite set of elements. An able speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammar
rules of his language which allows him to make sentences in that language. However, Dell

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Hymes (1971) thought that Chomsky had missed out some very important: the rules of
use. When a native speaker speaks, he does not only utter grammatically correct forms, he
also knows where and when to use these sentences and to whom. Hymes then said that
competence by itself is not enough to explain a native speaker’s knowledge and he
replaced it with his own concept of communicative competence. Hymes distinguished four
aspects of this competence:

→ Systematic potential means that the native speaker possesses a system that has a
potential for creating a lot of language. This is similar to Chomsky’s competence.

→ Appropriacy means that the native speaker knows what language is appropriate in a
given situation. His choice is based on the following variables, among others: setting,
participants, purpose, channel, topic…

→ Ocurrence means that the native speaker knows how often something is said in the
language and acts accordingly.

→ Feasibility means that the native speaker knows whether something is possible in
the language.

→ Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of four

components:

◌ Grammatical competence: words and rules.

◌ Sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness.
◌ Discourse competence: cohesion and coherence.
◌ Strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategies.

These four categories have been adapted for teaching purposes. Thus, current curriculum,
through the different stages of compulsory and post-compulsory education sees
Communicative Competence as comprising 5 aspects or subcompetences:

→ Grammar Competence or the ability to use correctly the linguistic code and was the
same as Chomsky’s linguistic competence.

→ Discourse competence or the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse

showing coherence and cohesion.

→ Strategic competence or the ability of speakers to use verbal and non-verbal

communication strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication or to
improve the effectiveness of competence.

→ Sociolinguistic competence or the ability to adapt statements to a specific context.

→ Sociocultural competence is the appropriateness of utterance with respect to both

meaning and form.

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2.7.2 Theory of Learning

The communicative approach is based on the following principles:

→ Communicative principle: activities which involve real communication promote

learning.

→ Task principle: meaningful tasks promote meaning.

→ Meaningfulness principle: language which is relevant or meaningful to the learner

supports the language process.

2.7.3 Communicative Learning-Teaching activities

First of all, we should say that the learning and teaching process is simultaneous and all
the activities within the communicative approach must:

→ Enable learners to reach the communicative target of the curriculum.

→ Engage learners in communication and require the use of communication process.
Most communicative activities are based on the information gap principle which should be
bridged by communicative techniques (negotiation, information exchange or sharing
information). Types of activities (Littlewood, 1981):

→ Functional-communicative activities: comparing sets of pictures, working out a

sequence of events, following directions…

→ Social interaction activities: role-plays, simulations, discussions, debates…

Following Harmer (1983):

Oral c. activities Written c. activities

-reaching a consensus -relaying instructions
-communication games -exchanging letters
-problem solving -writing games
-interpersonal exchange -fluency writing
-story construction -story construction
-simulation and role play -writing reports and ads

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These activities share the following characteristics (Harmer):

→ A desire to communicate. → Variety of language.

→ A communicative purpose. → Limited teacher intervention.
→ Content not form. → Limited material control.

2.7.4 Teacher and Learner roles

The teacher has two main roles in communication teaching: facilitator of communication
and participant within the group. Both roles imply a set of secondary ones such as needs
analyst, counsellor, group process manager and organizer of resources. On the other hand,
the two main roles of the learner are those of participant and negotiator of meaning.

3 Communicative new trends

3.1 Task-based methods

A task is a work unit in the Foreign Language class which involves pupils in the
comprehension, manipulation, production and interaction of the F.L. Pupils’ attention is
focused mainly on the meaning instead of the form.

The outstanding features of the task-based method is the presentation of communication

globally with all its elements interrelated as in reality. On the other hand, linguistic items
are treated when communication demands it.

Evaluation is an integral part of the teaching-learning language process. Task-based work

implies the task as the planning unit; in other words, we do not depart from linguistic
contents but from communicative ones when designing our planning units.

3.2 Project-based methods

Project-based work is based on the same theoretic and methodological principles

than the task-based work. A global task related to our pupils’ interests is proposed, for
example, to elaborate a magazine or a video tape, to prepare a Christmas party or a
Birthday party. All the classroom activities are thought to develop the project. The main

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difference with task-based work is duration: a project may last a month, a term or even, a
year.

3.3 The Lexical Approach method

In The Lexical Approach (1993), Michael Lewis argued that language consisted not of
vocabulary and structures, but essentially of different kinds of lexical items.

The fundamental idea is exceptionally simple- much of our language is made of

prefabricated chunks, usually, much larger than single words. A mature native speaker has
a stock of many tens of thousands of separate items stored and readily accessible for both
receptive and productive use. This basis implies to believe in the importance of memory
when learning a F.L. and to reduce the importance of the understanding of grammar rules.
Finally this method claims that studies of real language use show that the structures of the
traditional textbooks are not an image of what is used in real contexts.

3.4 Content-based teaching

A simplified but useful definition of the principles which underline content-based learning
is provided by Snow (1991) in her article called “A Method with Many Faces”:

“Content-based instructions rests on the premise that the second or foreign language is
learned most effectively when used as the medium to convey informational content of
interest and relevance to the learner… In content-based instructions, “content” is defined as
the integration of content learning with language teaching aims. More specifically, it refers
to the concurrent study of language and subject matter with the form and sequence of
language presentation influenced by the content material”.

Content-based teaching and learning is one of the newest and most exciting changes
taking place in FLT classrooms. It is being implemented in hundreds of schools around the
world. Although you may not be directly involved in content-based teaching, these ideas
may serve as a basis of cross-curricular lessons.

3.5 Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling (TPRS)

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TPR Storytelling (Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling or TPRS) is a

method of teaching foreign languages developed by Blaine Ray in the 1990s. TPRS lessons
use a mixture of reading and storytelling to help students learn a Foreign Language in a
classroom setting. The method works in three steps: in step one the new vocabulary
structures to be learned are taught using a combination of translation, gestures, and
personalized questions; in step two those structures are used in a spoken class story; and
finally, in step three, these same structures are used in a class reading. Throughout these
three steps, the teacher will use a number of techniques to help make the target language
comprehensible to the students, including careful limiting of vocabulary, constant asking
of easy comprehension questions, frequent comprehension checks, and very short
grammar explanations known as “pop-up grammar”. Many teachers also assign additional
reading activities such as free voluntary reading, and there have been several easy novels
written by TPRS teachers for this purpose.

TPRS Storytelling prioritizes the development of fluency over grammatical accuracy.

Proponents of TPR Storytelling, basing their argument on the second language acquisition
theories of Stephen Krashen, hold that the best way to help students develop both fluency
and accuracy in a language is to expose them to large amounts of comprehensible input.
They claim that research on the order of acquisition shows that spontaneous speech from
beginners will invariably contain errors (whatever teaching method is used); rather than
try and correct these errors by direct instruction, they hold that the best way is to let
students” subconscious grammar knowledge develop naturally. The different steps and
techniques in TPR Storytelling are in large part an attempt to facilitate this process by
creating an environment filled with comprehensible and engaging input.

In TPR Storytelling, each lesson is focused on just three vocabulary phrases or fewer,
enabling teachers to concentrate on teaching each phrase thoroughly.

Teachers also make sure that the students internalize each phrase before moving on to
new material, giving additional story lessons with the same vocabulary when necessary.

4 Conclusion
We have described the specific methodological fundaments of English language teaching
methods. However, it is impossible to select a single theory that can cover all the
expectations in the field of Foreign Language Teaching. We may point out some factors
which seem to be successful in language learning, for instance:

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→ Attitude.
→ Learning how to learn strategies.
→ Regular exposure to the Foreign Language.
→ Carefully selected and graded objectives.
→ Flexible teaching methods.
→ Motivation.
Spanish Foreign Language Curriculum departs from a constructive theory of learning and
a view of language as communication towards generally language teaching techniques or
procedures.

Procedures are outlined to permit adjustments in particular teaching situations. In a

design level, the F.L syllabus must be adapted to our educational context in order to
achieve our main aim as English teachers: communicative competence.

Extra practice
1. Imagine you have to teach “FOOD”, “THERE IS-THERE ARE”, and “THE SIMPLE PRESENT”
to seven year old students. Would you use the Grammar-Translation method? Why?
How?
If not, which method would you use? Support your ideas.

2. Explain the differences between the Natural method and the Direct method.

3. Name the Humanistic approaches. What are the most important principles of the
Humanistic approaches?

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the TPR method?

5. What is the “communicative competence”? Why do you think it is important?

6. What are the disadvantages of the Communicative approach?

7. Imagine you are using the Communicative approach with your 24 nine year old students.
How would you organize your students?

‑ To practice pronunciation?
‑ -To use the vocabulary that has been learnt?
‑ -To explain a specific grammatical construction?
‑ -To listen to a dialogue and to act it out?
‑ -To practice grammar?

8. Which method/s wouldn’t you use with very young learners in your English class? Why?

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